CA2482258A1 - A method of using a germanium layer transfer to si for photovoltaic applications and heterostructure made thereby - Google Patents
A method of using a germanium layer transfer to si for photovoltaic applications and heterostructure made thereby Download PDFInfo
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- CA2482258A1 CA2482258A1 CA002482258A CA2482258A CA2482258A1 CA 2482258 A1 CA2482258 A1 CA 2482258A1 CA 002482258 A CA002482258 A CA 002482258A CA 2482258 A CA2482258 A CA 2482258A CA 2482258 A1 CA2482258 A1 CA 2482258A1
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- 238000000034 method Methods 0.000 title claims description 42
- GNPVGFCGXDBREM-UHFFFAOYSA-N germanium atom Chemical compound [Ge] GNPVGFCGXDBREM-UHFFFAOYSA-N 0.000 title description 11
- 229910052732 germanium Inorganic materials 0.000 title description 10
- 238000012546 transfer Methods 0.000 title description 8
- 239000000758 substrate Substances 0.000 claims abstract description 110
- 230000002209 hydrophobic effect Effects 0.000 claims abstract description 13
- UFHFLCQGNIYNRP-UHFFFAOYSA-N Hydrogen Chemical compound [H][H] UFHFLCQGNIYNRP-UHFFFAOYSA-N 0.000 claims abstract description 10
- 230000015572 biosynthetic process Effects 0.000 claims abstract description 9
- 239000001257 hydrogen Substances 0.000 claims abstract description 9
- 229910052739 hydrogen Inorganic materials 0.000 claims abstract description 9
- 238000000137 annealing Methods 0.000 claims description 20
- 229910021417 amorphous silicon Inorganic materials 0.000 claims description 13
- 239000004065 semiconductor Substances 0.000 claims description 11
- 238000004140 cleaning Methods 0.000 claims description 9
- 238000009499 grossing Methods 0.000 claims description 8
- 238000005229 chemical vapour deposition Methods 0.000 claims description 6
- 239000000126 substance Substances 0.000 claims description 6
- 238000000151 deposition Methods 0.000 claims description 5
- 238000001451 molecular beam epitaxy Methods 0.000 claims description 5
- 230000008021 deposition Effects 0.000 claims description 4
- 238000005468 ion implantation Methods 0.000 claims description 2
- 238000000407 epitaxy Methods 0.000 claims 1
- 239000013078 crystal Substances 0.000 abstract description 3
- 238000004299 exfoliation Methods 0.000 abstract description 3
- 229910001218 Gallium arsenide Inorganic materials 0.000 description 26
- 235000012431 wafers Nutrition 0.000 description 20
- 238000005424 photoluminescence Methods 0.000 description 15
- 239000000523 sample Substances 0.000 description 15
- 230000012010 growth Effects 0.000 description 10
- 230000003746 surface roughness Effects 0.000 description 9
- 238000005259 measurement Methods 0.000 description 8
- 229910052710 silicon Inorganic materials 0.000 description 6
- XLYOFNOQVPJJNP-UHFFFAOYSA-N water Substances O XLYOFNOQVPJJNP-UHFFFAOYSA-N 0.000 description 6
- 238000011109 contamination Methods 0.000 description 5
- 239000000463 material Substances 0.000 description 5
- XUIMIQQOPSSXEZ-UHFFFAOYSA-N Silicon Chemical compound [Si] XUIMIQQOPSSXEZ-UHFFFAOYSA-N 0.000 description 4
- 238000004519 manufacturing process Methods 0.000 description 4
- 238000002161 passivation Methods 0.000 description 4
- 239000010703 silicon Substances 0.000 description 4
- 229910001868 water Inorganic materials 0.000 description 4
- 102100021765 E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase RNF139 Human genes 0.000 description 3
- 101001106970 Homo sapiens E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase RNF139 Proteins 0.000 description 3
- OKKJLVBELUTLKV-UHFFFAOYSA-N Methanol Chemical compound OC OKKJLVBELUTLKV-UHFFFAOYSA-N 0.000 description 3
- 238000004630 atomic force microscopy Methods 0.000 description 3
- 230000010261 cell growth Effects 0.000 description 3
- 239000008367 deionised water Substances 0.000 description 3
- 229910021641 deionized water Inorganic materials 0.000 description 3
- 230000003287 optical effect Effects 0.000 description 3
- 238000002128 reflection high energy electron diffraction Methods 0.000 description 3
- CSCPPACGZOOCGX-UHFFFAOYSA-N Acetone Chemical compound CC(C)=O CSCPPACGZOOCGX-UHFFFAOYSA-N 0.000 description 2
- 239000002253 acid Substances 0.000 description 2
- 238000000089 atomic force micrograph Methods 0.000 description 2
- 150000001875 compounds Chemical class 0.000 description 2
- 230000007547 defect Effects 0.000 description 2
- 239000007789 gas Substances 0.000 description 2
- 230000005661 hydrophobic surface Effects 0.000 description 2
- 239000002184 metal Substances 0.000 description 2
- 238000002488 metal-organic chemical vapour deposition Methods 0.000 description 2
- 238000001000 micrograph Methods 0.000 description 2
- 239000000203 mixture Substances 0.000 description 2
- 230000000737 periodic effect Effects 0.000 description 2
- 239000002243 precursor Substances 0.000 description 2
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- 230000006798 recombination Effects 0.000 description 2
- 238000005215 recombination Methods 0.000 description 2
- 238000006467 substitution reaction Methods 0.000 description 2
- XCZXGTMEAKBVPV-UHFFFAOYSA-N trimethylgallium Chemical compound C[Ga](C)C XCZXGTMEAKBVPV-UHFFFAOYSA-N 0.000 description 2
- 229910017974 NH40H Inorganic materials 0.000 description 1
- 229910008045 Si-Si Inorganic materials 0.000 description 1
- 229910006411 Si—Si Inorganic materials 0.000 description 1
- 230000004075 alteration Effects 0.000 description 1
- RBFQJDQYXXHULB-UHFFFAOYSA-N arsane Chemical compound [AsH3] RBFQJDQYXXHULB-UHFFFAOYSA-N 0.000 description 1
- 229910000070 arsenic hydride Inorganic materials 0.000 description 1
- 238000000861 blow drying Methods 0.000 description 1
- 238000006664 bond formation reaction Methods 0.000 description 1
- 230000015556 catabolic process Effects 0.000 description 1
- 239000000919 ceramic Substances 0.000 description 1
- 238000003486 chemical etching Methods 0.000 description 1
- 238000003776 cleavage reaction Methods 0.000 description 1
- 238000010276 construction Methods 0.000 description 1
- 239000000356 contaminant Substances 0.000 description 1
- 239000013068 control sample Substances 0.000 description 1
- 239000011521 glass Substances 0.000 description 1
- 230000005660 hydrophilic surface Effects 0.000 description 1
- 238000011065 in-situ storage Methods 0.000 description 1
- 230000000977 initiatory effect Effects 0.000 description 1
- 238000012986 modification Methods 0.000 description 1
- 230000004048 modification Effects 0.000 description 1
- 239000002245 particle Substances 0.000 description 1
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- 230000002441 reversible effect Effects 0.000 description 1
- 238000001878 scanning electron micrograph Methods 0.000 description 1
- 230000007017 scission Effects 0.000 description 1
- 238000004904 shortening Methods 0.000 description 1
- -1 such a Si Substances 0.000 description 1
- 238000005382 thermal cycling Methods 0.000 description 1
Classifications
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- H—ELECTRICITY
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- H01L21/00—Processes or apparatus adapted for the manufacture or treatment of semiconductor or solid state devices or of parts thereof
- H01L21/70—Manufacture or treatment of devices consisting of a plurality of solid state components formed in or on a common substrate or of parts thereof; Manufacture of integrated circuit devices or of parts thereof
- H01L21/71—Manufacture of specific parts of devices defined in group H01L21/70
- H01L21/76—Making of isolation regions between components
- H01L21/762—Dielectric regions, e.g. EPIC dielectric isolation, LOCOS; Trench refilling techniques, SOI technology, use of channel stoppers
- H01L21/7624—Dielectric regions, e.g. EPIC dielectric isolation, LOCOS; Trench refilling techniques, SOI technology, use of channel stoppers using semiconductor on insulator [SOI] technology
- H01L21/76251—Dielectric regions, e.g. EPIC dielectric isolation, LOCOS; Trench refilling techniques, SOI technology, use of channel stoppers using semiconductor on insulator [SOI] technology using bonding techniques
- H01L21/76254—Dielectric regions, e.g. EPIC dielectric isolation, LOCOS; Trench refilling techniques, SOI technology, use of channel stoppers using semiconductor on insulator [SOI] technology using bonding techniques with separation/delamination along an ion implanted layer, e.g. Smart-cut, Unibond
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- H01L21/02—Manufacture or treatment of semiconductor devices or of parts thereof
- H01L21/04—Manufacture or treatment of semiconductor devices or of parts thereof the devices having at least one potential-jump barrier or surface barrier, e.g. PN junction, depletion layer or carrier concentration layer
- H01L21/18—Manufacture or treatment of semiconductor devices or of parts thereof the devices having at least one potential-jump barrier or surface barrier, e.g. PN junction, depletion layer or carrier concentration layer the devices having semiconductor bodies comprising elements of Group IV of the Periodic System or AIIIBV compounds with or without impurities, e.g. doping materials
- H01L21/185—Joining of semiconductor bodies for junction formation
- H01L21/187—Joining of semiconductor bodies for junction formation by direct bonding
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- H01L31/00—Semiconductor devices sensitive to infrared radiation, light, electromagnetic radiation of shorter wavelength or corpuscular radiation and specially adapted either for the conversion of the energy of such radiation into electrical energy or for the control of electrical energy by such radiation; Processes or apparatus specially adapted for the manufacture or treatment thereof or of parts thereof; Details thereof
