CA2238857A1 - Ferroelectric material, method of manufacturing the same, semiconductor memory, and method of manufacturing the same - Google Patents

Ferroelectric material, method of manufacturing the same, semiconductor memory, and method of manufacturing the same

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Publication number
CA2238857A1
CA2238857A1 CA002238857A CA2238857A CA2238857A1 CA 2238857 A1 CA2238857 A1 CA 2238857A1 CA 002238857 A CA002238857 A CA 002238857A CA 2238857 A CA2238857 A CA 2238857A CA 2238857 A1 CA2238857 A1 CA 2238857A1
Authority
CA
Canada
Prior art keywords
ferroelectric material
manufacturing
same
semiconductor memory
ferroelectric
Prior art date
Legal status (The legal status is an assumption and is not a legal conclusion. Google has not performed a legal analysis and makes no representation as to the accuracy of the status listed.)
Granted
Application number
CA002238857A
Other languages
French (fr)
Other versions
CA2238857C (en
Inventor
Akira Kamisawa
Norifumi Fujimura
Current Assignee (The listed assignees may be inaccurate. Google has not performed a legal analysis and makes no representation or warranty as to the accuracy of the list.)
Rohm Co Ltd
Original Assignee
Rohm Co., Ltd.
Akira Kamisawa
Norifumi Fujimura
Priority date (The priority date is an assumption and is not a legal conclusion. Google has not performed a legal analysis and makes no representation as to the accuracy of the date listed.)
Filing date
Publication date
Priority claimed from JP8256014A external-priority patent/JPH10101428A/en
Priority claimed from JP25601596A external-priority patent/JP3966928B2/en
Priority claimed from JP8256016A external-priority patent/JPH10101430A/en
Priority claimed from JP8256017A external-priority patent/JPH10101431A/en
Application filed by Rohm Co., Ltd., Akira Kamisawa, Norifumi Fujimura filed Critical Rohm Co., Ltd.
Publication of CA2238857A1 publication Critical patent/CA2238857A1/en
Application granted granted Critical
Publication of CA2238857C publication Critical patent/CA2238857C/en
Anticipated expiration legal-status Critical
Expired - Fee Related legal-status Critical Current

