CA2725525A1 - Driving a mass spectrometer ion trap or mass filter - Google Patents

Abstract

A radio frequency (RF) drive system and method for driving the ion trap or mass filter of a mass spectrometer has a programmable RF frequency source coupled to a RF gain stage. The RF gain stage is transformer coupled to a tank circuit formed with the ion trap or mass filter. The power of the RF gain stage driving the ion trap or mass filter is measured using a sensing circuit and a power circuit. A feedback value is generated by the power circuit that is used to adjust the RF frequency source. The frequency of the RF frequency source is adjusted until the power of the RF gain stage is at a minimum level.

Description

DRIVING A MASS SPECTROMETER ION TRAP OR MASS FILTER
Cross-Reference To Related Applications [0001] This application claims the benefit of priority to U. S. Provisional Application Serial No. 61/056,362, filed on May 27, 2008, which is incorporated by reference herein. This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. Patent Application Serial No.
12/329,787, filed December 8, 2008.

Technical Field [0002] This invention relates to ion traps, ion trap mass spectrometers, and more particularly to a radio frequency system for driving a mass spectrometer ion trap or mass filter, such as a linear quadrupole.

Summary [0003] A radio frequency (RF) system for driving a mass spectrometer ion trap has a frequency programmable RF generator that produces an RF signal. An RF gain stage receives the RF signal and generates an amplified RF signal. Sense circuitry generates a sense signal proportional to a supply current delivered to the RF gain stage. A transformer has a primary coupled to the output of the RF gain stage and a secondary coupled to form a tank circuit with the capacitance of the mass spectrometer ion trap. The power circuitry uses the sense signal to determine power consumption of the RF gain stage in order to adjust the frequency of the RF
generator so that the power supplied to the RF gain stage is decreased.

[0004] Once the frequency of the RF generator is set, the power monitoring may be used to continuously adjust the frequency as variable conditions cause the resonance frequency of the transformer secondary and the ion trap to drift. Because much lower power is required to drive the mass spectrometer ion trap or mass filter (such as a linear quadrupole), the mass spectrometer may be reduced in size and cost thereby increasing the number of potential applications.

[0005] The details of one or more embodiments of the invention are set forth in the accompanying drawings and the description below. Other features, objects, and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the description and drawings, and from the claims.

Brief Description of the Drawings [0006] FIG. 1 illustrates a system block diagram of a mass spectrometer system;

[0007] FIG. 2 illustrates a RF trapping and ejecting circuitry for a mass spectrometer system;

[0008] FIG. 3 illustrates an ion trap;

[0009] FIG. 4 illustrates circuitry for modifying the performance of an ion trap;

[0010] FIG. 5A illustrates circuitry for generating a feedback signal to control the RF
signal source;

[0011] FIG. 5B illustrates circuitry configuring a frequency controlled RF
signal source;

[0012] FIG. 6 illustrates a flow diagram of frequency tracking for the RF
system of FIG.
2;

[0013] FIG. 7 illustrates a flow diagram to determine the resonant frequency for the RF
system of FIG. 2;

[0014] FIG. 8 illustrates a flow diagram in accordance with embodiments of the present invention; and [0015] FIG. 9 illustrates an exemplary plot of frequency versus power supplied to an ion trap.

Detailed Description [0016] In embodiments of the present invention, an ion trap performs mass spectrometric chemical analysis. The ion trap dynamically traps ions from a measurement sample using a dynamic electric field generated by a driving signal or signals. The ions are selectively ejected corresponding to their mass-charge ratio (mass (m)/charge (z)) by changing the characteristics of the radio frequency (RF) electric field (e.g., amplitude, frequency, etc.) that is trapping them.

[0017] In embodiments of the present invention, the ion trap dynamically traps ions in a quadrupole field within the ion trap. This field is created by an electrical signal from a RF
source applied to the center electrode relative to the end cap voltages (or signals). In the simplest form, a signal of constant RF frequency is applied to the center electrode and the two end cap electrodes are maintained at a static zero volts. The amplitude of the center electrode signal is ramped up linearly in order to selectively destabilize different masses of ions held within the ion trap. This amplitude ejection configuration may not result in optimal performance or resolution and may actually result in double peaks in the output spectra.
This amplitude ejection method may be improved upon by applying a second signal differentially across the end caps. This second signal causes a dipole axial excitation that results in the resonant ejection of ions from the ion trap when the ions' secular frequency of oscillation within the trap matches the end cap excitation frequency.