- H01L31/0248—Semiconductor devices sensitive to infrared radiation, light, electromagnetic radiation of shorter wavelength or corpuscular radiation and specially adapted either for the conversion of the energy of such radiation into electrical energy or for the control of electrical energy by such radiation; Processes or apparatus specially adapted for the manufacture or treatment thereof or of parts thereof; Details thereof characterised by their semiconductor bodies
- H01L31/0256—Semiconductor devices sensitive to infrared radiation, light, electromagnetic radiation of shorter wavelength or corpuscular radiation and specially adapted either for the conversion of the energy of such radiation into electrical energy or for the control of electrical energy by such radiation; Processes or apparatus specially adapted for the manufacture or treatment thereof or of parts thereof; Details thereof characterised by their semiconductor bodies characterised by the material
- H01L31/0264—Inorganic materials
- H01L31/0304—Inorganic materials including, apart from doping materials or other impurities, only AIIIBV compounds
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- H01L31/0248—Semiconductor devices sensitive to infrared radiation, light, electromagnetic radiation of shorter wavelength or corpuscular radiation and specially adapted either for the conversion of the energy of such radiation into electrical energy or for the control of electrical energy by such radiation; Processes or apparatus specially adapted for the manufacture or treatment thereof or of parts thereof; Details thereof characterised by their semiconductor bodies
- H01L31/036—Semiconductor devices sensitive to infrared radiation, light, electromagnetic radiation of shorter wavelength or corpuscular radiation and specially adapted either for the conversion of the energy of such radiation into electrical energy or for the control of electrical energy by such radiation; Processes or apparatus specially adapted for the manufacture or treatment thereof or of parts thereof; Details thereof characterised by their semiconductor bodies characterised by their crystalline structure or particular orientation of the crystalline planes
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- H01L31/04—Semiconductor devices sensitive to infrared radiation, light, electromagnetic radiation of shorter wavelength or corpuscular radiation and specially adapted either for the conversion of the energy of such radiation into electrical energy or for the control of electrical energy by such radiation; Processes or apparatus specially adapted for the manufacture or treatment thereof or of parts thereof; Details thereof adapted as photovoltaic [PV] conversion devices
- H01L31/06—Semiconductor devices sensitive to infrared radiation, light, electromagnetic radiation of shorter wavelength or corpuscular radiation and specially adapted either for the conversion of the energy of such radiation into electrical energy or for the control of electrical energy by such radiation; Processes or apparatus specially adapted for the manufacture or treatment thereof or of parts thereof; Details thereof adapted as photovoltaic [PV] conversion devices characterised by at least one potential-jump barrier or surface barrier
- H01L31/068—Semiconductor devices sensitive to infrared radiation, light, electromagnetic radiation of shorter wavelength or corpuscular radiation and specially adapted either for the conversion of the energy of such radiation into electrical energy or for the control of electrical energy by such radiation; Processes or apparatus specially adapted for the manufacture or treatment thereof or of parts thereof; Details thereof adapted as photovoltaic [PV] conversion devices characterised by at least one potential-jump barrier or surface barrier the potential barriers being only of the PN homojunction type, e.g. bulk silicon PN homojunction solar cells or thin film polycrystalline silicon PN homojunction solar cells
- H01L31/0687—Multiple junction or tandem solar cells
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- H01L31/06—Semiconductor devices sensitive to infrared radiation, light, electromagnetic radiation of shorter wavelength or corpuscular radiation and specially adapted either for the conversion of the energy of such radiation into electrical energy or for the control of electrical energy by such radiation; Processes or apparatus specially adapted for the manufacture or treatment thereof or of parts thereof; Details thereof adapted as photovoltaic [PV] conversion devices characterised by at least one potential-jump barrier or surface barrier
- H01L31/068—Semiconductor devices sensitive to infrared radiation, light, electromagnetic radiation of shorter wavelength or corpuscular radiation and specially adapted either for the conversion of the energy of such radiation into electrical energy or for the control of electrical energy by such radiation; Processes or apparatus specially adapted for the manufacture or treatment thereof or of parts thereof; Details thereof adapted as photovoltaic [PV] conversion devices characterised by at least one potential-jump barrier or surface barrier the potential barriers being only of the PN homojunction type, e.g. bulk silicon PN homojunction solar cells or thin film polycrystalline silicon PN homojunction solar cells
- H01L31/0693—Semiconductor devices sensitive to infrared radiation, light, electromagnetic radiation of shorter wavelength or corpuscular radiation and specially adapted either for the conversion of the energy of such radiation into electrical energy or for the control of electrical energy by such radiation; Processes or apparatus specially adapted for the manufacture or treatment thereof or of parts thereof; Details thereof adapted as photovoltaic [PV] conversion devices characterised by at least one potential-jump barrier or surface barrier the potential barriers being only of the PN homojunction type, e.g. bulk silicon PN homojunction solar cells or thin film polycrystalline silicon PN homojunction solar cells the devices including, apart from doping material or other impurities, only AIIIBV compounds, e.g. GaAs or InP solar cells
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- H01L31/18—Processes or apparatus specially adapted for the manufacture or treatment of these devices or of parts thereof
- H01L31/184—Processes or apparatus specially adapted for the manufacture or treatment of these devices or of parts thereof the active layers comprising only AIIIBV compounds, e.g. GaAs, InP
- H01L31/1852—Processes or apparatus specially adapted for the manufacture or treatment of these devices or of parts thereof the active layers comprising only AIIIBV compounds, e.g. GaAs, InP comprising a growth substrate not being an AIIIBV compound
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- Y02—TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
- Y02E—REDUCTION OF GREENHOUSE GAS [GHG] EMISSIONS, RELATED TO ENERGY GENERATION, TRANSMISSION OR DISTRIBUTION
- Y02E10/00—Energy generation through renewable energy sources
- Y02E10/50—Photovoltaic [PV] energy
- Y02E10/544—Solar cells from Group III-V materials
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- Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
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Abstract
Ge/Si and other nonsilicon film heterostructures are formed by hydrogen-induced exfoliation of the Ge film which is wafer bonded to a cheaper substrate, such as Si. A thin, single-crystal layer of Ge is transferred to Si substrate. The bond at the interface of the Ge/Si heterostructures is covalent to ensure good thermal contact, mechanical strength, and to enable the formation of an ohmic contact between the Si substrate and Ge layers. To accomplish this type of bond, hydrophobic wafer bonding is used, because as the invention demonstrates the hydrogen-surface-terminating species that facilitate van der Waals bonding evolves at temperatures above 600~C into covalent bonding in hydrophobically bound Ge/Si layer transferred systems.
Description
A METHOD OF USING A GERMANIUM LAYER TRANSFER TO SI FOR
PHOTOVOLTAIC APPLICATIONS AND HETEROSTRUCTURE MADE THEREBY
Related Applications The present application is related to U.S. Provisional Patent Application, serial no. 60/284,726, filed on April 17, 2001, and claims priority to it under 35 USC 119.
Background of the Invention 7. Field of the Invention The invention relates to the field of semiconductor processing of films and in particular to processing nonsilicon films on heterostructures.
PHOTOVOLTAIC APPLICATIONS AND HETEROSTRUCTURE MADE THEREBY
Related Applications The present application is related to U.S. Provisional Patent Application, serial no. 60/284,726, filed on April 17, 2001, and claims priority to it under 35 USC 119.
Background of the Invention 7. Field of the Invention The invention relates to the field of semiconductor processing of films and in particular to processing nonsilicon films on heterostructures.
2. Description of the PriorArt Group III-V semiconductor layered structures grown on bulk germanium substrates have been used in the prior art to create high efficiency triple junction solar cells with efficiencies greater than 30%. However, these are prohibitively expensive for all but space applications, because the Ge substrate constitutes a large portion of this cost.
Therefore, what is needed is some type of methodology whereby Ge and other nonsilicon films can be made on heterostructures, e.g. integrated with silicon substrates.
Brief Summary of the Invention Ge/Si and other nonsilicon film heterostructures are formed by hydrogen-induced exfoliation or splitting of the Ge or nonsilicon film and then wafer bonded to a cheaper substrate, such a Si, glass, ceramic or the like, as a way to reduce product cost, while, for example, maintaining solar cell device performance from the heterostructures fabricated from such films. The illustrated embodiment of the invention describes a Ge film, but it is to be expressly understood that other semiconductor materials could similarly be employed in a manner consistent with the spirit and scope of the invention.