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Classifications

    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01L—SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES NOT COVERED BY CLASS H10
    • H01L21/00—Processes or apparatus adapted for the manufacture or treatment of semiconductor or solid state devices or of parts thereof
    • H01L21/02—Manufacture or treatment of semiconductor devices or of parts thereof
    • H01L21/04—Manufacture or treatment of semiconductor devices or of parts thereof the devices having at least one potential-jump barrier or surface barrier, e.g. PN junction, depletion layer or carrier concentration layer
    • H01L21/18—Manufacture or treatment of semiconductor devices or of parts thereof the devices having at least one potential-jump barrier or surface barrier, e.g. PN junction, depletion layer or carrier concentration layer the devices having semiconductor bodies comprising elements of Group IV of the Periodic System or AIIIBV compounds with or without impurities, e.g. doping materials
    • H01L21/28—Manufacture of electrodes on semiconductor bodies using processes or apparatus not provided for in groups H01L21/20 - H01L21/268
    • H01L21/28008—Making conductor-insulator-semiconductor electrodes
    • H01L21/28017—Making conductor-insulator-semiconductor electrodes the insulator being formed after the semiconductor body, the semiconductor being silicon
    • H01L21/28158—Making the insulator
    • H01L21/28167—Making the insulator on single crystalline silicon, e.g. using a liquid, i.e. chemical oxidation
    • H01L21/28194—Making the insulator on single crystalline silicon, e.g. using a liquid, i.e. chemical oxidation by deposition, e.g. evaporation, ALD, CVD, sputtering, laser deposition
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C01—INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
    • C01G—COMPOUNDS CONTAINING METALS NOT COVERED BY SUBCLASSES C01D OR C01F
    • C01G45/00—Compounds of manganese
    • C01G45/12—Manganates manganites or permanganates
    • C01G45/1221—Manganates or manganites with a manganese oxidation state of Mn(III), Mn(IV) or mixtures thereof
    • C01G45/125—Manganates or manganites with a manganese oxidation state of Mn(III), Mn(IV) or mixtures thereof of the type[MnO3]n-, e.g. Li2MnO3, Li2[MxMn1-xO3], (La,Sr)MnO3
    • C01G45/1264—Manganates or manganites with a manganese oxidation state of Mn(III), Mn(IV) or mixtures thereof of the type[MnO3]n-, e.g. Li2MnO3, Li2[MxMn1-xO3], (La,Sr)MnO3 containing rare earth, e.g. La1-xCaxMnO3, LaMnO3
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C01—INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
    • C01G—COMPOUNDS CONTAINING METALS NOT COVERED BY SUBCLASSES C01D OR C01F
    • C01G47/00—Compounds of rhenium
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C23—COATING METALLIC MATERIAL; COATING MATERIAL WITH METALLIC MATERIAL; CHEMICAL SURFACE TREATMENT; DIFFUSION TREATMENT OF METALLIC MATERIAL; COATING BY VACUUM EVAPORATION, BY SPUTTERING, BY ION IMPLANTATION OR BY CHEMICAL VAPOUR DEPOSITION, IN GENERAL; INHIBITING CORROSION OF METALLIC MATERIAL OR INCRUSTATION IN GENERAL
    • C23C—COATING METALLIC MATERIAL; COATING MATERIAL WITH METALLIC MATERIAL; SURFACE TREATMENT OF METALLIC MATERIAL BY DIFFUSION INTO THE SURFACE, BY CHEMICAL CONVERSION OR SUBSTITUTION; COATING BY VACUUM EVAPORATION, BY SPUTTERING, BY ION IMPLANTATION OR BY CHEMICAL VAPOUR DEPOSITION, IN GENERAL
    • C23C14/00—Coating by vacuum evaporation, by sputtering or by ion implantation of the coating forming material
    • C23C14/0021—Reactive sputtering or evaporation
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C23—COATING METALLIC MATERIAL; COATING MATERIAL WITH METALLIC MATERIAL; CHEMICAL SURFACE TREATMENT; DIFFUSION TREATMENT OF METALLIC MATERIAL; COATING BY VACUUM EVAPORATION, BY SPUTTERING, BY ION IMPLANTATION OR BY CHEMICAL VAPOUR DEPOSITION, IN GENERAL; INHIBITING CORROSION OF METALLIC MATERIAL OR INCRUSTATION IN GENERAL
    • C23C—COATING METALLIC MATERIAL; COATING MATERIAL WITH METALLIC MATERIAL; SURFACE TREATMENT OF METALLIC MATERIAL BY DIFFUSION INTO THE SURFACE, BY CHEMICAL CONVERSION OR SUBSTITUTION; COATING BY VACUUM EVAPORATION, BY SPUTTERING, BY ION IMPLANTATION OR BY CHEMICAL VAPOUR DEPOSITION, IN GENERAL
    • C23C14/00—Coating by vacuum evaporation, by sputtering or by ion implantation of the coating forming material
    • C23C14/06—Coating by vacuum evaporation, by sputtering or by ion implantation of the coating forming material characterised by the coating material
    • C23C14/08—Oxides
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C30—CRYSTAL GROWTH
    • C30B—SINGLE-CRYSTAL GROWTH; UNIDIRECTIONAL SOLIDIFICATION OF EUTECTIC MATERIAL OR UNIDIRECTIONAL DEMIXING OF EUTECTOID MATERIAL; REFINING BY ZONE-MELTING OF MATERIAL; PRODUCTION OF A HOMOGENEOUS POLYCRYSTALLINE MATERIAL WITH DEFINED STRUCTURE; SINGLE CRYSTALS OR HOMOGENEOUS POLYCRYSTALLINE MATERIAL WITH DEFINED STRUCTURE; AFTER-TREATMENT OF SINGLE CRYSTALS OR A HOMOGENEOUS POLYCRYSTALLINE MATERIAL WITH DEFINED STRUCTURE; APPARATUS THEREFOR