[0018] The ion trap or mass filter has an equivalent circuit that appears as a nearly pure capacitance. The amplitude of the voltage necessary to drive the ion trap may be high (e.g., 1500 volts) and often requires the use of transformer coupling to generate the high voltage. The inductance of the transformer secondary and the capacitance of the ion trap form a parallel tank circuit. Driving this circuit at a frequency other than resonance may create unnecessary losses and may increase the cost and size of the circuitry. This would particularly impede efforts to miniaturize a mass spectrometer to increase its use and marketability.

[0019] In addition, driving the circuit at resonance has other benefits such as producing the cleanest, lowest distortion, and lowest noise signal possible. A tank circuit attenuates signals of all frequencies except the resonant frequency; in this way, the tank circuit operates as its own narrow bandpass filter in which only a particular frequency resonates. Off frequency noise and harmonics are filtered out. Also, at resonance, the amount of power coming from the signal driving amplifier is very low. The power needed is only the power that is lost in transformer inefficiencies or resistive losses. The circuit power is transferred back and forth between the inductive and capacitive elements in the tank circuit in a small physical area. Since little power is driven from an external amplifier, less power is being radiated as electro-magnetic interference (EMI).

[0020] Therefore, it may be advantageous for a RF system to ensure that the ion trap is driven with circuitry that minimizes size of the components, reduces cost and power, provides an ultra high quality signal, and results in reduced radiated EMI. This may be very important in a portable mass spectrometer application.

[0021] FIG 1 illustrates a block diagram of elements in mass spectrometer system 100.
Sample 101 may be introduced into chamber 112 having a low pressure 105 (e.g., a vacuum) through permeable membrane tubing 102. As a result, concentrated sample gas 103 is admitted through membrane tubing 102 and makes its way to ion trap 104. Electrons 113 are generated in a well-known manner by source 111 and are directed towards ion trap 104 by accelerating potential 110. Electrons 113 ionize sample gas 103 in ion trap 104. RF
trapping and ejecting circuitry 109 is coupled to ion trap 104 to create alternating electric fields within ion trap 104 to first trap and then eject ions in a manner proportional to the mass of the ions. Additional modifying circuitry 108 may be used to enhance the operation of ion trap 104.
Ion detector 106 registers the number of ions emitted at different time intervals that correspond to particular ion masses. These ion numbers are digitized for analysis and displayed as spectra on display 107.

[0022] Permeable membrane 102 may include an imbedded heating apparatus (not shown) to ensure that a gas sample is at a uniform temperature. Additionally, apparatus 111 providing electrons 113 may include an electrostatic lens that is operable to focus electrons 113 that enter ion trap 104. The electrostatic lens may have a focal point in front of the aperture of the end cap (e.g., see FIG 3). The electrostatic lens operates to provide a better electron distribution in ion trap 104 as well as to increase the percentage of electrons that enter trap 104.
Source 111 of electrons 113 may be configured with carbon nanotubes as electron emitters that enable the electrons to be produced at a lower power than conventional means.
It should also be noted that those skilled in the art would recognize that there are many configurations of mass spectrometer 100 that include an ion trap that may have varied (1) methods of introducing sample 101 to mass spectrometer 100, (2) ionization methods 111, and (3) detectors 106, which are within the scopes of embodiments of the present invention.

[0023] In embodiments of the present invention, ion trap 104 is configured to have a design that produces a minimum capacitance load to circuitry 109. Ion trap 104 may have its inside surface roughness minimized to improve its characteristics.

[0024] FIG 2 illustrates a circuit and block diagram of RF trapping and ejecting circuitry 109 driving ion trap 104. Exemplary ion trap 104 comprises center electrode 219 and end caps 218 and 220. Ion trap 104 may be as described herein, or any other equivalent ion trap design that may be operated in a manner as described herein. Parasitic capacitances 213 and 214 are shown by dotted lines. End caps 218 and 220 may be coupled to a ground potential and capacitances 213 and 214 represent capacitance loading to circuitry 109.