For example, GaAs and InP films might also be employed.
In the illustrated embodiment by transferring thin, single-crystal layers of Ge to a less expensive Si substrate and reclaiming the donor wafer through a polishing process, a single 300 pm thick Ge wafer serves as a source for transfer of more than one hundred thin Ge layers or films.
The bond at the interface of the Ge/Si heterostructures is covalent to ensure good thermal contact, mechanical strength, and to enable the formation of an ohmic contact between the Si substrate and Ge layers. To accomplish this type of bond hydrophobic wafer bonding is used, because the hydrogen-surface-terminating species that facilitate van der Waals bonding evolves at temperatures above 600 ~C
into covalent bonding in hydrophobically bound Ge/Si layer transferred systems.
Thus, it can now be understood that one embodiment of the invention is defined as a method of forming a Ge-based heterostructure comprising the steps of H+
or He+
doping a Ge substrate by ion implantation, bonding the Ge substrate onto a non-Ge substrate and annealing the bonded structure to exfoliate a Ge film therefrom,. Any Ge compatible composition may be used as the substrate with Si being the preferred embodiment. However, InP and GaAs are also expressly contemplated including generally any element or compound which includes elements from Groups III - V
of the periodic table.
The Ge film is bonded onto a Si substrate in the illustrated embodiment. The step of bonding is comprised of the steps of disposing the Ge film in contact with the non-Ge substrate to define an interface between the Ge film and non-Ge substrate;
applying at least a first magnitude of pressure across a corresponding first area of the interface; and annealing the interface under a second magnitude of pressure therebetween.
The step of applying at least a first magnitude of pressure across the interface further comprises the steps of sequentially applying additional magnitudes of pressure across corresponding areas of the interface, e.g. the steps of applying sequentially smaller magnitudes of pressure across sequentially larger areas of the interface. In the illustrated embodiment the step of sequentially applying additional magnitudes of pressure comprises the step of sequentially applying three magnitudes of pressure are applied across three corresponding sized areas of the interface, namely applying a first magnitude of pressure, which is approximately 24 MPa across an approximately 0.64 cm diameter area, followed by approximately 6.1 MPa across an approximately 1.3 cm diameter area, followed by approximately 1.5 MPa across an approximately 2.5 cm diameter area. The step of annealing the bonded structure under a second magnitude of pressure therebetween comprises the step of annealing the interface at approximately 175°C under approximately 930 kPa of pressure therebetween.
In another embodiment the method further comprises the step of passivating the non-Ge substrate prior to disposing the Ge film in contact therewith.
In still another embodiment the method further comprises the step of disposing an anti-bubble layer onto the Ge substrate to create a hydrophilic interface therebetween and thus to reduce hydrogen bubble formation when the Ge substrate is bonded to the non-Ge substrate. Where the substrate is Si, the step of disposing a anti-bubble layer onto the Ge substrate comprises the step of disposing an amorphous Si layer onto the Ge substrate to form a Si/a~Si interface by molecular beam deposition.
In yet another embodiment the method further comprises the steps of wet chemical cleaning the Ge substrate and non-Ge substrate prior to bonding and then annealing the cleaned Ge substrate and non-Ge substrate prior to bonding, namely annealing the cleaned Ge substrate and non-Ge substrate at approximately 250°C In N2.
In another embodiment the method further comprises the step of fabricating a semiconductor device onto the Ge-based heterostructure, such as a triple junction solar cell thereon using metal-organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD).
In a further embodiment the method further comprises the step of disposing a smoothing layer onto the exfoliated Ge film, namely a Ge buffer layer using molecular beam epitaxy. Smoothing techniques that may also be applied to the exfoliated film also include CMP and chemical etching processes.
The invention is also understood to be defined as a Ge-based heterostructure comprising a Ge film, and a non-Ge substrate bonded to the Ge film in which the Ge film has been exfoliated from an H+ ion implanted Ge layer by annealing. Again in the illustrated embodiment the non-Ge substrate is composed of Si, but is expressly meant to include other elements, compounds, and mixtures which include at least in part elements from Groups I II - V of the periodic table.
The Ge substrate and non-Ge substrate are in mutual contact under pressure and annealed to form a covalent bonded interface therebetween. The Ge substrate and non-Ge substrate are brought into mutual contact with each other and subjected to sequential applications of pressure distributed over an area of the interface, namely sequentially smaller magnitudes of pressure across sequentially larger areas of the interface. The non-Ge substrate and Ge substrate are passivated prior to being bonded. As discussed above, an anti-bubble layer may be disposed onto the Ge substrate to create a hydrophilic interface therebetween and thus to reduce hydrogen bubble formation when the Ge film is bonded to the non-Ge substrate, namely where the non-Ge substrate is Si and the anti-bubble layer is amorphous Si.
Alternatively, as also discussed above the non-Ge substrate is rendered hydrophilic or hydrophobic by wet chemical cleaning the Ge substrate and non-Ge substrate prior to bonding and then annealing the cleaned Ge film and non-Ge substrate prior to bonding.
The Ge-based heterostructure is an intermediate structure and generally a semiconductor device will be fabricated on the Ge film. The illustrated embodiment shows the fabrication of a triple junction solar cell thereon using metal-organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD). However, what type of semiconductor device can be fabricated on the Ge film is quite arbitrary and should be understood to include any semiconductor device now known or later devised. For example, it is expressly contemplated that in addition to solar cells that GaAs based LEDs and lasers will be fabricated on Ge film heterostructures of the invention As discussed the Ge-based heterostructure of the invention also may include a smoothing layer onto the exfoliated Ge film, namely a Ge layer disposed onto the exfoliated Ge film using molecular beam epitaxy.
While the apparatus and method has or will be described for the sake of grammatical fluidity with functional explanations, it is to be expressly understood that the claims, unless expressly formulated under 35 USC 112, are not to be construed as necessarily limited in any way by the construction of "means" or "steps"
limitations, but are to be accorded the full scope of the meaning and equivalents of the definition provided by the claims under the judicial doctrine of equivalents, and in the case where the claims are expressly formulated under 35 USC 112 are to be accorded full statutory equivalents under 35 USC 112. The invention can be better visualized by turning now to the following drawings wherein like elements are referenced by like numerals.
Brief Description of the Drawings Fig. 1 is a graph of a voltage-current curve for a P + Ge/P + Si heterostructure fabricated according to the invention which has been annealed to 350°C
demonstrate ohmic electric contact.
Fig. 2a is a vertical cross-sectional view of a scanning electron microscope image of a MOCVD triple-junction solar cell structure grown according to the invention on a Ge/Se heterostructure template.
Fig. 2b is a vertical cross-sectional view of a scanning electron microscope image of a MOCVD triple-junction solar cell structure grown according to the invention on a bulk Ge substrate.
Fig. 3 is a graph of the GaAs band-edge emission photoluminescence of MOCVD triple-junction tandem solar cells on Ge/Si heterostructures in Samples 1 and 2 shown in dotted line and on bulk Ge in solid line.
Fig. 4 is post-growth RHEED image of a surface showing Bragg rods and a reconstructed Ge surface indicating a smooth top plateau.
Fig. 5a is an atomic force microscopic view of an exfoliated Ge surface prior to MBE Ge buffer layer growth indicating a surface roughness of about 100 angstrom RMS.
Fig. 5b is an atomic force microscopic view of the surface of Fig. 5a which has been smoothed by the epitaxial growth of a Ge buffer layer to about 20 angstrom RMS
roughness with a mesa geometry.
Figs. 6a - 6c are diagrammatic side cross sectional views of the method of fabrication of one embodiment of the invention.
Figs. 7a - 7d are diagrammatic side cross sectional views of the method of fabrication of another embodiment of the invention.
Fig. 8 is a diagrammatic side cross sectional view of still another embodiment of the heterostructure.
The invention and its various embodiments can now be better understood by turning to the following detailed description of the preferred embodiments which are presented as illustrated examples of the invention defined in the claims. It is expressly understood that the invention as defined by the claims may be broader than the illustrated embodiments described below.
Detailed Description of the Preferred Embodiments The invention uses direct wafer bonding in combination with hydrogen-induced layer splitting of germanium to transfer single crystal germanium (100) films 10 to silicon (100) substrates 12 as shown in Figs. 2a and 2b without using an intervening metallic bonding layer as is typical in the prior art. The metal-free nature of the bond makes the bonded wafers suitable, for example, for subsequent epitaxial growth of triple junction GaInP/GaAs/Ge layered solar cells, generally denoted by reference numeral 14, at high temperatures without concern about metal contamination of the device active region.
The Exfoliation and Rebonding As shown in Fig. 6a a germanium crystalline wafer 16 was doped with 1x10~'cm-2 H+ at 80 keV. These wafers 16 are rendered strongly hydrophobic in the process. The embedded H+ coalesce into hydrogen gas bubbles, which induced an upper film 10 of wafer 16 to split off by a thermal cycle up to more than 350 ~C in an N2 ambient. Layer splitting is achieved by the formation of hydrogen-containing platelets that initiate the propagation of micro-cracks parallel to the Ge surface 18 upon annealing to greater than 350 °C with no external pressure on wafer 16. Thus, a film 10 is cleaved or exfoliated from wafer 16 and bonded to wafer 20 as diagrammatically shown in Fig. 6b.