    • C30B23/00—Single-crystal growth by condensing evaporated or sublimed materials
    • C30B23/02—Epitaxial-layer growth
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C30—CRYSTAL GROWTH
    • C30B—SINGLE-CRYSTAL GROWTH; UNIDIRECTIONAL SOLIDIFICATION OF EUTECTIC MATERIAL OR UNIDIRECTIONAL DEMIXING OF EUTECTOID MATERIAL; REFINING BY ZONE-MELTING OF MATERIAL; PRODUCTION OF A HOMOGENEOUS POLYCRYSTALLINE MATERIAL WITH DEFINED STRUCTURE; SINGLE CRYSTALS OR HOMOGENEOUS POLYCRYSTALLINE MATERIAL WITH DEFINED STRUCTURE; AFTER-TREATMENT OF SINGLE CRYSTALS OR A HOMOGENEOUS POLYCRYSTALLINE MATERIAL WITH DEFINED STRUCTURE; APPARATUS THEREFOR
    • C30B29/00—Single crystals or homogeneous polycrystalline material with defined structure characterised by the material or by their shape
    • C30B29/10—Inorganic compounds or compositions
    • C30B29/16—Oxides
    • C30B29/22—Complex oxides
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C30—CRYSTAL GROWTH
    • C30B—SINGLE-CRYSTAL GROWTH; UNIDIRECTIONAL SOLIDIFICATION OF EUTECTIC MATERIAL OR UNIDIRECTIONAL DEMIXING OF EUTECTOID MATERIAL; REFINING BY ZONE-MELTING OF MATERIAL; PRODUCTION OF A HOMOGENEOUS POLYCRYSTALLINE MATERIAL WITH DEFINED STRUCTURE; SINGLE CRYSTALS OR HOMOGENEOUS POLYCRYSTALLINE MATERIAL WITH DEFINED STRUCTURE; AFTER-TREATMENT OF SINGLE CRYSTALS OR A HOMOGENEOUS POLYCRYSTALLINE MATERIAL WITH DEFINED STRUCTURE; APPARATUS THEREFOR
    • C30B29/00—Single crystals or homogeneous polycrystalline material with defined structure characterised by the material or by their shape
    • C30B29/10—Inorganic compounds or compositions
    • C30B29/16—Oxides
    • C30B29/22—Complex oxides
    • C30B29/32—Titanates; Germanates; Molybdates; Tungstates
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01L—SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES NOT COVERED BY CLASS H10
    • H01L21/00—Processes or apparatus adapted for the manufacture or treatment of semiconductor or solid state devices or of parts thereof
    • H01L21/02—Manufacture or treatment of semiconductor devices or of parts thereof
    • H01L21/02104—Forming layers
    • H01L21/02107—Forming insulating materials on a substrate
    • H01L21/02109—Forming insulating materials on a substrate characterised by the type of layer, e.g. type of material, porous/non-porous, pre-cursors, mixtures or laminates
    • H01L21/02112—Forming insulating materials on a substrate characterised by the type of layer, e.g. type of material, porous/non-porous, pre-cursors, mixtures or laminates characterised by the material of the layer
    • H01L21/02172—Forming insulating materials on a substrate characterised by the type of layer, e.g. type of material, porous/non-porous, pre-cursors, mixtures or laminates characterised by the material of the layer the material containing at least one metal element, e.g. metal oxides, metal nitrides, metal oxynitrides or metal carbides
    • H01L21/02197—Forming insulating materials on a substrate characterised by the type of layer, e.g. type of material, porous/non-porous, pre-cursors, mixtures or laminates characterised by the material of the layer the material containing at least one metal element, e.g. metal oxides, metal nitrides, metal oxynitrides or metal carbides the material having a perovskite structure, e.g. BaTiO3
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01L—SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES NOT COVERED BY CLASS H10
    • H01L21/00—Processes or apparatus adapted for the manufacture or treatment of semiconductor or solid state devices or of parts thereof
    • H01L21/02—Manufacture or treatment of semiconductor devices or of parts thereof
    • H01L21/02104—Forming layers
    • H01L21/02107—Forming insulating materials on a substrate
    • H01L21/02225—Forming insulating materials on a substrate characterised by the process for the formation of the insulating layer
    • H01L21/0226—Forming insulating materials on a substrate characterised by the process for the formation of the insulating layer formation by a deposition process
    • H01L21/02263—Forming insulating materials on a substrate characterised by the process for the formation of the insulating layer formation by a deposition process deposition from the gas or vapour phase
    • H01L21/02266—Forming insulating materials on a substrate characterised by the process for the formation of the insulating layer formation by a deposition process deposition from the gas or vapour phase deposition by physical ablation of a target, e.g. sputtering, reactive sputtering, physical vapour deposition or pulsed laser deposition
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01L—SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES NOT COVERED BY CLASS H10
    • H01L21/00—Processes or apparatus adapted for the manufacture or treatment of semiconductor or solid state devices or of parts thereof
    • H01L21/02—Manufacture or treatment of semiconductor devices or of parts thereof
    • H01L21/04—Manufacture or treatment of semiconductor devices or of parts thereof the devices having at least one potential-jump barrier or surface barrier, e.g. PN junction, depletion layer or carrier concentration layer