[0025] RF source 201 generates a sinusoidal RF signal and is shown having an input coupled to control line(s) 221. Values of control line(s) 221 are operable to adjust the frequency of the RF signal either up or down. In embodiments, the frequency of RF source 201 may be adjusted manually in response to an optimizing parameter. Differential amplifier 204 (e.g., operational amplifier) has positive and negative inputs and an output.
Negative feedback using resistors 205 and 206 may be used to set the closed loop gain of the amplifier stage as the ratio of the resistor values. The RF signal is filtered (e.g., low pass or band pass) with filter 203 and applied to the positive input of amplifier 204. Amplifier 204 uses capacitor 209 to block the amplifier output offset voltage, and resistor 210 to improve amplifier stability. The filtered output of amplifier 204 is applied to the input of transformer 211. Since a high voltage (e.g., 1500 volts) may be required to drive ion trap 104, transformer 211 may be a step up transformer.
This allows the primary side components of the amplifying stage to have a relatively low voltage.

[0026] Amplifier 204 may be powered by bipolar power supply (PS) voltages 216 and 217. Current sensing circuitry 208 may be used to monitor the current from PS
voltage 216.
Power control circuitry 207 may be configured to monitor the power being dissipated driving ion trap 104 in order to control RF source 201 via control line(s) 221.
Control circuitry 207 may be either analog or digital depending on the characteristics of RF source 201.
In either case, the circuitry 109 operates to drive ion trap 104 at a frequency that minimizes the power provided by PS voltages 216 and 217.

[0027] The frequency of RF source 201 may be adjusted to minimize the power required to drive ion trap 104. The resulting frequency of RF source 201 that minimizes the drive power is the frequency that resonates the circuitry comprising the inductance at the secondary of transformer 211 and the capacitance of ion trap 104. The frequency of RF
source 201 may be set at a desired value, and a variable component (e.g., variable capacitor 212) used to change the secondary circuitry to resonate with the set desired frequency of RF source 201. A center frequency of RF source 201 may be set and the secondary circuitry adjusted to tune the secondary of transformer 211. The feedback with control 221 may be then used to adjust the resonant frequency to dynamically minimize the power required to drive ion trap 104.

[0028] Circuitry 207 may employ a programmable processor that first sets the frequency of RF source 201 to minimize the power to ion trap 104. Then, after a time period where ions are trapped, amplitude feedback from the secondary of transformer 211 may be used to adjust either the amplitude of RF source 201 or the gain of the amplifier stage such that the amplitude of the secondary signal driving ion trap 104 is amplitude modulated in a manner that operates to eject ions.

[0029] Circuitry 207 may employ a programmable processor that first sets the frequency of RF source 201 to minimize the power to ion trap 104. Then, after a time period where ions are trapped, the frequency of RF source 201 is varied such that the frequency of the secondary signal driving ion trap 104 is frequency modulated in a manner that operates to eject ions.

[0030] In one embodiment, circuitry 109 may employ a capacitive voltage divider to feedback a sample of the output voltage of transformer 211 to the negative input of amplifier 204. This negative feedback may be used to stabilize the voltage output transformer 211 when driving ion trap 104.

FIG 3 illustrates cross-sections and details of electrodes of ion trap 104 according to embodiments of the present invention. First end cap 218 has inlet aperture 304, central electrode 219 has aperture 306 and second end cap 220 has outlet aperture 305. End caps 218 and 219, and electrode 219 may have toroidal configurations, or other equivalent shapes sufficient to trap and eject ions in accordance with embodiments of the present invention. First ion trap end cap 218 may be typically coupled to ground or zero volts, however, other embodiments may use other than zero volts. For example, first end cap 218 may be connected to a variable DC voltage or other signal. Ion trap central electrode 219 is driven by circuitry 109 (see FIGS. 1 and 2).
Second ion trap end cap 220 may be connected to zero volts directly or by circuit elements 108 (see FIG 1) or to another signal source. Thin insulators (not shown) may be positioned in spaces 309 to isolate first end cap 218, second end cap 220, and central electrode 219, thus forming capacitances 213 and 214 (shown by dotted lines). Operation and configuration of a typical ion trap is described in U. S. Patent No. 3,065,640, and has subsequently been covered by many authors in the field, including a description provided by March (March, R.E. and Todd, J.F.J, "Practical Aspects of Ion Trap Mass Spectrometry," 1995, CRC Press), both of which are hereby incorporated by reference herein.