The process can be repeated many times and wafer 16 repeatedly split to form a plurality of exfoliated films 10. Film thickness can be varied by control of the H+ doping concentrations and depths.
For example, in the illustrated embodiment doped germanium crystalline water 16 was used to transfer approximately 700nm thick films 10 with an area of approximately 1 cm2. Ge substrate surface 18 is passivated by removal of any organic contamination by cleaning by acetone and methanol followed by a 1 minute deionized water rinse and a 10 second dip in 5% HF acid followed in turn by surface blow drying to remove any oxide from surface 18 which is left coated with uncontaminated adsorbed hydrophobic H+. Substrate 16 can now be bonded to a different and less costly substrate 20 having the desired electrical or physical properties, e.g. a silicon wafer 20 as shown in Fig. 6c, and annealed to transfer the film 10.
Si (100) wafer 20 was passivated by the same wet process sequence described above and a subsequent rinse followed by a deionized water rinse and a 30 second 80 °C 1:1:3 H202:NH40H:H20 (RCA1) cleaning process followed by a deionized water rinse arid a brief HF acid dip to remove the grown oxide. The RCA1 cleaning is included to further reduce the organic surface contamination and remove particles.
Following surface passivation both Si substrate 20 and Ge substrate 10, they have an RMS
roughness well under 0.5 nm as measured on a 5 pm by 5 pm atomic force microscopy scan.
After passivation substrate 20 and substrate 16 are brought into surface-to-surface contact with each other as shown in Fig. 6c and bonding is initiated by a 3500-psi pressure (24MPa) applied over a 0.25-inch (0.64cm) diameter region at the center of the wafer. The contact region is then propagated outward using subsequent pressures of 890 psi (6.1 MPa) applied over a 0.5-inch (1.3cm) diameter region and 220 psi (1.SMPa) applied over a 1.0-inch (2.5cm) diameter region. A thermal annealing process s to 175 ~C with an applied pressure of 135 psi (930kPa) in a modified Parr Instruments pressure cell is used to strengthen the bonding.
Hydrophobic surface passivation of film surface 18 and a less than 1 nm RMS
roughness of surface 18 as measured by contact mode atomic force microscopy along with more than 3000 psi pressure initiation are suitable conditions for reversible room temperature bonding of substrate 16 to substrate 20 to occur. The low strength room temperature bond is then annealed at 175 ~C under 135 psi pressure strengthen the bonding between substrate 16 and substrate 20. Annealing the bonded structure with or without pressure up to >300 C causes film 10 to transfer to substrate 20.
The covalently bonded heterostructures have been shown to be stable during thermal cycling from room temperature to 750 ~C.
Ge-to-Si direct wafer bonding and layer transfer has been achieved as described above, but initial efforts were complicated by gas bubble formation at the bonded Ge/Si interface 36 between film 10 and substrate 20. These bubbles were likely caused by residual interface contamination present at the time of bonding, either in the form of adsorbed water or organic contamination which subsequently evolved as gas trapped at the interface 36. These bubbles have been eliminated by two methods.
The first method is by molecular beam deposition of a 40-A amorphous Si layer 38 on the H-implanted Ge substrate 16 as diagrammatically shown in~ Figs 7a -7d. In this case, a hydrophilic or hydrophobic Si-Si wafer bond is later formed with substrate 20 using hydrophilic or hydrophobic surface passivation on both the substrate 20 and the a-Si layer 38 deposited on the Ge substrate 16. The room-temperature bonding energy for hydrophilic Si surfaces is typically about 100 mJ cm 2 for Si/Si systems. The Ge/Si heterostructures 14 formed by Si/a-Si hydrophilic bonding show a strong reduction in the total number of interfacial bubbles. Bubble reduction is thought to be due to the increased hydrophilic bond strength at the Si/a-Si interface verses the hydrophobic room-temperature bond strength of the Ge/Si interface in the previously mentioned Ge/Si hydrophobic bonding technique. The higher bond strength increases the bubble pressure required to separate the bonded surfaces and to deform the thin Ge transferred film 10. Additionally, improved organic removal is made possible by the RCA1 cleaning of the a-Si layer 38.
The second method to eliminate bubbles at the interface 36 is to use a 250°C
pre-bonding anneal in N2 following wet chemical cleaning, but prior to bonding the hydrophobic Ge and Si surfaces in the methodology of Figs. 6a - 6c. This pre-bonding anneal is thought to desorb water and evolve organic contaminants, leaving a more perfectly H-terminated surface. This reduces the bubble defect density in transferred films 10.
The Ohmic Contact Electrical measurements indicated ohmic I-V characteristics for germanium layers bonded to silicon substrates with less than 35 ohms resistance at the interface such as shown in Fig. 1 and described below.
The interface electrical properties were measured by defining AI on a Ge/Si heterostructure 14, prepared by a pre-bonding anneal in N2 as described above, followed by a layer split anneal at 350°C. The Ge substrate was Ga-doped to 5 x 10~' cm 3 and the Si substrate was B doped to 1 x 10'$ cm-3 in an effort to minimize the junction depletion width formed at the heterojunction interface 36.
During initial application of a 10 V bias, the Ge/Si interface 36 exhibited dielectric breakdown followed by ohmic I-V characteristics in subsequent scans as graphically depicted in Fig. 1. These measurements indicate an interfacial resistance of over a total interfacial area of about 0.1 cm2 for a specific interfacial resistance of about 3.5 ~2 cm-~. The AI contact and substrate resistances were determined to be negligible io for overall structure resistance. The relatively high interface resistance is attributed to the fact that the bonded Ge/Si sample was annealed at a maximum temperature of 350°C, lower than the temperature required for covalent bond formation, which is 600°C
or greater in Si/Si interfaces.
The Triple Junction Solar Cell Triple-junction solar cell structures grown on these Ge/Si heterostructure templates by metal-organic chemical vacation deposition, MOVCD, as shown in Figs.
2a and 2b and described below show comparable photoluminescence intensity and minority carrier lifetime to a control structure grown on bulk Ge as depicted in Fig. 3.
Metal organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) growth of triple junction solar cell heterostructures 14 in Fig. 2a on bonded Ge/Si substrate 22 was performed using (CH3)3Ga and AsH3 precursors for GaAs cell growth and (CH3)3Ga, (CH3)31n and precursors for GaInP cell growth. The peak temperature during growth was 750°C and the structure as shown in Fig. 2a is comprised of a GaAs buffer layer 24 followed by two active base regions, a GaAs base 24 and a GaInP base 28 separated by a tunnel junction structure 30.
Photoluminescence (PL) intensity and time-resolved photoluminescence (TRPL) minority carrier lifetime of the structure of Fig. 2a were measured in the heavily doped GaAs flop contact layer 32 in a control sample grown on bulk Ge 34 in Fig. 2b and structures grown on a Ge/Si heterostructure 14 in Fig. 2a. Photoluminescence measurements were performed with a pump laser operated at ~ = 457 nm. Because the heavily doped GaAs contact layer 32 was optically thick to the pump laser, photoluminescence was not observed in the GaInP base 28 or the GaAs base region 26, both of which are expected to exhibit higher lifetime and superior material quality to the heavily doped GaAs contact layer 32. Time-resolved photoluminescence m measurements were performed at NREL with a 600-nm pump laser operated at a repetition rate of 1000 kHz. The samples were maintained at 293 °K
during the measurement. The results of the measurement are shown and described in connection with Fig. 3.
Triple-junction solar cell structures 14 as shown in Fig. 2a were grown by metal-organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) on Ge/Si heterostructures fabricated by hydrophobic wafer bonding. Two of these Ge/Si heterostructures were used as templates for growth and labeled Sample 1 and Sample 2, while a control solar cell structure was also grown on bulk Ge in the same process as shown in Fig. 2b.
The RMS surface roughness was measured by contact-mode atomic force microscopy, with the results shown in Table 1.
Sample Ge roughness in Ge roughness in Pre-MOCVD Post-MOCVD
Bulk Ge < 5 147 Sample 1 236 897 Sample 2 225 204 Sample 1 exhibited RMS surface roughness four-fold greater than that of the GaAs contact layer of Sample 2. These GaAs contact layer roughness values are uncorreiated to the exfoliated Ge surface roughness which was measured, a phenomenon that is not understood at present. Cross-sectional scanning electron micrographs of Sample 1 and the bulk Ge control structure are shown in Figs.