    • H01L21/18—Manufacture or treatment of semiconductor devices or of parts thereof the devices having at least one potential-jump barrier or surface barrier, e.g. PN junction, depletion layer or carrier concentration layer the devices having semiconductor bodies comprising elements of Group IV of the Periodic System or AIIIBV compounds with or without impurities, e.g. doping materials
    • H01L21/30—Treatment of semiconductor bodies using processes or apparatus not provided for in groups H01L21/20 - H01L21/26
    • H01L21/31—Treatment of semiconductor bodies using processes or apparatus not provided for in groups H01L21/20 - H01L21/26 to form insulating layers thereon, e.g. for masking or by using photolithographic techniques; After treatment of these layers; Selection of materials for these layers
    • H01L21/314—Inorganic layers
    • H01L21/316—Inorganic layers composed of oxides or glassy oxides or oxide based glass
    • H01L21/31691—Inorganic layers composed of oxides or glassy oxides or oxide based glass with perovskite structure
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01L—SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES NOT COVERED BY CLASS H10
    • H01L29/00—Semiconductor devices adapted for rectifying, amplifying, oscillating or switching, or capacitors or resistors with at least one potential-jump barrier or surface barrier, e.g. PN junction depletion layer or carrier concentration layer; Details of semiconductor bodies or of electrodes thereof  ; Multistep manufacturing processes therefor
    • H01L29/40—Electrodes ; Multistep manufacturing processes therefor
    • H01L29/43—Electrodes ; Multistep manufacturing processes therefor characterised by the materials of which they are formed
    • H01L29/49—Metal-insulator-semiconductor electrodes, e.g. gates of MOSFET
    • H01L29/51—Insulating materials associated therewith
    • H01L29/511—Insulating materials associated therewith with a compositional variation, e.g. multilayer structures
    • H01L29/513—Insulating materials associated therewith with a compositional variation, e.g. multilayer structures the variation being perpendicular to the channel plane
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01L—SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES NOT COVERED BY CLASS H10
    • H01L29/00—Semiconductor devices adapted for rectifying, amplifying, oscillating or switching, or capacitors or resistors with at least one potential-jump barrier or surface barrier, e.g. PN junction depletion layer or carrier concentration layer; Details of semiconductor bodies or of electrodes thereof  ; Multistep manufacturing processes therefor
    • H01L29/40—Electrodes ; Multistep manufacturing processes therefor
    • H01L29/43—Electrodes ; Multistep manufacturing processes therefor characterised by the materials of which they are formed
    • H01L29/49—Metal-insulator-semiconductor electrodes, e.g. gates of MOSFET
    • H01L29/51—Insulating materials associated therewith
    • H01L29/516—Insulating materials associated therewith with at least one ferroelectric layer
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
    • H01L—SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES NOT COVERED BY CLASS H10
    • H01L29/00—Semiconductor devices adapted for rectifying, amplifying, oscillating or switching, or capacitors or resistors with at least one potential-jump barrier or surface barrier, e.g. PN junction depletion layer or carrier concentration layer; Details of semiconductor bodies or of electrodes thereof  ; Multistep manufacturing processes therefor
    • H01L29/66—Types of semiconductor device ; Multistep manufacturing processes therefor
    • H01L29/68—Types of semiconductor device ; Multistep manufacturing processes therefor controllable by only the electric current supplied, or only the electric potential applied, to an electrode which does not carry the current to be rectified, amplified or switched
    • H01L29/76—Unipolar devices, e.g. field effect transistors
    • H01L29/772—Field effect transistors
    • H01L29/78—Field effect transistors with field effect produced by an insulated gate
    • H01L29/78391—Field effect transistors with field effect produced by an insulated gate the gate comprising a layer which is used for its ferroelectric properties
    • C—CHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C01—INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
    • C01P—INDEXING SCHEME RELATING TO STRUCTURAL AND PHYSICAL ASPECTS OF SOLID INORGANIC COMPOUNDS
    • C01P2006/00—Physical properties of inorganic compounds
    • C01P2006/42—Magnetic properties
    • H—ELECTRICITY
    • H10—SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES; ELECTRIC SOLID-STATE DEVICES NOT OTHERWISE PROVIDED FOR
    • H10B—ELECTRONIC MEMORY DEVICES
    • H10B53/00—Ferroelectric RAM [FeRAM] devices comprising ferroelectric memory capacitors
    • H10B53/30—Ferroelectric RAM [FeRAM] devices comprising ferroelectric memory capacitors characterised by the memory core region