[0031] FIG 4 illustrates a schematic block diagram 400 of ion trap 104 actively driven by circuitry 109 (see FIGS. 1 and 2). End cap 218 has inlet aperture 304 for collecting a sample gas, central electrode 219 has aperture 306 for holding generated ions, and second end cap 220 has outlet aperture 305. End cap 218 may be coupled to ground or zero volts, however, other embodiments may use other than zero volts or an additional signal source.
Central electrode 219 is driven by circuitry 109. End cap 220 may be connected to zero volts by modifying circuitry 108 (in this embodiment, comprising a parallel combination of capacitor 402 and resistor 403).
Thin insulators (not shown) may be positioned in spaces 309 to isolate first end cap 218, second end cap 220, and central electrode 219.

[0032] Embodiment 400 illustrated in FIG 4 has intrinsic capacitance 214 (noted by dotted line) that naturally exists between central electrode 219 and end cap 220. Capacitance 214 is in series with the capacitance of capacitor 402 and thus forms a capacitive voltage divider thereby impressing a potential derived from signals from circuitry 109 at end cap 220. When circuitry 109 impresses a varying voltage on central electrode 219, a varying voltage of lesser amplitude is impressed upon end cap 220 through action of the capacitive voltage divider.
Naturally, there exists a corresponding intrinsic capacitance 213 (noted by dotted line) between central electrode 219 and end cap 218. Discrete resistor 403 may be added between end cap 220 and zero volts. Resistor 403 provides an electrical path that acts to prevent end cap 220 from developing a floating DC potential that could cause voltage drift or excess charge build-up. The value of resistor 403 is sized to be in the range of 1 to 10 Mega-ohms (MS2) to ensure that the impedance of resistor 403 is much greater than the impedance of added capacitor 402 at an operating frequency of circuitry 109. If the resistance value of resistor 403 is not much greater than the impedance of CA 402, then there will be a phase shift between the signal at central electrode 219 and the signal impressed on second end cap 220 by the capacitive voltage divider.
Also, the amplitude of the signal impressed on end cap 220 will vary as a function of frequency in the frequency range of interest if the value of resistor 403 is too low.
Without resistor 403, the capacitive voltage divider (Cs 214 and CA 402) is substantially independent of frequency. The value of added capacitor 402 may be made variable so that it may be adjusted to have an optimized value for a given system characteristic.

[0033] FIG 5A illustrates exemplary circuitry for generating a feedback signal on control line 221 (see FIG 2) suitable for controlling programmable RF signal source 201. Note that signals on control line 221 may be an analog voltage or voltages, or a digital communication method formed from one or more lines. Amplifier 204 is powered by power supply voltages 216 and 217. In this embodiment, current sense resistor 501 is coupled in series with voltage 216 and its voltage drop is coupled to differential amplifier 502. By monitoring the current draw to amplifier 204 on only one of the amplifier's bipolar supplies, the power can be monitored without the need for high speed rectification or similar means which would be required if the output current of amplifier 204 was monitored instead. Differential amplifier 502 produces an output voltage proportional to the power supply current supplying circuitry 109 to ion trap 104.
Analog to digital (A/D) converter 503 converts this voltage to a digital value. Digital controller 504 receives the digital value and outputs on control line 221 a digital control signal in response to the total power for circuitry 109 to ion trap 104. Digital controller 504 may be a stored program controller receiving programming from input 505. Program steps may then be stored that direct the values outputted for the digital control signal in response to received digital values corresponding to power of circuitry 109. In this manner, a program may be written and stored that directs how circuitry 109 for ion trap 104 is initialized and automatically adjusted to drive ion trap 104 at the lowest possible power level.

[0034] FIG 5B illustrates a block diagram of exemplary circuitry for configuring programmable RF source 201 (see FIG. 2). Reference frequency 514 is compared to the output of programmable frequency divider 513 using phase/frequency circuitry 510.
Frequency divider 513 divides, by a programmable factor N, the output of voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) 512 that generates output 515 from source 201. In this configuration, the RF
source frequency will be N times reference frequency 514. Since the number N is programmable, the digital values on control 221 may be used to control the frequency of output 515. There are many variations possible for the exemplary circuitry shown for RF source 201 that may be employed in embodiments of circuitry 109. The functionality of RF source 201 may also be available in a single integrated circuit.

