EP0145811A1 - Process and apparatus for continuous casting - Google Patents
Process and apparatus for continuous casting Download PDFInfo
- Publication number
- EP0145811A1 EP0145811A1 EP83112849A EP83112849A EP0145811A1 EP 0145811 A1 EP0145811 A1 EP 0145811A1 EP 83112849 A EP83112849 A EP 83112849A EP 83112849 A EP83112849 A EP 83112849A EP 0145811 A1 EP0145811 A1 EP 0145811A1
- Authority
- EP
- European Patent Office
- Prior art keywords
- moulding cavity
- zone
- side dams
- cooling fluid
- moving
- Prior art date
- Legal status (The legal status is an assumption and is not a legal conclusion. Google has not performed a legal analysis and makes no representation as to the accuracy of the status listed.)
- Granted
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Classifications
-
- B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
- B22—CASTING; POWDER METALLURGY
- B22D—CASTING OF METALS; CASTING OF OTHER SUBSTANCES BY THE SAME PROCESSES OR DEVICES
- B22D11/00—Continuous casting of metals, i.e. casting in indefinite lengths
- B22D11/06—Continuous casting of metals, i.e. casting in indefinite lengths into moulds with travelling walls, e.g. with rolls, plates, belts, caterpillars
- B22D11/0637—Accessories therefor
- B22D11/068—Accessories therefor for cooling the cast product during its passage through the mould surfaces
- B22D11/0691—Accessories therefor for cooling the cast product during its passage through the mould surfaces by cooling the side dams
Definitions
- the moulding cavity is formed by means of moving walls, the lower wall being formed by the upper run of a lower endless flexible belt, the upper wall being formed by the lower run of an upper endless flexible bet, and the side walls being formed by a pair of spaced endless side dams, that move with the belts along the opposite sides of the moulding cavity from the inlet (or entrance) to the outlet (or exit) thereof and that are guided by guide means during their movement along the moulding cavity.
- the lower wall and the upper wall are cooled by contact with a cooling liquid on their respective reverse surfaces. That is, the cooling liquid is applied to the lower surface of the upper run of the lower belt, and the cooling liquid is also applied to the upper surface of the lower run of the upper belt.
- Molten metal is fed in at the entrance of the moulding cavity, and a cast product is delivered at the outlet of the moulding cavity.
- the side dams pass during their movement along the moulding cavity successively through a first zone, in which they face molten metal and through a second zone located downstream from the first zone in which they face solidified metal.
- the aim of the present invention is to provide a process and apparatus that avoid the drawbacks of the above-known process and apparatus.
- a cooling fluid is circulated in at least a part of the fixed guides and this cooling fluid is sprayed through the fixed guides directly onto the moving side dams in at least a part of the aforesaid second zone in which the moving side dams face solidified metal.
- the present invention relates to apparatus for continuous casting comprising a moulding cavity formed by means of moving walls, the lower wall being formed by the upper run of a lower endless belt, the upper wall being formed by the lower run of an upper endless belt, and the side walls being formed by a pair of endless side dams, that are adapted to move with the belts along the opposite sides of the moulding cavity from the inlet to the outlet thereof, fixed guides to guide the side dams during their movement along the moulding cavity, means for spraying a cooling liquid on the reverse surfaces of the lower wall and upper wall, and a first zone, in which the side dams face liquid metal when the apparatus is running, and a second zone, in which the side dams face solidified metal when the apparatus is running, characterized in that the fixed guides are adapted to be cooled over at least a part of their length by circulation of a cooling fluid and they comprise means for spraying cooling fluid directly onto the moving side dams in at least a part of the aforesaid second zone.
- the cooling fluid is advantageously sprayed directly toward the respective side dam for providing a very effective cooling action on the side dam as it is moving along the moulding cavity in the second zone facing the recently solidified metal, and the cooling fluid is aimed in a downstream direction for propelling the cooling fluid downstream away from the first zone in which the moving side dams face molten metal.
- the apparatus shown in Figs. 1 to 3 comprises an upper moving endless belt 1 and a lower moving endless belt 2.
- the upper belt 1 passes around rolls 3 and 4, and the lower belt 2 passes around rolls 5. and 6.
- Rolls 3 and 5 are driven in the direction indicated by arrows 10 and 11 and consequently drive belts 1 and 2 in the direction of arrows 9 and rolls 4 and 6 in the direction of arrows 7 and 8.
