WO2000037718A1 - Electrode array for development and testing of materials - Google Patents
Electrode array for development and testing of materials Download PDFInfo
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- WO2000037718A1 WO2000037718A1 PCT/US1999/030812 US9930812W WO0037718A1 WO 2000037718 A1 WO2000037718 A1 WO 2000037718A1 US 9930812 W US9930812 W US 9930812W WO 0037718 A1 WO0037718 A1 WO 0037718A1
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- electrodes
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- B—PERFORMING OPERATIONS; TRANSPORTING
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- B82Y30/00—Nanotechnology for materials or surface science, e.g. nanocomposites
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- B01—PHYSICAL OR CHEMICAL PROCESSES OR APPARATUS IN GENERAL
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- B01J19/00—Chemical, physical or physico-chemical processes in general; Their relevant apparatus
- B01J19/0046—Sequential or parallel reactions, e.g. for the synthesis of polypeptides or polynucleotides; Apparatus and devices for combinatorial chemistry or for making molecular arrays
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- H—ELECTRICITY
- H01—ELECTRIC ELEMENTS
- H01M—PROCESSES OR MEANS, e.g. BATTERIES, FOR THE DIRECT CONVERSION OF CHEMICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
- H01M4/00—Electrodes
- H01M4/86—Inert electrodes with catalytic activity, e.g. for fuel cells
- H01M4/88—Processes of manufacture
- H01M4/8825—Methods for deposition of the catalytic active composition
- H01M4/8853—Electrodeposition
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- H01M4/00—Electrodes
- H01M4/86—Inert electrodes with catalytic activity, e.g. for fuel cells
- H01M4/90—Selection of catalytic material
- H01M4/92—Metals of platinum group
- H01M4/921—Alloys or mixtures with metallic elements
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- C40B50/00—Methods of creating libraries, e.g. combinatorial synthesis
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- C40—COMBINATORIAL TECHNOLOGY
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- Y—GENERAL TAGGING OF NEW TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENTS; GENERAL TAGGING OF CROSS-SECTIONAL TECHNOLOGIES SPANNING OVER SEVERAL SECTIONS OF THE IPC; TECHNICAL SUBJECTS COVERED BY FORMER USPC CROSS-REFERENCE ART COLLECTIONS [XRACs] AND DIGESTS
- Y02—TECHNOLOGIES OR APPLICATIONS FOR MITIGATION OR ADAPTATION AGAINST CLIMATE CHANGE
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- Y02E60/00—Enabling technologies; Technologies with a potential or indirect contribution to GHG emissions mitigation
- Y02E60/30—Hydrogen technology
- Y02E60/50—Fuel cells
Definitions
- the present invention generally relates to methods and apparatus for the high rate deposition, synthesis and/or analysis of materials on an array of electrodes, and the desired materials developed from the methods. More specifically, the invention is directed to methods of high rate synthesis and/or analysis of an array of materials wherein deposition control techniques in conjunction with the electrode array are employed to develop a meaningful array of materials and to analyze the materials for a desired characteristic to develop one or more materials with the desired characteristics.
- Combinatorial methods represent a new set of experimental tools that are well suited to explore systems comprised of a very large number of variable compositions.
- Chem. Rev. 1997, 97(2) where such large number of variable compositions are commonplace.
- a great many different chemical structures need to be examined to find structural motifs, amino acid sequences (e.g. in bioactive polypeptides), or other molecular characteristics that exhibit the desired effect.
- the key to success in these efforts has been to exploit the power of combinatorial methods both for doing chemical reactions and for examining the efficacy of the resulting compounds, all in a parallel or high-speed serial fashion.
- the range of types of synthetic schemes and the systems to which they have been applied is typified by the articles in Chemical Reviews theme issue (Chem. Rev. 1997, 97(2)).
- Electrodes An electrode's oxidation and reduction capabilities have led to the use of electrodes performing an essential step in synthesizing materials.
- One of the earliest description of using electrodes in combinatorial synthesis is by Fodor et al. (U.S. Patent No. 5,424,186).
- Microelectrodes are used to remove protecting groups in the synthesis of organic molecules. Fodor et al. position an electrode over the protecting group to activate the desired deprotection step. Because of an electrode's versatility and control, the use of an array of electrodes in synthesis and analysis of materials is forthcoming.