2a and 2b respectively. These images show the layer structure of the triple junction solar cell and the morphology of the interfaces of the various layers and abrupt interfaces within i2 the microscope resolution, about 100 nm. Sample 1 exhibits a rough interface between the layers of the cell structure, with a maximum interface roughness of 0.3 mm located at the GaAs/GaInP interface 30. Photoluminescence studies of the top GaAs contact layer 32 indicate comparable GaAs band-edge emission at 880 nm for the bulk Ge control and Sample 2, the smoother epitaxial structure on Ge/Si, as indicated in the graph of Fig. 3. Sample 1 exhibits considerably lower photoluminescence intensity than Sample 2. Photoluminescence measurements demonstrate an inverse relationship between the GaAs contact layer 32 surface roughness and GaAs contact layer band-edge photoluminescence intensity, suggesting an increased defect density in the samples with rougher GaAs contact surfaces. Time resolved photoluminescence measurements of the GaAs contact layer 32 indicate short but comparable decay time constants of r = 0.23 ns for the bulk Ge sample and r =
0.20 ns for Sample 2, indicating comparable minority carrier life-times in the two structures, if similar surface recombination velocities are assumed. The GaAs contact is not passivated, thus shortening the minority carrier lifetime of the GaAs contact layer 32, due to a high recombination velocity at the exposed surface. Additionally, the heavy doping in the GaAs contact layer 32 also limits the minority carrier lifetime in this layer.
Ge Surface Smoothing Contact mode atomic force microscopy images of the transferred germanium surface generated by the formation of micro-bubbles and micro-cracks along the hydrogen-induced layer-splitting interface reveals minimum RMS roughness of between 10 nm and 23 nm.
The use of a molecular beam epitaxy Ge buffer layer to smooth the cleaved surface of the Ge heterostructure as shown in Figs. 5a and 5b has been shown to smooth the surface from about 11 nm to as low as 1.5 nm with a mesa-like morphology that has a top surface roughness of under 1.0 nm giving a promising surface for improved solar cell growth on solar cell structures.
The triple-junction solar cell optical performance results indicate that without any surface preparation following the H-induced cleavage of the Ge layer 10, high quality Group III - V photovoltaic materials can be grown with good photoluminescence intensity and minority carrier lifetime properties relative to a cell grown on a bulk Ge substrate 34. However, to further improve the optical and electrical properties, it is desirable to reduce the exfoliated surface roughness. To smooth the exfoliated Ge surface 18 a 250 nm-thick Ge buffer layer 40 as shown in Fig. 8 was grown on the surface of the Ge/Si heterostructure 14 by molecular beam epitaxy at 450°C at a rate of 0.1 nm/s. The surface evolution was monitored in situ with reflection high electron energy diffraction. The reflection high energy electron diffraction spectrometer ~RHEED) pattern as shown in Fig. 4 following the growth also indicated a smooth (2 x 1) reconstructed Ge (100) surface. Epitaxial Ge growth reduced the surface RMS
roughness of the transferred Ge layer from about 11 to about 1.5 nm. In addition, the morphology of the surface drastically changed to a mesa-like form, with a large relatively smooth layer of less than 1 nm surface roughness, as illustrated in the comparison of the atomic force micrographs of Figs. 5a and 5b.
In summary, it can now be appreciated that fabrication of high quality, large, e.g.
about 1 cm~ area Ge (100)/Si (100) heterostructures by hydrophobic wafer bonding and H-induced layer splitting is enabled by the above disclosure. Bonded Ge/Si heterostructures 14 exhibit ohmic interfaces and are suitable as templates for heterostructured devices, such as MOCVD growth of InGaP/GaAs/Ge triple-junction solar cell structures with photoluminescence intensity and decay lifetimes comparable to those found in solar cell structures grown on bulk Ge (100) substrates.
Epitaxial growth of Ge buffer layers on transferred Ge/Si layers shows promise as a means of reducing the Ge surface roughness and improving the optical quality of epitaxial GaInP/GaAs/Ge layers.
Many alterations and modifications may be made by those having ordinary skill in the art without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention.
Therefore, it must be understood that the illustrated embodiment has been set forth only for the purposes of example and that it should not be taken as limiting the invention as defined by the following claims. For example, notwithstanding the fact that the elements of a claim are set forth below in a certain combination, it must be expressly understood that the invention includes other combinations of fewer, more or different elements, which are disclosed in above even when not initially claimed in such combinations.
The words used in this specification to describe the invention and its various embodiments are to be understood not only in the sense of their commonly defined meanings, but to include by special definition in this specification structure, material or acts beyond the scope of the commonly defined meanings. Thus if an element can be understood in the context of this specification as including more than one meaning, then its use in a claim must be understood as being generic to all possible meanings supported by the specification and by the word itself.
The definitions of the words or elements of the following claims are, therefore, defined in this specification to include not only the combination of elements which are literally set forth, but all equivalent structure, material or acts for performing substantially the same function in substantially the same way to obtain substantially the same result.
In this sense it is therefore contemplated that an equivalent substitution of two or more elements may be made for any one of the elements in the claims below or that a single element may be substituted for two or more elements in a claim. Although elements may be described above as acting in certain combinations and even initially claimed as such, it is to be expressly understood that one or more elements from a claimed combination can in some cases be excised from the combination and that the claimed combination may be directed to a subcombination or variation of a subcombination.
is Insubstantial changes from the claimed subject matter as viewed by a person with ordinary skill in the art, now known or later devised, are expressly contemplated as being equivalently within the scope of the claims. Therefore, obvious substitutions now or later known to one with ordinary skill in the art are defined to be within the scope of the defined elements.
The claims are thus to be understood to include what is specifically illustrated and described above, what is conceptionally equivalent, what can be obviously substituted and also what essentially incorporates the essential idea of the invention.
Therefore, what is needed is some type of methodology whereby Ge and other nonsilicon films can be made on heterostructures, e.g. integrated with silicon substrates.
Brief Summary of the Invention Ge/Si and other nonsilicon film heterostructures are formed by hydrogen-induced exfoliation or splitting of the Ge or nonsilicon film and then wafer bonded to a cheaper substrate, such a Si, glass, ceramic or the like, as a way to reduce product cost, while, for example, maintaining solar cell device performance from the heterostructures fabricated from such films. The illustrated embodiment of the invention describes a Ge film, but it is to be expressly understood that other semiconductor materials could similarly be employed in a manner consistent with the spirit and scope of the invention.
For example, GaAs and InP films might also be employed.
In the illustrated embodiment by transferring thin, single-crystal layers of Ge to a less expensive Si substrate and reclaiming the donor wafer through a polishing process, a single 300 pm thick Ge wafer serves as a source for transfer of more than one hundred thin Ge layers or films.
The bond at the interface of the Ge/Si heterostructures is covalent to ensure good thermal contact, mechanical strength, and to enable the formation of an ohmic contact between the Si substrate and Ge layers. To accomplish this type of bond hydrophobic wafer bonding is used, because the hydrogen-surface-terminating species that facilitate van der Waals bonding evolves at temperatures above 600 ~C
into covalent bonding in hydrophobically bound Ge/Si layer transferred systems.
Thus, it can now be understood that one embodiment of the invention is defined as a method of forming a Ge-based heterostructure comprising the steps of H+
or He+
doping a Ge substrate by ion implantation, bonding the Ge substrate onto a non-Ge substrate and annealing the bonded structure to exfoliate a Ge film therefrom,. Any Ge compatible composition may be used as the substrate with Si being the preferred embodiment. However, InP and GaAs are also expressly contemplated including generally any element or compound which includes elements from Groups III - V
of the periodic table.
The Ge film is bonded onto a Si substrate in the illustrated embodiment. The step of bonding is comprised of the steps of disposing the Ge film in contact with the non-Ge substrate to define an interface between the Ge film and non-Ge substrate;
applying at least a first magnitude of pressure across a corresponding first area of the interface; and annealing the interface under a second magnitude of pressure therebetween.
The step of applying at least a first magnitude of pressure across the interface further comprises the steps of sequentially applying additional magnitudes of pressure across corresponding areas of the interface, e.g. the steps of applying sequentially smaller magnitudes of pressure across sequentially larger areas of the interface. In the illustrated embodiment the step of sequentially applying additional magnitudes of pressure comprises the step of sequentially applying three magnitudes of pressure are applied across three corresponding sized areas of the interface, namely applying a first magnitude of pressure, which is approximately 24 MPa across an approximately 0.64 cm diameter area, followed by approximately 6.1 MPa across an approximately 1.3 cm diameter area, followed by approximately 1.5 MPa across an approximately 2.5 cm diameter area. The step of annealing the bonded structure under a second magnitude of pressure therebetween comprises the step of annealing the interface at approximately 175°C under approximately 930 kPa of pressure therebetween.
In another embodiment the method further comprises the step of passivating the non-Ge substrate prior to disposing the Ge film in contact therewith.
In still another embodiment the method further comprises the step of disposing an anti-bubble layer onto the Ge substrate to create a hydrophilic interface therebetween and thus to reduce hydrogen bubble formation when the Ge substrate is bonded to the non-Ge substrate. Where the substrate is Si, the step of disposing a anti-bubble layer onto the Ge substrate comprises the step of disposing an amorphous Si layer onto the Ge substrate to form a Si/a~Si interface by molecular beam deposition.
In yet another embodiment the method further comprises the steps of wet chemical cleaning the Ge substrate and non-Ge substrate prior to bonding and then annealing the cleaned Ge substrate and non-Ge substrate prior to bonding, namely annealing the cleaned Ge substrate and non-Ge substrate at approximately 250°C In N2.
In another embodiment the method further comprises the step of fabricating a semiconductor device onto the Ge-based heterostructure, such as a triple junction solar cell thereon using metal-organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD).