[0035] FIG 6 illustrates a flow diagram of steps executed in power control circuitry 207 and used in optional frequency tracking step 804 for circuitry 109 of FIG 2.
In step 601, a value is outputted from power control circuitry 207 to set RF source 201 to the determined resonant frequency Fn from the steps in FIG 7. In step 602, a plus sign is used to indicate an increase in the frequency of oscillator 201, and a minus sign is used to indicate a decrease in the frequency of oscillator 201. The initial sign value is chosen arbitrarily or is based upon the expected direction of resonant frequency drift. In step 603, the frequency of oscillator 201 is incremented by a predetermined amount in the direction indicated by the present sign while power control circuitry 207 monitors the power Ps to ion trap 104. In step 604, a test is done to determine if the power Ps is increasing. If the result of the test is YES, the sign signifying the frequency change direction is switched to the alternate sign. A branch is then taken back to step 603. If the result of the test in step 604 is NO, then the present sign is kept as is and a branch is taken back to step 603. In this manner, the frequency of oscillator 201 is dithered back and forth to keep the power to ion trap 104 at a minimum value.

[0036] FIG 7 illustrates a flow diagram of steps executed in power control circuitry 207 and used in step 802 while searching for a resonant operating frequency. In step 701, RF source 201 is set to a low programmable frequency within a programmable frequency range. The frequency range is determined based on the successful operating frequency range of the ion trap or mass filter and is minimized to reduce search time. The amplitude of this signal is held constant and is set low enough so as not to cause excessive power draw or heating at frequencies that are significantly far from the resonant frequency. In step 702, coarse values are outputted to increasingly scan the frequency of the oscillator in increments. This value is given a variable indicator Fi. In step 703, current to circuitry 109 is monitored to determine the power Ps to drive ion trap 104. In step 704, a test is done to determine if the power to the ion trap 104 has increased more than a predetermined amount. If the result of the test in step 704 is NO, then a branch is taken back to step 702. If the result of the test in step 704 is YES, then a branch is taken to step 705 where the current Fi is saved and the frequency is decreased in fine increments over the frequency range Fi to Fi-2. In step 705, fine values of adjusting the frequency of oscillator are outputted to decrease the frequency of the oscillator over the range Fi (last coarse frequency step) to Fi-2 which encompasses the last three outputted coarse frequency steps. In step 706, the resonant frequency Fn is selected as the resonant frequency corresponding to the minimum power found while scanning over the frequency range Fi to Fi-2. A
branch is then taken back to step 803 (see FIG 8).

[0037] Amplifier 204 has two power supply inputs that supply the power to amplifier 204, one for a positive voltage 216 and one for a negative voltage 217. A
small resistor (current shunt resistor) may be placed in line with the positive power supply pin 216 (see circuitry 208 in FIG 2). Any current flowing into this power supply input will flow through this resistor. Since the resistance of this resistor in ohms is known, the current that flows through this resistor is known by measuring the voltage drop across this resistor (V=I*R). When the voltage drop across this resistor is a minimum, the current flowing through the power supply pin is also at a minimum, and therefore the power used by amplifier 204 is at a minimum. At the resonant frequency of the circuit, the current input to amplifier 204 drops significantly. The system sweeps through the full frequency range of the system prior to operation in order to find this resonant frequency (by monitoring the voltage across the current shunt resistor as the frequency is scanned). The voltage across the current shunt resistor may be amplified by a current shunt amplifier component and fed to an analog-to-digital converter. The digital output of the analog-to-digital converter may be fed to a microprocessing element, such as within power control circuitry 207. The system monitors the current into one of the bipolar power supplies, instead of measuring the output voltage directly. This provides a more accurate value for the true resonant frequency, and removes the need to rectify the signal, use a peak detector, or to perform an RMS
conversion to determine amplitude.

[0038] FIG 8 illustrates a flow diagram of general steps executed in power control circuitry 207 while operating circuitry 109 of FIG 2. In step 801, mass spectrometer 100 is powered ON with a reset. In step 802, a search mode is started where the frequency of RF
source 201 is adjusted to determine a resonant frequency with minimum power to drive exemplary ion trap 104 (e.g., see FIG 7). In step 803, mass spectrometer system 100 is operated with the determined resonant frequency. In step 804, optional frequency tracking is started during system operation to keep the operating frequency at a minimum power to drive the ion trap 104 in response changes in the resonant point of the ion trap and associated circuitry (e.g., see FIG 6).