- McFarland et al. in WO98/14641, attempt to alleviate the need for a high number of solutions or additions to solution by using a variety of potentials at different electrodes to attempt to adjust the deposition of certain components in the solutions to vary the compositions at the electrodes electronically. While this method may result in a desired library of compositions, the compositions are affected by the method used to deposit and any meaningful analysis or screening is adversely affected by the morphology of the compositions.
- McFarland et al. discuss how multiple samples of varying composition can be prepared from solutions carrying various metal salts. However, they do not take the necessary steps to produce controllable morphology during the deposition or to maintain the composition of the samples after the deposition.
- the present invention provides methods and apparatus for the high rate deposition, synthesis and/ or analysis of materials of various compositions onto an array of electrodes, and the materials developed from the methods.
- the present invention provides methods of high rate synthesis and/or analysis of an array of materials wherein deposition control techniques in conjunction with the electrode array are employed to develop a meaningful array of materials wherein the array of materials may be analyzed for desired characteristics to develop one or more materials with the desired characteristics.
- an array of electrodes is employed.
- the array allows the control necessary for high-throughput synthesis of new materials.
- the array uses a conducting material to contact two or more discrete conducting regions to produce two or more electronically- discrete electrodes.
- the array has two or more electronically-discrete electrodes which are addressable individually or collectively, in serial or in parallel, using electronic, optical, or mechanical means, via passive or active, internal or external circuitry.
- the use of the array of electrodes is preferably by addressing the discrete electrodes individually AND collectively.
- the electrodes provide an electrical potential or electrical current to initiate deposition of a desired composition at the electrode.
- the electrodes are controlled by means that allow a predetermined composition to be deposited at a known electrode.
- the electrode array consists of two or more electronically-discrete electrodes, preferably of twenty or more electronically-discrete electrodes, or, more preferably, of 100 or more electronically- discrete electrodes, or, more preferably, of 1000 or more electronically-discrete electrodes, or, more preferably, of 10,000 or more electronically-discrete electrodes, or, most preferably, of 100,000 or more electronically-discrete electrodes.
- the deposition of materials onto the array of electrodes may be by electrodeposition or co-electrodeposition of one of more elements via reductive or oxidative passage of one or more electrons between the electrodes comprising the array or from some external electrode assembly and the elements, assembly of elements, or chemical or physical assemblies containing the element or elements; electrophoretic deposition of one or more elements via electrostatic interaction between the elements, assembly of elements, or chemical or physical assemblies containing the element or elements and the electrodes comprising the array or from some external electrode assembly; electrochemically-, chemically-, or physically- induced deposition or precipitation of elements, assembly of elements, or chemical or physical assemblies containing the element or elements; or spontaneous precipitation of elements, assembly of elements, or chemical or physical assemblies containing the element or elements.
- Deposition may include the introduction of the electrode array into a solution or mixture of components for deposition.
- the solution or mixture may be introduced to the electrode array.
- the solution or mixture entrains the components for deposition and supplies the components for deposition onto the electrode when the electrode is addressed in some fashion.
- the variation of the deposition components in the solution or mixture is controlled to allow a known composition to be deposited at a known electrode.
- the controlled variation of the deposition components may be achieved by any method wherein the known deposition components are present at the known electrode to deposit the known composition at the electrode.
- Deposition may also employ the use of a counter-electrode and reference electrode or simply a counter electrode.
- the counter-electrode provides current to complete the circuit through the cell.
- the reference electrode provides for control of the potential applied at the electrode in the array of electrodes.
- various deposition control techniques are employed.
- the deposition of materials onto an array of electrodes may lead to varying morphologies amongst the varying materials on the array.
- One discrete material deposited at one discrete electrode may have an extremely rough surface or morphology compared with the other materials deposited at other electrodes.
- the morphologies may vary material to material.
- some desired characteristics are affected by the morphology, and the ability to control morphologies along with other deposition characteristics is highly critical to the analysis of the materials for desired characteristics.
- the control techniques include methods to adjust or control the morphologies of the depositing or deposited materials, methods to protect the deposited materials from further reactions, methods to control the potential at the electrodes where deposition has occurred, methods to control the exchange of reactive species at deposited materials, methods to control the potential at the depositing material, methods to cap or passivate the deposited material, methods to control the current at the electrodes, methods to control the counter-electrode or reference position and other methods to deposit a homogeneous material at discrete electrodes.