- Two moving endless side dams 12 and 13 are located partly between the lower run of the upper belt 1 and the upper run of the lower belt 2.
- the side dams 12 and 13 delimit with upper belt 1 and with the lower belt 2 a moulding cavity 14 between an inlet or entrance 15 and an outlet or exit 16. The movement of belts 1 and 2 causes the side dams 12 and 13 to move.
- the side dams 12 and 13 move thus with belts 1 and 2 in the direction of arrows 9 from inlet 15 to outlet 16 of the moulding cavity 14.
- the side dams 12 and 13 are formed by a metal strap 17 and by a large number of metal blocks 18 strung on this strap.
- the side dams 12 and 13 are guided by fixed guides 19 and 20 in order to avoid their sidewards movement toward the outside which would make the profile of the cast product irregular.
- the construction of fixed guides 19 and 20 will be described and more detailed further on.
- the casting apparatus is supplied with molten metal by conventional metal feeding apparatus (not shown) feeding the moulding cavity 14 with molten metal.
- This feeding apparatus is located at inlet 15 of the moulding zone between side dams 12 and 13.
- the metal is cooled in the moulding cavity 14 on the one hand by spraying a cooling liquid on the reverse surfaces of belts 1 and 2, respectively, as schematically illustrated at 21 and 22, as detailed in the aforesaid U.S. Patent No. 3,036,348, and on the other hand by spraying a cooling liquid on side dams 12 and 13, as will be described further on.
- the cast product issues in the shape of a strip or bar, that is either entirely solidified or is composed of a solidified metal sheath or skin enclosing a liquid metal core.
- This strip or bar is determined by the distance between belts 1 and 2,and the width by the distance between the side dams 12 and 13.
- Second zone a first zone
- zone A a second zone
- zone B a second zone
- the length of the first zone A depends on a number of factors such as the nature and temperature of the cast metal, the section that is cast, the inclination of the moulding cavity, the nature of the walls of the moulding cavity, the intensity of the applied cooling, the casting speed, etc.
- This length of zone A can be computed for each case in particular. Normally the length of zone A is in the range from approximately 3/10ths to approximately 1/2 of the overall length of the moulding cavity 14.
- the casting operation is carried out under such conditions that this length of zone A amounts to about three to four tenths of the length of the moulding cavity, which means that the second zone B normally extends over at least the second half of the moulding cavity 14, and preferably extends over approximately 6/10ths to approximately 7/10ths of the total length of the moulding cavity.
- the Rolls 5 and 6 as well as/cooling system 22 of the lower belt 2 are mounted on a lower frame 23, and rolls 3 and 4 and the cooling system 21 of the upper belt 1, on the upper frame 24.
- the lower frame 23 and the upper frame 24 are spaced by a certain number of spacers 25, passing through two tightening or adjusting elements 26 und 27 and serving for keeping these elements in position.
- spacers 25, tightening elements 26 and 27, and regulating rods 28 are not shown in Fig. 1.
- FIG. 1 Figures 4 to 6 give a detailed view of the construction of the guide 19.
- This guide 19 is essentially composed of the following elements: a U-section 29; a flat section 30 welded at 31 to the legs of the U-section 29; a rectangular section 32 fixed by screws 33 (Fig.
- the openings 43 are each directed at an acute angle C towards the downstream moving direction 9 of the side dams 12 and 13, preferably at an angle C of approximately 20° to approximately 50°.
- a cooling fluid preferably such as water
- a cooling fluid is introduced through the supply opening 42 in cavity 40, from where it sprays out through the openings or orifices 43 in the direction of side dam 12, thereby being directly applied onto the moving side dam 12 along at least a portion of the second zone B of the moulding cavity 14.
- the fixed guide 19 as shown in Fig. 6 thus comprises a first upstream part, that is not adapted to spray cooling fluid on side dam 12 and that extends over at least zone A, and a second downstream part, that is adapted to spray cooling fluid on side dam 12 and that extends over at least a part of zone B.
- first upstream part that is not adapted to spray cooling fluid on side dam 12 and that extends over at least zone A
- second downstream part that is adapted to spray cooling fluid on side dam 12 and that extends over at least a part of zone B.
- both parts are shown as having almost the same length.