[0039] FIG 9 illustrates an exemplary plot of frequency versus power to drive ion trap 104 in accordance with embodiments of the present invention. The start scan frequency Fi is shown along with the resonant frequency Fn. Fn coincides with the minimum power consumption point for amplifier 204. The continued power drop as frequency continues to increase beyond Fn is due to the bandwidth limitations of amplifier 204.

[0040] Embodiments described herein operate to reduce the power and size of a mass spectrometer so that the mass spectrometer system may become a component in other systems that previously could not use such a unit because of cost and the size of conventional units. For example, mini-mass spectrometer 100 may be placed in a hazard site to analyze gases and remotely send back a report of conditions presenting danger to personnel. Mini-mass spectrometer 100 using embodiments herein may be placed at strategic positions on air transport to test the environment for hazardous gases that may be an indication of malfunction or even a terrorist threat. The present invention has anticipated the value in reducing the size and power required to make a functioning mass spectrometer so that its operation may be used in places and in applications not normally considered for such a device.

[0041] A number of embodiments of the invention have been described.
Nevertheless, it will be understood that various modifications may be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention.

Claims (15)

1. A system for driving a mass spectrometer ion trap or mass filter, comprising:
a frequency and amplitude programmable RF generator producing an RF signal;
an RF gain stage receiving the RF signal and generating an amplified RF
signal;
sense circuitry generating a sense signal proportional to a power supply current delivered to the RF gain stage;
a transformer having a primary coupled to an output of the RF gain stage and a secondary coupled to form a tank circuit with a capacitance of the mass spectrometer ion trap or mass filter, and power control circuitry receiving the sense signal and generating a feedback control signal to the RF generator that adjusts a frequency of the RF signal to decrease the power supply current required by the RF gain stage.

2. The system of claim 1, wherein the sense circuitry comprises:
a current sense resistor in series with a power supply input to the RF gain stage; and a differential amplifier having a positive input coupled to one terminal of the resistor and a negative input coupled to a second terminal of the resistor, wherein the differential amplifier generates an output signal proportional to power supplied to the RF gain stage.

3. The system of claim 2, wherein the programmable RF generator comprises a phase locked loop (PLL) circuit with a programmable frequency divider circuit.

4. The system of claim 3, wherein the programmable frequency divider circuit is digitally programmable.

5. The system of claim 4, further comprising an analog to digital (A/D) converter for converting an output voltage of the differential amplifier to a digital feedback signal.

6. The system of claim 1, wherein the transformer is a step up transformer with a secondary inductance that forms a resonance circuit with a capacitance of the mass spectrometer ion trap or mass filter.

7. The system of claim 1, wherein the RF generator is coupled to the RF gain stage with a filter circuit.

8. The system of claim 1, wherein the output of the RF gain stage includes a filter circuit.

9. The system of claim 8, wherein the filter circuit includes a series capacitor.

10. The system of claim 8, wherein the filter circuit includes a series resistor.

11. The system of claim 1, wherein a gain of the RF gain stage is set by a ratio of resistances.

12. The system of claim 1, further comprising a variable capacitor in parallel with the mass spectrometer ion trap or mass filter configured for tuning the mass spectrometer ion trap or mass filter to a particular operating frequency range.

13. The system of claim 1, wherein the RF gain stage comprises an operational amplifier having bipolar power supply inputs and configured to generate the amplified RF
signal.

14. A method of operating a mass spectrometer ion trap or mass filter, the method comprising:
driving the mass spectrometer ion trap or mass filter with a signal, wherein driving circuitry comprises an RF gain stage coupled to the mass spectrometer ion trap or mass filter via a transformer, and wherein an RF generator is coupled to an input of the RF
gain stage;
monitoring a power level supplied to the RF gain stage while driving the mass spectrometer ion trap or mass filter and generating a feedback signal proportional to the power level; and coupling the feedback signal to adjust a frequency of the RF generator output to decrease the power level required by the RF gain stage when driving the mass spectrometer ion trap or mass filter.

15. The method of claim 14, wherein the RF gain stage comprises an operational amplifier having a bipolar power supply input coupled to a current shunt resistor, and wherein monitoring the power level supplied to the RF gain stage comprises monitoring a voltage across the current shunt resistor.