- the control techniques and methods are not limited to the deposition process and may include methods to control or adjust the materials after deposition of all materials on the array. These methods may include additional steps before analysis wherein the materials are processed further to ensure a homogeneous composition at each electrode or one or more homogeneous characteristic at each discrete composition location that is suitable for analysis of the desired characteristic sought.
- the methods employed to control the deposition of the materials onto the electrode array include but are not limited to pulse electrodeposition, potential control to avoid exchange reactions, overpotential electrodeposition, the use of kinetically sluggish precursors, the positioning of one or more counter-electrodes or reference electrodes and the use of passivating layers.
- an additional step may be employed to further process the materials for analysis.
- the processing step may occur while the material array is still within contact of the solutions or other components of the deposition step. Processing may include exposure of the array of materials to gaseous, liquid, or solid reactants, controlled heating or cooling of the array of materials, and treatment of the array of materials with electromagnetic radiation of wavelength between 10 *I6 m and lO "8 m. Analysis
- This invention also relates the use of arrays of electrodes as described to analyze materials comprising two or more elements.
- the array of electrodes may be used to synthesize the array of materials, but the array need not be used to synthesize the materials.
- the array of electrodes is used to synthesize and analyze the array of materials.
- Methods used to analyze the array of materials may or may not comprise combinations of one or more methods including, but not limited to electrochemical analysis of materials via the electrodes contained in the array or via some external electrode assembly.
- analysis techniques include electrochemical analysis of the materials using electrochemical methods including but not limited to potentiometry, coulometry, voltammetry, and polarography; analysis of the materials via optical methods including but not limited to infrared, Raman, electronic abso ⁇ tion, fluorescence, phosphorescence, and chemiluminescence spectroscopies, atomic spectroscopy, emission spectroscopy based on plasma, arc, and spark atomization, nephelometry, turbidity, refractometry, polarimetry, rotatory dispersion, and circular dichroism; analysis of the materials via x-ray spectroscopies including, but not limited to, x-ray fluorescence, abso ⁇ tion and diffraction spectroscopies; analysis of the materials via electron spectroscopic methods including, but not limited to, x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, ultraviolet photoelectric spectroscopy, Auger spectroscopy, ion neutralization spectroscopy, electron
- Fig. 1 illustrates a system for high throughput combinatorial synthesis of materials
- Fig. 2 illustrates a cross section of an electrode array
- Fig. 3 illustrates an array of addressable electrodes wherein 99 different compositions are obtained during high-throughput combinatorial synthesis
- Fig. 4 illustrates a control technique of pulse electrodeposition
- Fig. 5 illustrates two potentials in deosition
- Fig. 5 a illustrates the effects of varying the potential while depositing
- Fig. 5b illustrates controlled deposition using ove ⁇ otential
- Fig. 6a illustrates the process of exchange reactions
- Fig 6b illustrates the result of an exchange reaction
- Fig. 7 illustrates the control of potential to reduce exchange reactions
- Figs. 8a-f illustrate the use of passivating layers
- Fig. 9 illustrates the positioning of a counter-electrode and a reference electrode
- Fig. 10 illustrates the effect of controlling deposition by the method illustrated in Fig. 9;
- Fig. 11 illustrates an overview of the positioning of a counter-electrode and a reference electrode
- Fig. 12 illustrates an overview of the effect of controlling deposition by the method illustrated in Fig. 11. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION AND PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS
- control techniques are needed to assist high rates of development and analysis.
- Employing an array of electrodes without appropriate control of deposition and material properties adversely affects any analysis conducted on the material array.
- the result of control techniques in developing an array of materials using electrodes is a meaningful array of materials which may be productively analyzed for desired characteristics.
- the essential elements needed for the high-throughput synthesis and analysis of new materials are depicted in figure 1.
- the system depicted in figure 1 includes a controller 101 that is programmed for operation either manually or by computer 102.
- the controller 101 is connected via wires 103 to the working electrode array 104, the reference electrode(s) 105, and the counter electrode(s) 106.
- the array of electrodes (the "working" electrode array) 104 is immersed in a container or flow cell 107 through which liquid flows.
- the liquid contains precursors to electrodeposition and, in some cases, supporting electrolyte salt.
- the precursors are stored in containers 111.
- the liquid enters the flow cell 107 through one or more inlet holes 108 and leaves the flow cell 107 through one or more outlet holes 109.