In a further embodiment the method further comprises the step of disposing a smoothing layer onto the exfoliated Ge film, namely a Ge buffer layer using molecular beam epitaxy. Smoothing techniques that may also be applied to the exfoliated film also include CMP and chemical etching processes.
The invention is also understood to be defined as a Ge-based heterostructure comprising a Ge film, and a non-Ge substrate bonded to the Ge film in which the Ge film has been exfoliated from an H+ ion implanted Ge layer by annealing. Again in the illustrated embodiment the non-Ge substrate is composed of Si, but is expressly meant to include other elements, compounds, and mixtures which include at least in part elements from Groups I II - V of the periodic table.
The Ge substrate and non-Ge substrate are in mutual contact under pressure and annealed to form a covalent bonded interface therebetween. The Ge substrate and non-Ge substrate are brought into mutual contact with each other and subjected to sequential applications of pressure distributed over an area of the interface, namely sequentially smaller magnitudes of pressure across sequentially larger areas of the interface. The non-Ge substrate and Ge substrate are passivated prior to being bonded. As discussed above, an anti-bubble layer may be disposed onto the Ge substrate to create a hydrophilic interface therebetween and thus to reduce hydrogen bubble formation when the Ge film is bonded to the non-Ge substrate, namely where the non-Ge substrate is Si and the anti-bubble layer is amorphous Si.
Alternatively, as also discussed above the non-Ge substrate is rendered hydrophilic or hydrophobic by wet chemical cleaning the Ge substrate and non-Ge substrate prior to bonding and then annealing the cleaned Ge film and non-Ge substrate prior to bonding.
The Ge-based heterostructure is an intermediate structure and generally a semiconductor device will be fabricated on the Ge film. The illustrated embodiment shows the fabrication of a triple junction solar cell thereon using metal-organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD). However, what type of semiconductor device can be fabricated on the Ge film is quite arbitrary and should be understood to include any semiconductor device now known or later devised. For example, it is expressly contemplated that in addition to solar cells that GaAs based LEDs and lasers will be fabricated on Ge film heterostructures of the invention As discussed the Ge-based heterostructure of the invention also may include a smoothing layer onto the exfoliated Ge film, namely a Ge layer disposed onto the exfoliated Ge film using molecular beam epitaxy.
While the apparatus and method has or will be described for the sake of grammatical fluidity with functional explanations, it is to be expressly understood that the claims, unless expressly formulated under 35 USC 112, are not to be construed as necessarily limited in any way by the construction of "means" or "steps"
limitations, but are to be accorded the full scope of the meaning and equivalents of the definition provided by the claims under the judicial doctrine of equivalents, and in the case where the claims are expressly formulated under 35 USC 112 are to be accorded full statutory equivalents under 35 USC 112. The invention can be better visualized by turning now to the following drawings wherein like elements are referenced by like numerals.
Brief Description of the Drawings Fig. 1 is a graph of a voltage-current curve for a P + Ge/P + Si heterostructure fabricated according to the invention which has been annealed to 350°C
demonstrate ohmic electric contact.
Fig. 2a is a vertical cross-sectional view of a scanning electron microscope image of a MOCVD triple-junction solar cell structure grown according to the invention on a Ge/Se heterostructure template.
Fig. 2b is a vertical cross-sectional view of a scanning electron microscope image of a MOCVD triple-junction solar cell structure grown according to the invention on a bulk Ge substrate.
Fig. 3 is a graph of the GaAs band-edge emission photoluminescence of MOCVD triple-junction tandem solar cells on Ge/Si heterostructures in Samples 1 and 2 shown in dotted line and on bulk Ge in solid line.
Fig. 4 is post-growth RHEED image of a surface showing Bragg rods and a reconstructed Ge surface indicating a smooth top plateau.
Fig. 5a is an atomic force microscopic view of an exfoliated Ge surface prior to MBE Ge buffer layer growth indicating a surface roughness of about 100 angstrom RMS.
Fig. 5b is an atomic force microscopic view of the surface of Fig. 5a which has been smoothed by the epitaxial growth of a Ge buffer layer to about 20 angstrom RMS
roughness with a mesa geometry.
Figs. 6a - 6c are diagrammatic side cross sectional views of the method of fabrication of one embodiment of the invention.
Figs. 7a - 7d are diagrammatic side cross sectional views of the method of fabrication of another embodiment of the invention.
Fig. 8 is a diagrammatic side cross sectional view of still another embodiment of the heterostructure.
The invention and its various embodiments can now be better understood by turning to the following detailed description of the preferred embodiments which are presented as illustrated examples of the invention defined in the claims. It is expressly understood that the invention as defined by the claims may be broader than the illustrated embodiments described below.
Detailed Description of the Preferred Embodiments The invention uses direct wafer bonding in combination with hydrogen-induced layer splitting of germanium to transfer single crystal germanium (100) films 10 to silicon (100) substrates 12 as shown in Figs. 2a and 2b without using an intervening metallic bonding layer as is typical in the prior art. The metal-free nature of the bond makes the bonded wafers suitable, for example, for subsequent epitaxial growth of triple junction GaInP/GaAs/Ge layered solar cells, generally denoted by reference numeral 14, at high temperatures without concern about metal contamination of the device active region.
The Exfoliation and Rebonding As shown in Fig. 6a a germanium crystalline wafer 16 was doped with 1x10~'cm-2 H+ at 80 keV. These wafers 16 are rendered strongly hydrophobic in the process. The embedded H+ coalesce into hydrogen gas bubbles, which induced an upper film 10 of wafer 16 to split off by a thermal cycle up to more than 350 ~C in an N2 ambient. Layer splitting is achieved by the formation of hydrogen-containing platelets that initiate the propagation of micro-cracks parallel to the Ge surface 18 upon annealing to greater than 350 °C with no external pressure on wafer 16. Thus, a film 10 is cleaved or exfoliated from wafer 16 and bonded to wafer 20 as diagrammatically shown in Fig. 6b.
The process can be repeated many times and wafer 16 repeatedly split to form a plurality of exfoliated films 10. Film thickness can be varied by control of the H+ doping concentrations and depths.
For example, in the illustrated embodiment doped germanium crystalline water 16 was used to transfer approximately 700nm thick films 10 with an area of approximately 1 cm2. Ge substrate surface 18 is passivated by removal of any organic contamination by cleaning by acetone and methanol followed by a 1 minute deionized water rinse and a 10 second dip in 5% HF acid followed in turn by surface blow drying to remove any oxide from surface 18 which is left coated with uncontaminated adsorbed hydrophobic H+. Substrate 16 can now be bonded to a different and less costly substrate 20 having the desired electrical or physical properties, e.g. a silicon wafer 20 as shown in Fig. 6c, and annealed to transfer the film 10.
Si (100) wafer 20 was passivated by the same wet process sequence described above and a subsequent rinse followed by a deionized water rinse and a 30 second 80 °C 1:1:3 H202:NH40H:H20 (RCA1) cleaning process followed by a deionized water rinse arid a brief HF acid dip to remove the grown oxide. The RCA1 cleaning is included to further reduce the organic surface contamination and remove particles.
Following surface passivation both Si substrate 20 and Ge substrate 10, they have an RMS
roughness well under 0.5 nm as measured on a 5 pm by 5 pm atomic force microscopy scan.
After passivation substrate 20 and substrate 16 are brought into surface-to-surface contact with each other as shown in Fig. 6c and bonding is initiated by a 3500-psi pressure (24MPa) applied over a 0.25-inch (0.64cm) diameter region at the center of the wafer. The contact region is then propagated outward using subsequent pressures of 890 psi (6.1 MPa) applied over a 0.5-inch (1.3cm) diameter region and 220 psi (1.SMPa) applied over a 1.0-inch (2.5cm) diameter region. A thermal annealing process s to 175 ~C with an applied pressure of 135 psi (930kPa) in a modified Parr Instruments pressure cell is used to strengthen the bonding.
Hydrophobic surface passivation of film surface 18 and a less than 1 nm RMS
roughness of surface 18 as measured by contact mode atomic force microscopy along with more than 3000 psi pressure initiation are suitable conditions for reversible room temperature bonding of substrate 16 to substrate 20 to occur. The low strength room temperature bond is then annealed at 175 ~C under 135 psi pressure strengthen the bonding between substrate 16 and substrate 20. Annealing the bonded structure with or without pressure up to >300 C causes film 10 to transfer to substrate 20.
The covalently bonded heterostructures have been shown to be stable during thermal cycling from room temperature to 750 ~C.
Ge-to-Si direct wafer bonding and layer transfer has been achieved as described above, but initial efforts were complicated by gas bubble formation at the bonded Ge/Si interface 36 between film 10 and substrate 20. These bubbles were likely caused by residual interface contamination present at the time of bonding, either in the form of adsorbed water or organic contamination which subsequently evolved as gas trapped at the interface 36. These bubbles have been eliminated by two methods.