Abstract

A ferroelectric material having a basic structure of REMnO3, said ferroelectric material comprises RE and Mn one of which is contained in excess of the other to a limit of 20 at. % or the ferroelectric material is further added with a 4-valence element. Also, a method of forming a ferroelectric material, comprises decreasing an oxygen partial pressure within a growth reactor such as a vacuum deposition reactor, and forming a film on a film-forming surface of a substrate (4) while blowing an oxidizing source thereto. This structure provides a ferroelectric material low in leak current and improved in ferroelectric characteristics. Where using the material for a semiconductor memory device, its characteristics can be improved.
CA002238857A 1996-09-27 1997-09-26 Ferroelectric material, method of manufacturing the same, semiconductor memory, and method of manufacturing the same Expired - Fee Related CA2238857C (en)

Applications Claiming Priority (9)

Application Number Priority Date Filing Date Title
JP256015/1996 1996-09-27
JP256016/1996 1996-09-27
JP8256014A JPH10101428A (en) 1996-09-27 1996-09-27 Strong dielectric material, production thereof and semiconductor memory device
JP256017/1996 1996-09-27
JP25601596A JP3966928B2 (en) 1996-09-27 1996-09-27 Ferroelectric material manufacturing method and semiconductor memory device
JP256014/1996 1996-09-27
JP8256016A JPH10101430A (en) 1996-09-27 1996-09-27 Production of strong dielectric material, semiconductor memory device and production thereof
JP8256017A JPH10101431A (en) 1996-09-27 1996-09-27 Production of strong dielectric material, semiconductor memory device and production thereof
PCT/JP1997/003455 WO1998013300A1 (en) 1996-09-27 1997-09-26 Ferroelectric material, method of manufacturing the same, semiconductor memory, and method of manufacturing the same

Publications (2)

Publication Number Publication Date
CA2238857A1 true CA2238857A1 (en) 1998-04-02
CA2238857C CA2238857C (en) 2002-11-19

Family

ID=27478383

Family Applications (1)

Application Number Title Priority Date Filing Date
CA002238857A Expired - Fee Related CA2238857C (en) 1996-09-27 1997-09-26 Ferroelectric material, method of manufacturing the same, semiconductor memory, and method of manufacturing the same

Country Status (6)

Country Link
US (1) US6245451B1 (en)
EP (1) EP0864537B1 (en)
KR (1) KR100490518B1 (en)
CA (1) CA2238857C (en)
DE (1) DE69737283T2 (en)
WO (1) WO1998013300A1 (en)