- the solution is delivered to the flow cell 107 by pressure from a mechanical or other type of pump (not shown).
- the pump delivers the solution directly to the flow cell 107 or delivers the solution to a mixing chamber 110 which then is pressurized so that solution flows to the flow cell.
- an array of electrodes is employed.
- the array allows the control necessary for high-throughput synthesis of new materials.
- the array uses a conducting material to contact two or more discrete conducting regions to produce two or more electronically- discrete electrodes.
- the array has two or more electronically-discrete electrodes which are addressable individually or collectively, in serial or in parallel, using electronic, optical, or mechanical means, via passive or active, internal or external circuitry.
- the use of the array of electrodes is preferably by addressing the discrete electrodes individually AND collectively.
- the electrodes provide an electrical potential or electrical current to initiate deposition of a desired composition at the electrode.
- the electrodes are controlled by means that allow a predetermined composition to be deposited at a known electrode.
- the electrode array consists of two or more electronically-discrete electrodes, preferably of twenty or more electronically-discrete electrodes, or, more preferably, of 100 or more electronically- discrete electrodes, or, more preferably, of 1000 or more electronically-discrete electrodes, or, more preferably, of 10,000 or more electronically-discrete electrodes, or, most preferably, of 100,000 or more electronically-discrete electrodes.
- FIG. 2 depicts a highly resistive substrate 201 upon which is located highly conductive electrodes 202.
- the electrodes are spatially separated to be electronically discrete.
- Connecting each electrode to the array controller is a highly conductive wire 203.
- the array controller applies potential and/or current conditions to each highly conductive wire 203 and thus to each highly conductive electrode 202.
- a highly resistive material 204 is coated on top of or around the wires in order to avoid redox reaction between the wires and the solution.
- the highly resistive material 204 does not cover the surfaces of the electrodes 202.
- An electrode array is composed of discrete highly conductive electrodes, preferably disk-shaped, placed on top of a highly resistive substrate or embedded into the surface of a highly resistive substrate such that the highly conductive electrodes are physically separated from each other.
- the electrodes are connected to an external multiplexing unit such that each electrode can be individually addressed electronically.
- the electrodes are connected to common wires that carry voltage and current signals from the controlling potentiostat to the electrodes. In the latter case, the common wires can number fewer than the electrodes or number the same as the electrodes or number more than the electrodes. Connection of the electrodes to the wires can occur by switched contacts or by permanent contacts.
- the conductive portions of the array of electrodes are completely covered by either an over- coated highly resistive layer or by highly resistive materials that are part of the components, with the exception of the electrode faces, which remain uncovered.
- an analog, very large scale integrated circuit (VLSI), complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS), microelectrode array (MEA) chip is used.
- the MEA is comprised of at least 1,024 microelectrodes that can be addressed individually or grouped, in series or in parallel, and can be used in all of the traditional electrochemical synthetic motifs. This unique platform can be used with high-throughput electrodeposition methodologies that allow production of very large numbers of materials in a very short time.
- each microelectrode (measuring less than 100 ⁇ m in diameter) is built on an Al pad deposited on the silicon wafer. After deposition of the typical W/Ti Al diffusion barrier, an overcoat of the desired electrode material is applied, to give functional microelectrodes.
- the electrodes may be smaller than 10 cm 2 , or smaller than 10 ⁇ m 2 , or even smaller
- the electrodes can be coupled to single or multiple power supplies, or alternately they can be placed in series with current or power limiting devices (inductors, resistors, etc.).
- the array of electrodes can be controlled as to potential and/or current by maintaining multiple wires at multiple potentials and or currents.
- the electrodes can then, singly, in groups, or in total, be reversibly switched to the appropriate wire to place the electrode under the desired potential and/or current condition.
- the switches used to perform this reversible switching operation can include mechanical, electrical, optical, or magnetic materials. For instance, transistors, CMOS, throw switches, etc. can be used for switches.
- the critical issue is that the potential and or current condition on each wire is not changed with time during the experiment. Only the electronic circuitry of the system is changed to move electrodes from one wire to another wire. Other embodiments of this controlling and addressing circuitry will be obvious to those skilled in the art.