The first method is by molecular beam deposition of a 40-A amorphous Si layer 38 on the H-implanted Ge substrate 16 as diagrammatically shown in~ Figs 7a -7d. In this case, a hydrophilic or hydrophobic Si-Si wafer bond is later formed with substrate 20 using hydrophilic or hydrophobic surface passivation on both the substrate 20 and the a-Si layer 38 deposited on the Ge substrate 16. The room-temperature bonding energy for hydrophilic Si surfaces is typically about 100 mJ cm 2 for Si/Si systems. The Ge/Si heterostructures 14 formed by Si/a-Si hydrophilic bonding show a strong reduction in the total number of interfacial bubbles. Bubble reduction is thought to be due to the increased hydrophilic bond strength at the Si/a-Si interface verses the hydrophobic room-temperature bond strength of the Ge/Si interface in the previously mentioned Ge/Si hydrophobic bonding technique. The higher bond strength increases the bubble pressure required to separate the bonded surfaces and to deform the thin Ge transferred film 10. Additionally, improved organic removal is made possible by the RCA1 cleaning of the a-Si layer 38.
The second method to eliminate bubbles at the interface 36 is to use a 250°C
pre-bonding anneal in N2 following wet chemical cleaning, but prior to bonding the hydrophobic Ge and Si surfaces in the methodology of Figs. 6a - 6c. This pre-bonding anneal is thought to desorb water and evolve organic contaminants, leaving a more perfectly H-terminated surface. This reduces the bubble defect density in transferred films 10.
The Ohmic Contact Electrical measurements indicated ohmic I-V characteristics for germanium layers bonded to silicon substrates with less than 35 ohms resistance at the interface such as shown in Fig. 1 and described below.
The interface electrical properties were measured by defining AI on a Ge/Si heterostructure 14, prepared by a pre-bonding anneal in N2 as described above, followed by a layer split anneal at 350°C. The Ge substrate was Ga-doped to 5 x 10~' cm 3 and the Si substrate was B doped to 1 x 10'$ cm-3 in an effort to minimize the junction depletion width formed at the heterojunction interface 36.
During initial application of a 10 V bias, the Ge/Si interface 36 exhibited dielectric breakdown followed by ohmic I-V characteristics in subsequent scans as graphically depicted in Fig. 1. These measurements indicate an interfacial resistance of over a total interfacial area of about 0.1 cm2 for a specific interfacial resistance of about 3.5 ~2 cm-~. The AI contact and substrate resistances were determined to be negligible io for overall structure resistance. The relatively high interface resistance is attributed to the fact that the bonded Ge/Si sample was annealed at a maximum temperature of 350°C, lower than the temperature required for covalent bond formation, which is 600°C
or greater in Si/Si interfaces.
The Triple Junction Solar Cell Triple-junction solar cell structures grown on these Ge/Si heterostructure templates by metal-organic chemical vacation deposition, MOVCD, as shown in Figs.
2a and 2b and described below show comparable photoluminescence intensity and minority carrier lifetime to a control structure grown on bulk Ge as depicted in Fig. 3.
Metal organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) growth of triple junction solar cell heterostructures 14 in Fig. 2a on bonded Ge/Si substrate 22 was performed using (CH3)3Ga and AsH3 precursors for GaAs cell growth and (CH3)3Ga, (CH3)31n and precursors for GaInP cell growth. The peak temperature during growth was 750°C and the structure as shown in Fig. 2a is comprised of a GaAs buffer layer 24 followed by two active base regions, a GaAs base 24 and a GaInP base 28 separated by a tunnel junction structure 30.
Photoluminescence (PL) intensity and time-resolved photoluminescence (TRPL) minority carrier lifetime of the structure of Fig. 2a were measured in the heavily doped GaAs flop contact layer 32 in a control sample grown on bulk Ge 34 in Fig. 2b and structures grown on a Ge/Si heterostructure 14 in Fig. 2a. Photoluminescence measurements were performed with a pump laser operated at ~ = 457 nm. Because the heavily doped GaAs contact layer 32 was optically thick to the pump laser, photoluminescence was not observed in the GaInP base 28 or the GaAs base region 26, both of which are expected to exhibit higher lifetime and superior material quality to the heavily doped GaAs contact layer 32. Time-resolved photoluminescence m measurements were performed at NREL with a 600-nm pump laser operated at a repetition rate of 1000 kHz. The samples were maintained at 293 °K
during the measurement. The results of the measurement are shown and described in connection with Fig. 3.
Triple-junction solar cell structures 14 as shown in Fig. 2a were grown by metal-organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) on Ge/Si heterostructures fabricated by hydrophobic wafer bonding. Two of these Ge/Si heterostructures were used as templates for growth and labeled Sample 1 and Sample 2, while a control solar cell structure was also grown on bulk Ge in the same process as shown in Fig. 2b.
The RMS surface roughness was measured by contact-mode atomic force microscopy, with the results shown in Table 1.
Sample Ge roughness in Ge roughness in Pre-MOCVD Post-MOCVD
Bulk Ge < 5 147 Sample 1 236 897 Sample 2 225 204 Sample 1 exhibited RMS surface roughness four-fold greater than that of the GaAs contact layer of Sample 2. These GaAs contact layer roughness values are uncorreiated to the exfoliated Ge surface roughness which was measured, a phenomenon that is not understood at present. Cross-sectional scanning electron micrographs of Sample 1 and the bulk Ge control structure are shown in Figs.
2a and 2b respectively. These images show the layer structure of the triple junction solar cell and the morphology of the interfaces of the various layers and abrupt interfaces within i2 the microscope resolution, about 100 nm. Sample 1 exhibits a rough interface between the layers of the cell structure, with a maximum interface roughness of 0.3 mm located at the GaAs/GaInP interface 30. Photoluminescence studies of the top GaAs contact layer 32 indicate comparable GaAs band-edge emission at 880 nm for the bulk Ge control and Sample 2, the smoother epitaxial structure on Ge/Si, as indicated in the graph of Fig. 3. Sample 1 exhibits considerably lower photoluminescence intensity than Sample 2. Photoluminescence measurements demonstrate an inverse relationship between the GaAs contact layer 32 surface roughness and GaAs contact layer band-edge photoluminescence intensity, suggesting an increased defect density in the samples with rougher GaAs contact surfaces. Time resolved photoluminescence measurements of the GaAs contact layer 32 indicate short but comparable decay time constants of r = 0.23 ns for the bulk Ge sample and r =
0.20 ns for Sample 2, indicating comparable minority carrier life-times in the two structures, if similar surface recombination velocities are assumed. The GaAs contact is not passivated, thus shortening the minority carrier lifetime of the GaAs contact layer 32, due to a high recombination velocity at the exposed surface. Additionally, the heavy doping in the GaAs contact layer 32 also limits the minority carrier lifetime in this layer.
Ge Surface Smoothing Contact mode atomic force microscopy images of the transferred germanium surface generated by the formation of micro-bubbles and micro-cracks along the hydrogen-induced layer-splitting interface reveals minimum RMS roughness of between 10 nm and 23 nm.
The use of a molecular beam epitaxy Ge buffer layer to smooth the cleaved surface of the Ge heterostructure as shown in Figs. 5a and 5b has been shown to smooth the surface from about 11 nm to as low as 1.5 nm with a mesa-like morphology that has a top surface roughness of under 1.0 nm giving a promising surface for improved solar cell growth on solar cell structures.
The triple-junction solar cell optical performance results indicate that without any surface preparation following the H-induced cleavage of the Ge layer 10, high quality Group III - V photovoltaic materials can be grown with good photoluminescence intensity and minority carrier lifetime properties relative to a cell grown on a bulk Ge substrate 34. However, to further improve the optical and electrical properties, it is desirable to reduce the exfoliated surface roughness. To smooth the exfoliated Ge surface 18 a 250 nm-thick Ge buffer layer 40 as shown in Fig. 8 was grown on the surface of the Ge/Si heterostructure 14 by molecular beam epitaxy at 450°C at a rate of 0.1 nm/s. The surface evolution was monitored in situ with reflection high electron energy diffraction. The reflection high energy electron diffraction spectrometer ~RHEED) pattern as shown in Fig. 4 following the growth also indicated a smooth (2 x 1) reconstructed Ge (100) surface. Epitaxial Ge growth reduced the surface RMS
roughness of the transferred Ge layer from about 11 to about 1.5 nm. In addition, the morphology of the surface drastically changed to a mesa-like form, with a large relatively smooth layer of less than 1 nm surface roughness, as illustrated in the comparison of the atomic force micrographs of Figs. 5a and 5b.
In summary, it can now be appreciated that fabrication of high quality, large, e.g.
about 1 cm~ area Ge (100)/Si (100) heterostructures by hydrophobic wafer bonding and H-induced layer splitting is enabled by the above disclosure. Bonded Ge/Si heterostructures 14 exhibit ohmic interfaces and are suitable as templates for heterostructured devices, such as MOCVD growth of InGaP/GaAs/Ge triple-junction solar cell structures with photoluminescence intensity and decay lifetimes comparable to those found in solar cell structures grown on bulk Ge (100) substrates.
Epitaxial growth of Ge buffer layers on transferred Ge/Si layers shows promise as a means of reducing the Ge surface roughness and improving the optical quality of epitaxial GaInP/GaAs/Ge layers.
Many alterations and modifications may be made by those having ordinary skill in the art without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention.