- the other guide 20 is constructed like the guide 19, except it is a mirror image of the guide 19.
- the U-section 34 of the guide 19 defines a channel, as seen in Fig. 3, adjacent to the outside surface of the side dam 12.
- the corresponding U-section of the other guide 20 defines a channel adjacent to the outside surface of the other side dam 13.
- the spray openings 43 are aimed toward the outside surfaces of the respective side dams 12,13 along these channels. These channels are open at their downstream ends, as seen in Fig. 6, for allowing the cooling fluid which has been applied to the side dams to escape near the outlet or exit 16 (Fig.1).
- the downstream angle C of the multiple spray openings 43 propels the cooling fluid in a downstream direction toward the open end of this channel as shown by the arrow 45 in Fig. 6.
Abstract
Description
- In a twin-belt casting machine the moulding cavity is formed by means of moving walls, the lower wall being formed by the upper run of a lower endless flexible belt, the upper wall being formed by the lower run of an upper endless flexible bet, and the side walls being formed by a pair of spaced endless side dams, that move with the belts along the opposite sides of the moulding cavity from the inlet (or entrance) to the outlet (or exit) thereof and that are guided by guide means during their movement along the moulding cavity. The lower wall and the upper wall are cooled by contact with a cooling liquid on their respective reverse surfaces. That is, the cooling liquid is applied to the lower surface of the upper run of the lower belt, and the cooling liquid is also applied to the upper surface of the lower run of the upper belt. Molten metal is fed in at the entrance of the moulding cavity, and a cast product is delivered at the outlet of the moulding cavity. Thus, the side dams pass during their movement along the moulding cavity successively through a first zone, in which they face molten metal and through a second zone located downstream from the first zone in which they face solidified metal.
- Such a process and apparatus are described in United States Patent No. 3,036,348. In this known process and apparatus, there is a fixed guide in the form of a guide bar extending for a substantial distance along the outer face of each side dam. This guide bar extends from the inlet towards the outlet of the moulding cavity and, during their movement along the moulding cavity, the side dams are only cooled by the contact of their upper and lower faces with the belts. As shown in Fig. 10 of that U.S. patent and as described in
column 10, lines 60-70 therein, it is known in the twin-belt casting machine art to provide a longitudinal passageway in each stationary dam which rests on top of the respective moving side dam adjacent to the pool of molten metal near the entrance to the moulding cavity and to feed liquid coolant through such passageways for cooling the stationary side dams. It is also known in the twin-belt casting machine art to provide a longitudinal passageway in each guide bar and to feed liquid coolant through such a passageway for cooling the guide bar. - However, such guide bars and such stationary edge dams are stationary. Prior to the present invention, the moving side dams have only been cooled by the contact of their upper and lower surfaces with the belts. Relatively insignificant cooling is provided from such a stationary side dam or from such a stationary guide bar. Consequently, in the known process and apparatus relatively few calories are carried off from the moving side dams as they move along opposite sides of the moulding cavity. Thus, the moving side dams become heated to a relatively high temperature during their movement along the moulding cavity. Such repeated high temperature heating influences in an unfavorable way the lifetime of these side dams. This high temperature heating of the side dams also imposes limitations on the casting speed, especially when rather thick products are cast, for example, products with a thickness of five or more centimetres.
- The aim of the present invention is to provide a process and apparatus that avoid the drawbacks of the above-known process and apparatus.
- According to the present invention, a cooling fluid is circulated in at least a part of the fixed guides and this cooling fluid is sprayed through the fixed guides directly onto the moving side dams in at least a part of the aforesaid second zone in which the moving side dams face solidified metal.
- The present invention relates to apparatus for continuous casting comprising a moulding cavity formed by means of moving walls, the lower wall being formed by the upper run of a lower endless belt, the upper wall being formed by the lower run of an upper endless belt, and the side walls being formed by a pair of endless side dams, that are adapted to move with the belts along the opposite sides of the moulding cavity from the inlet to the outlet thereof, fixed guides to guide the side dams during their movement along the moulding cavity, means for spraying a cooling liquid on the reverse surfaces of the lower wall and upper wall, and a first zone, in which the side dams face liquid metal when the apparatus is running, and a second zone, in which the side dams face solidified metal when the apparatus is running, characterized in that the fixed guides are adapted to be cooled over at least a part of their length by circulation of a cooling fluid and they comprise means for spraying cooling fluid directly onto the moving side dams in at least a part of the aforesaid second zone.