Families Citing this family (12)

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Publication number Priority date Publication date Assignee Title
JP3704258B2 (en) * 1998-09-10 2005-10-12 松下電器産業株式会社 Thin film formation method
JP2004519864A (en) * 2000-08-24 2004-07-02 コバ・テクノロジーズ・インコーポレイテッド Single-transistor rare-earth manganite ferroelectric nonvolatile memory cell
WO2002071477A1 (en) 2001-03-02 2002-09-12 Cova Technologies Incorporated Single transistor rare earth manganite ferroelectric nonvolatile memory cell
US6825517B2 (en) 2002-08-28 2004-11-30 Cova Technologies, Inc. Ferroelectric transistor with enhanced data retention
US6714435B1 (en) 2002-09-19 2004-03-30 Cova Technologies, Inc. Ferroelectric transistor for storing two data bits
US6888736B2 (en) 2002-09-19 2005-05-03 Cova Technologies, Inc. Ferroelectric transistor for storing two data bits
TWI226377B (en) * 2002-11-08 2005-01-11 Ind Tech Res Inst Dielectric material compositions
US8256386B2 (en) * 2009-01-08 2012-09-04 Honda Motor Co., Ltd. Saddle-ride vehicle
US9378760B2 (en) 2014-07-31 2016-06-28 Seagate Technology Llc Data reader with tuned microstructure
EP3182048A1 (en) 2015-12-16 2017-06-21 Alfa Laval Corporate AB Porthole gasket, assembly for a heat exchanger and heat exchanger comprising such an assembly
US10615176B2 (en) 2017-11-22 2020-04-07 International Business Machine Corporation Ferro-electric complementary FET
KR102050034B1 (en) 2018-03-22 2019-11-28 서울대학교산학협력단 Material for nonvolatile memory device and method of manufacturing the same

Family Cites Families (10)

* Cited by examiner, † Cited by third party
Publication number Priority date Publication date Assignee Title
US3884837A (en) * 1973-07-02 1975-05-20 Bell Telephone Labor Inc Catalyst containing a perovskite-like manganite
JPH05255838A (en) * 1992-03-12 1993-10-05 Mitsubishi Electric Corp Method for forming oxide thin film and device therefor
US5487356A (en) * 1992-08-07 1996-01-30 Advanced Technology Materials, Inc. Chemical vapor deposition method of growing oxide films with giant magnetoresistance
DE4310318C2 (en) * 1993-03-30 1998-12-03 Siemens Ag Use of a material with a perovskite-like crystal structure and increased magnetoresistive effect, and method for producing the material
DE4323821A1 (en) * 1993-07-15 1995-01-19 Siemens Ag Pyrodetector element with oriented grown pyroelectric layer and method for its production
JP3223233B2 (en) * 1994-08-17 2001-10-29 ティーディーケイ株式会社 Oxide thin film, substrate for electronic device, and method of forming oxide thin film
JP2685721B2 (en) * 1994-11-04 1997-12-03 工業技術院長 Grain-free boundary type manganese oxide based crystal and switching type magnetoresistive element
JPH08162614A (en) * 1994-12-01 1996-06-21 Tdk Corp Mis capacitor and its manufacture
JP3137880B2 (en) * 1995-08-25 2001-02-26 ティーディーケイ株式会社 Ferroelectric thin film, electronic device, and method of manufacturing ferroelectric thin film
JP3286181B2 (en) * 1995-11-17 2002-05-27 ティーディーケイ株式会社 Recording medium, method of manufacturing the same, and information processing apparatus

Also Published As

Publication number Publication date
CA2238857C (en) 2002-11-19
EP0864537A4 (en) 2001-07-11
WO1998013300A1 (en) 1998-04-02
EP0864537B1 (en) 2007-01-24
US6245451B1 (en) 2001-06-12
DE69737283D1 (en) 2007-03-15
KR19990071614A (en) 1999-09-27
DE69737283T2 (en) 2007-11-15
KR100490518B1 (en) 2005-09-09
EP0864537A1 (en) 1998-09-16

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