Therefore, it must be understood that the illustrated embodiment has been set forth only for the purposes of example and that it should not be taken as limiting the invention as defined by the following claims. For example, notwithstanding the fact that the elements of a claim are set forth below in a certain combination, it must be expressly understood that the invention includes other combinations of fewer, more or different elements, which are disclosed in above even when not initially claimed in such combinations.
The words used in this specification to describe the invention and its various embodiments are to be understood not only in the sense of their commonly defined meanings, but to include by special definition in this specification structure, material or acts beyond the scope of the commonly defined meanings. Thus if an element can be understood in the context of this specification as including more than one meaning, then its use in a claim must be understood as being generic to all possible meanings supported by the specification and by the word itself.
The definitions of the words or elements of the following claims are, therefore, defined in this specification to include not only the combination of elements which are literally set forth, but all equivalent structure, material or acts for performing substantially the same function in substantially the same way to obtain substantially the same result.
In this sense it is therefore contemplated that an equivalent substitution of two or more elements may be made for any one of the elements in the claims below or that a single element may be substituted for two or more elements in a claim. Although elements may be described above as acting in certain combinations and even initially claimed as such, it is to be expressly understood that one or more elements from a claimed combination can in some cases be excised from the combination and that the claimed combination may be directed to a subcombination or variation of a subcombination.
is Insubstantial changes from the claimed subject matter as viewed by a person with ordinary skill in the art, now known or later devised, are expressly contemplated as being equivalently within the scope of the claims. Therefore, obvious substitutions now or later known to one with ordinary skill in the art are defined to be within the scope of the defined elements.
The claims are thus to be understood to include what is specifically illustrated and described above, what is conceptionally equivalent, what can be obviously substituted and also what essentially incorporates the essential idea of the invention.
Claims (33)
1. ~A method of forming a Ge-based heterostructure comprising the steps of:
H+ or He+ doping a Ge substrate by ion implantation;
bonding the Ge substrate onto a non-Ge substrate; and annealing the doped Ge substrate to exfoliate a Ge film therefrom.
H+ or He+ doping a Ge substrate by ion implantation;
bonding the Ge substrate onto a non-Ge substrate; and annealing the doped Ge substrate to exfoliate a Ge film therefrom.
2. ~The method of claim 1 where in the step of bonding, the H- or He-implanted Ge substrate is bonded onto a Si substrate.
3. ~The method of claim 1 where the step of bonding is comprised of the steps of:
disposing the Ge film in contact with the non-Ge substrate to define an interface between the Ge film and non-Ge substrate;
applying at least a first magnitude of pressure across a corresponding first area of the interface; and annealing the interface under a second magnitude of pressure therebetween.
disposing the Ge film in contact with the non-Ge substrate to define an interface between the Ge film and non-Ge substrate;
applying at least a first magnitude of pressure across a corresponding first area of the interface; and annealing the interface under a second magnitude of pressure therebetween.
4. ~The method of claim 3 where the step of applying at least a first magnitude of pressure across the interface further comprises the steps of sequentially applying additional magnitudes of pressure across corresponding areas of the interface.
5. ~The method of claim 4 where the step of sequentially applying additional magnitudes of pressure across the interface comprises the steps of applying sequentially magnitudes of pressure across sequentially larger areas of the interface.
6. ~The method of claim 5 where the step of sequentially applying additional magnitudes of pressure comprises the step of sequentially applying three magnitudes of pressure are applied across three corresponding areas of the interface.
7. ~The method of claim 6 wherein the step of sequentially applying three magnitudes comprises the steps of applying first magnitude of pressure is approximately 24 MPa across an approximately 0.64 cm diameter area, followed by approximately 6.1 MPa across an approximately 1.3 cm diameter area, followed by approximately 1.5 MPa across an approximately 2.5 cm diameter area.
8. ~The method of claim 3 further comprising the step of passivating the non-Ge substrate prior to disposing the Ge film in contact therewith.
9. ~The method of claim 3 where the step of annealing the interface under a second magnitude of pressure therebetween comprises the step of annealing the interface at approximately 175°C under approximately 930 kPa of pressure therebetween.
10. ~The method of claim 1 further comprising the step of depositing an anti-bubble layer onto the Ge substrate to create a hydrophilic interface therebetween and thus to reduce hydrogen bubble formation when the Ge film is bonded to the non-Ge substrate.
11. ~The method of claim 10 where the substrate is Si and where the step of disposing a anti-bubble layer onto the Ge substrate comprises the step of disposing an amorphous Si layer onto the Si substrate to form a Si/a-Si interface.
12. The method of claim 11 where the step of disposing an amorphous Si layer onto the Ge substrate to form a Si/a-Si interface comprises disposing the amorphous Si layer by molecular beam deposition.
13. The method of claim 1 further comprising the steps of wet chemical cleaning the Ge substrate and non-Ge substrate prior to bonding and then annealing the cleaned Ge substrate and non-Ge substrate prior to bonding.
14. The method of claim 13 where the step of annealing the cleaned Ge substrate and non-Ge substrate prior to bonding comprises the step of annealing the cleaned Ge substrate and non-Ge substrate at approximately 250°C.
15. The method of claim 1 further comprising the step of fabricating a semiconductor device onto the Ge-based heterostructure.
16. The method of claim 15 where the step of fabricating a semiconductor device onto the Ge-based heterostructure comprises the step of fabricating a solar cell thereon,
17. The method of claim 16 where the step of fabricating a solar cell onto the Ge-based heterostructure comprises the step of fabricating a triple junction solar cell thereon using metal-organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD).
18. The method of claim 1 further comprising the step of smoothing the exfoliated Ge film.
19. The method of claim 18 where the step of smoothing the exfoliated Ge film comprises the step of disposing a Ge buffer layer onto the exfoliated Ge film using epitaxy.
20. A Ge-based heterostructure comprising:
a Ge film; and a non-Ge substrate bonded to the Ge film in which the Ge film has been exfoliated from an H+ or He+ ion implanted Ge substrate by annealing.
a Ge film; and a non-Ge substrate bonded to the Ge film in which the Ge film has been exfoliated from an H+ or He+ ion implanted Ge substrate by annealing.
21. The Ge-based heterostructure of claim 20 where the non-Ge substrate is composed of Si.
22. The Ge-based heterostructure of claim 20 where the Ge substrate and non-Ge substrate are in mutual contact under pressure and annealed to form a covalent bonded interface therebetween.
23. The Ge-based heterostructure of claim 22 where the Ge substrate and non-Ge substrate are in mutual contact under sequential steps of pressure distributed over an area of the interface.
24. The Ge-based heterostructure of claim 23 where the sequential steps of pressure distributed over an area of the interface comprise sequentially varied magnitudes of pressure across sequentially larger areas of the interface.
25. The Ge-based heterostructure of claim 20 where the non-Ge substrate is passivated prior to being bonded to the Ge substrate.
26. The Ge-based heterostructure of claim 20 further comprising an anti-bubble bonding layer onto the Ge substrate to create a hydrophilic or hydrophobic interface therebetween and thus to reduce hydrogen bubble formation when the Ge film is bonded to the non-Ge substrate.
27. The Ge-based heterostructure of claim 26 where the non-Ge substrate is Si and the anti-bubble layer is amorphous Si.
28. The Ge-based heterostructure of claim 20 where the Ge substrate and non-Ge substrate are rendered hydrophilic or hydrophobic by wet chemical cleaning the Ge substrate and non-Ge substrate prior to bonding and then annealing the cleaned Ge film and non-Ge substrate prior to bonding.
29. The Ge-based heterostructure of claim 20 further comprising a semiconductor device fabricated on the Ge film.
30. The Ge-based heterostructure of claim 29 where the semiconductor device fabricated on the Ge film comprises a solar cell.
31. The Ge-based heterostructure of claim 30 where the solar cell comprises a triple junction solar cell thereon using metal-organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD).
32. The Ge-based heterostructure of claim 20 further comprising a smoothing layer onto the exfoliated Ge film.
33. The Ge-based heterostructure of claim 32 where smoothing layer is comprised of Ge layer disposed onto the exfoliated Ge film using molecular beam epitaxy.
22~
22~
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-
2002
- 2002-04-17 WO PCT/US2002/012222 patent/WO2002084725A1/en not_active Application Discontinuation
- 2002-04-17 EP EP02728822A patent/EP1386349A1/en not_active Withdrawn
- 2002-04-17 US US10/125,133 patent/US7019339B2/en not_active Expired - Fee Related
- 2002-04-17 CA CA002482258A patent/CA2482258A1/en not_active Abandoned
-
2005
- 2005-06-24 US US11/165,328 patent/US7141834B2/en not_active Expired - Lifetime
-
2006
- 2006-05-09 US US11/430,160 patent/US7755109B2/en not_active Expired - Lifetime
Also Published As
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US7141834B2 (en) | 2006-11-28 |
US7019339B2 (en) | 2006-03-28 |
US20050275067A1 (en) | 2005-12-15 |
WO2002084725A1 (en) | 2002-10-24 |
EP1386349A1 (en) | 2004-02-04 |
US20060208341A1 (en) | 2006-09-21 |
US20020190269A1 (en) | 2002-12-19 |
US7755109B2 (en) | 2010-07-13 |
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