- In the illustrative embodiment of the invention, as shown, the cooling fluid is advantageously sprayed directly toward the respective side dam for providing a very effective cooling action on the side dam as it is moving along the moulding cavity in the second zone facing the recently solidified metal, and the cooling fluid is aimed in a downstream direction for propelling the cooling fluid downstream away from the first zone in which the moving side dams face molten metal.
- Other details and characteristics of the invention will result from the description of an embodiment of the process and apparatus according to the invention, given hereafter as a non-restrictive example and with reference to the accompanying drawings.
-
- Fig. 1 - is a schematic elevational lateral view of a twin-belt continuous casting apparatus according to the invention.
- Fig. 2 - represents an enlarged section through the apparatus of Fig. 1 made along line II-II of Fig. 1.
- Fig. 3 - represents an enlarged section through the apparatus of Fig. 1 made along line III-III of Fig. 1.
- Fig. 4 - is an enlarged and more detailed view of part of Fig. 2.
- Fig. 5 - is an enlarged and more detailed view of part of Fig. 3.
- Fig. 6 - represents an enlarged horizontal section through a fixed guide of the apparatus of Fig. 1.
- The same reference notations indicate identical elements in the different figures.
- The apparatus shown in Figs. 1 to 3 comprises an upper moving
endless belt 1 and a lower movingendless belt 2. Theupper belt 1 passes aroundrolls 3 and 4, and thelower belt 2 passes aroundrolls 5. and 6.Rolls arrows belts arrows 9 and rolls 4 and 6 in the direction of arrows 7 and 8. Two movingendless side dams upper belt 1 and the upper run of thelower belt 2. Theside dams upper belt 1 and with the lower belt 2 amoulding cavity 14 between an inlet orentrance 15 and an outlet orexit 16. The movement ofbelts side dams belts arrows 9 frominlet 15 tooutlet 16 of themoulding cavity 14. Theside dams metal strap 17 and by a large number ofmetal blocks 18 strung on this strap. When moving along themoulding cavity 14, theside dams fixed guides fixed guides - The casting apparatus is supplied with molten metal by conventional metal feeding apparatus (not shown) feeding the
moulding cavity 14 with molten metal. This feeding apparatus is located atinlet 15 of the moulding zone betweenside dams - The metal is cooled in the
moulding cavity 14 on the one hand by spraying a cooling liquid on the reverse surfaces ofbelts side dams - At
outlet 16 ofmoulding cavity 14 the cast product issues in the shape of a strip or bar, that is either entirely solidified or is composed of a solidified metal sheath or skin enclosing a liquid metal core. - The thickness of this strip or bar is determined by the distance between
belts side dams -
Side dams moulding cavity 14, successively through a first zone, for example, zone A, in which they face molten metal and through a second zone, for example, zone B, in which they face solidified metal. The length of the first zone A depends on a number of factors such as the nature and temperature of the cast metal, the section that is cast, the inclination of the moulding cavity, the nature of the walls of the moulding cavity, the intensity of the applied cooling, the casting speed, etc. This length of zone A can be computed for each case in particular. Normally the length of zone A is in the range from approximately 3/10ths to approximately 1/2 of the overall length of themoulding cavity 14. Preferably, the casting operation is carried out under such conditions that this length of zone A amounts to about three to four tenths of the length of the moulding cavity, which means that the second zone B normally extends over at least the second half of themoulding cavity 14, and preferably extends over approximately 6/10ths to approximately 7/10ths of the total length of the moulding cavity. - the Rolls 5 and 6 as well as/
cooling system 22 of thelower belt 2 are mounted on alower frame 23, and rolls 3 and 4 and thecooling system 21 of theupper belt 1, on theupper frame 24. Thelower frame 23 and theupper frame 24 are spaced by a certain number ofspacers 25, passing through two tightening or adjustingelements 26 und 27 and serving for keeping these elements in position.Rods 28, which enable the adjustment of the position of thefixed guides tightening elements illustration frames spacers 25, tighteningelements rods 28 are not shown in Fig. 1. - Figures 4 to 6 give a detailed view of the construction of the
guide 19. Thisguide 19 is essentially composed of the following elements: aU-section 29; aflat section 30 welded at 31 to the legs of theU-section 29; arectangular section 32 fixed by screws 33 (Fig. 6) to theflat section 30 on the end portion of theguide 19 nearer theinlet 15 of themoulding cavity 14; aU-section 34 fixed byscrews 35 to theflat section 30 on the end portion of theguide 19 nearer theoutlet 16 of themoulding cavity 14; aplate 36closing section 29 on the upstream end of theguide 19 located near to theinlet 15; aplate 37closing section 29 on the downstream end of theguide 19 located near to theoutlet 16; awall 38 separating acavity 39 ofsection 29, that facessection 32, from acavity 40 ofsection 29, that facessection 34; and alug 41 to attach the guide to thelower frame 23. Moreover, there is a fluid supply port or opening 42 provided in thedownstream end plate 37 and a series offluid spray openings 43 provided in the wall formed by the juxtaposition ofsection 34 andflat section 30. Seen frominlet 15 ofmoulding cavity 14, theopenings 43 are each directed at an acute angle C towards the downstream movingdirection 9 of theside dams - When the casting apparatus is in operation, a cooling fluid, preferably such as water, is introduced through the supply opening 42 in
cavity 40, from where it sprays out through the openings ororifices 43 in the direction ofside dam 12, thereby being directly applied onto the movingside dam 12 along at least a portion of the second zone B of themoulding cavity 14. By virtue of the fact that the fluid spray openings ororifices 43 are directed downstream at the angle C, the fluid is propelled in a downstream direction away from the first zone A in which the side dam faces molten metal. - The
fixed guide 19 as shown in Fig. 6 thus comprises a first upstream part, that is not adapted to spray cooling fluid onside dam 12 and that extends over at least zone A, and a second downstream part, that is adapted to spray cooling fluid onside dam 12 and that extends over at least a part of zone B. In the illustrative example both parts are shown as having almost the same length. - It is to be understood that a cooling liquid such as water must not be sprayed on the moving
side dam 12 in zone A, where the side dam still faces liquid metal, since the water might reach this liquid metal, thereby causing the explosively sudden disruptive generation of steam. In order to obtain the most effective cooling of the movingedge dam 12, it is desired that the portion of the length of the zone B along which the liquid coolant is directly applied to the moving edge dam by thespray opening 43 in theguide 19 preferably be as large as possible. Thus, it is quite important that, in the application of the process and apparatus of this invention, there be an effective control of the liquid metal level atinlet 15 of themoulding cavity 14 for controlling the length of the first zone A for preventing the zone A from extending downstream beyond a predetermined limit 44. As shown in Fig. 6, said predetermined limit 44 is always located upstream from the most upstream one of thespray openings 43. Such control can be made by the process and apparatus described in U.S. Patent No. 4,276,921. - It is to be understood that the
other guide 20 is constructed like theguide 19, except it is a mirror image of theguide 19. - The
U-section 34 of theguide 19 defines a channel, as seen in Fig. 3, adjacent to the outside surface of theside dam 12. Similarly, the corresponding U-section of theother guide 20 defines a channel adjacent to the outside surface of theother side dam 13. Thespray openings 43 are aimed toward the outside surfaces of therespective side dams multiple spray openings 43 propels the cooling fluid in a downstream direction toward the open end of this channel as shown by thearrow 45 in Fig. 6. - Moreover, it is to be understood that numerous variants of the afore-described
guide 19 can be used in the process and apparatus of this invention. So, for example, it is possible to include such modifications as the following: Eliminate thewall 38 so that the cooling fluid might also circulate in thecavity 39. Eliminate thewall 38 and provide in theend plate 36 an outlet opening, with a small diameter (smaller than the size of the supply port 42), for the cooling fluid circulating incavity 39 to exit. Eliminate thewall 38 and the opening 42 and provide in the end plate 36 a supply opening for the introduction of the cooling fluid. Replacesection 32 by a hollow section and make the cooling fluid circulate in the cavity of this section, etc. - It should be noted that when casting a copper bar with a thickness of 70 mm and a width of 130 mm, the direct cooling of the side dams in zone B through the fixed guides, as shown in Figs. 4 to 6, advantageously allowed the casting speed to be increased by approximately 10%; in other words, the tonnage production per hour of such copper bar was increased by approximately 10%.
Claims (17)
Priority Applications (3)
Application Number | Priority Date | Filing Date | Title |
---|---|---|---|
EP19830112849 EP0145811B1 (en) | 1983-12-20 | 1983-12-20 | Process and apparatus for continuous casting |
DE8383112849T DE3380661D1 (en) | 1983-12-20 | 1983-12-20 | Process and apparatus for continuous casting |
DE1983112849 DE145811T1 (en) | 1983-12-20 | 1983-12-20 | METHOD AND DEVICE FOR CONTINUOUS CASTING. |
Applications Claiming Priority (1)
Application Number | Priority Date | Filing Date | Title |
---|---|---|---|
EP19830112849 EP0145811B1 (en) | 1983-12-20 | 1983-12-20 | Process and apparatus for continuous casting |
Publications (2)
Publication Number | Publication Date |
---|---|
EP0145811A1 true EP0145811A1 (en) | 1985-06-26 |
EP0145811B1 EP0145811B1 (en) | 1989-10-04 |
Family
ID=8190895
Family Applications (1)
Application Number | Title | Priority Date | Filing Date |
---|---|---|---|
EP19830112849 Expired EP0145811B1 (en) | 1983-12-20 | 1983-12-20 | Process and apparatus for continuous casting |
Country Status (2)
Country | Link |
---|---|
EP (1) | EP0145811B1 (en) |
DE (2) | DE3380661D1 (en) |
Cited By (2)
Publication number | Priority date | Publication date | Assignee | Title |
---|---|---|---|---|
GB2366531A (en) * | 2000-09-11 | 2002-03-13 | Daido Metal Co | Continuous casting of aluminiun bearing alloy including cooli ng |
DE102011078654A1 (en) | 2011-07-05 | 2013-01-10 | Sms Siemag Ag | Device for side sealing of a casting plant |
Families Citing this family (1)
Publication number | Priority date | Publication date | Assignee | Title |
---|---|---|---|---|
DE19511493C2 (en) * | 1995-03-29 | 1998-05-14 | Achim Wolfgang Dipl Ing Kubon | Method and device for casting near-net-like strips of metals, alloys and other materials |
Citations (2)
Publication number | Priority date | Publication date | Assignee | Title |
---|---|---|---|---|
US3036348A (en) * | 1958-03-17 | 1962-05-29 | Hazelett Strip Casting Corp | Metal casting methods and apparatus |
LU80647A1 (en) * | 1978-12-13 | 1979-11-07 | Metallurgie Hoboken | CONTINUOUS CASTING MACHINE FOR LIQUID METALS |
-
1983
- 1983-12-20 DE DE8383112849T patent/DE3380661D1/en not_active Expired
- 1983-12-20 DE DE1983112849 patent/DE145811T1/en active Pending
- 1983-12-20 EP EP19830112849 patent/EP0145811B1/en not_active Expired
Patent Citations (2)
Publication number | Priority date | Publication date | Assignee | Title |
---|---|---|---|---|
US3036348A (en) * | 1958-03-17 | 1962-05-29 | Hazelett Strip Casting Corp | Metal casting methods and apparatus |
LU80647A1 (en) * | 1978-12-13 | 1979-11-07 | Metallurgie Hoboken | CONTINUOUS CASTING MACHINE FOR LIQUID METALS |
Cited By (4)
Publication number | Priority date | Publication date | Assignee | Title |
---|---|---|---|---|
GB2366531A (en) * | 2000-09-11 | 2002-03-13 | Daido Metal Co | Continuous casting of aluminiun bearing alloy including cooli ng |
US6471796B1 (en) | 2000-09-11 | 2002-10-29 | Daido Metal Company Ltd. | Method and apparatus for continuous casting of aluminum bearing alloy |
GB2366531B (en) * | 2000-09-11 | 2004-08-11 | Daido Metal Co | Method and apparatus for continuous casting of aluminum bearing alloy |
DE102011078654A1 (en) | 2011-07-05 | 2013-01-10 | Sms Siemag Ag | Device for side sealing of a casting plant |
Also Published As
Publication number | Publication date |
---|---|
DE145811T1 (en) | 1986-05-22 |
DE3380661D1 (en) | 1989-11-09 |
EP0145811B1 (en) | 1989-10-04 |
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