- the deposition of materials onto the array of electrodes may be by electrodeposition or co-electrodeposition of one of more elements via reductive or oxidative passage of one or more electrons between the electrodes comprising the array or from some external electrode assembly and the elements, assembly of elements, or chemical or physical assemblies containing the element or elements; electrophoretic deposition of one or more elements via electrostatic interaction between the elements, assembly of elements, or chemical or physical assemblies containing the element or elements and the electrodes comprising the array or from some external electrode assembly; electrochemically-, chemically-, or physically- induced deposition or precipitation of elements, assembly of elements, or chemical or physical assemblies containing the element or elements; or spontaneous precipitation of elements, assembly of elements, or chemical or physical assemblies containing the element or elements.
- Deposition may include the introduction of the electrode array into a solution or mixture of components for deposition.
- the solution or mixture may be introduced to the electrode array.
- the solution or mixture entrains the components for deposition and supplies the components for deposition onto the electrode when the electrode is addressed in some fashion.
- the variation of the deposition components in the solution or mixture is controlled to allow a known composition to be deposited at a known electrode.
- the controlled variation of the deposition components may be achieved by any method wherein the known deposition components are present at the known electrode to deposit the known composition at the electrode.
- Deposition may also employ the use of a counter-electrode and reference electrode or simply a counter electrode.
- the counter-electrode provides current to complete the circuit through the cell.
- the reference electrode provides for control of the potential applied at the electrode in the array of electrodes.
- the spatially-heterogeneous chemical concentration of the precursor in the solution can be varied by varying the input feedstock position and concentration.
- an array of electrodes which all electrodeposit at the same time will deposit different materials.
- flowing a solution of regularly (time-based) varying composition e.g. from 1% X, 99% Y, to 2% X, 98% Y...to 99% X, 1%, Y, where X and Y represent different deposition precursors
- flowing a solution of regularly (time-based) varying composition e.g. from 1% X, 99% Y, to 2% X, 98% Y...to 99% X, 1%, Y, where X and Y represent different deposition precursors
- an array can be placed in a flow cell containing a reference electrode, a counter electrode, and inlet and outlet ports for liquid solution.
- a deoxygenated 1 liter solution of 1 mM CuSO 4 is flowed, during the process, into a mixing chamber containing 1 liter of 1 mM AgNO 3 .
- the mixed solution is flowed into the flow cell during the process.
- the flow cell contains solution that contains primarily AgNO 3 .
- the flow cell contains solution that contains primarily CuSO 4 .
- the solution composition changes gradually from mostly AgNO 3 to mostly CuSO 4 .
- the electrodes in the array of electrodes are biased individually and discretely to one or more potentials that cause deposition of the CuSO 4 and/or AgNO 3 . After deposition at one electrode, that electrode is returned to a neutral potential and another electrode is turned “on” at a depositing potential. This "serial deposition" is continued until all electrodes have been so treated.
- the result of this experiment is an array of deposited samples of regularly- varying composition suitable for collection, treatment, and/or analysis.
- various deposition control techniques are employed.
- the deposition of materials onto an array of electrodes may lead to varying mo ⁇ hologies amongst the varying materials on the array.
- One discrete material deposited at one discrete electrode may have an extremely rough surface or mo ⁇ hology compared with the other materials deposited at other electrodes.
- the mo ⁇ hologies may vary material to material.
- some desired characteristics are affected by the mo ⁇ hology, and the ability to control mo ⁇ hologies along with other deposition characteristics is highly critical to the analysis of the materials for desired characteristics.
- the control techniques include methods to adjust or control the mo ⁇ hologies of the depositing or deposited materials, methods to protect the deposited materials from further reactions, methods to control the potential at the electrodes where deposition has occurred, methods to control the exchange of reactive species at deposited materials, methods to control the potential at the depositing material, methods to cap or passivate the deposited material, methods to control the current at the electrodes, methods to control the counter-electrode and other methods to deposit a homogeneous material at discrete electrodes.
- the control techniques and methods are not limited to the deposition process and may include methods to control or adjust the materials after deposition of all materials on the array. These methods may include additional steps before analysis wherein the materials are processed further to ensure a homogeneous composition at each electrode or one or more homogeneous characteristic at each discrete composition location that is suitable for analysis of the desired characteristic sought.
- the methods employed to control the deposition of the materials onto the electrode array include but are not limited to pulse electrodeposition, potential control to avoid exchange reactions, ove ⁇ otential electrodeposition, the use of kinetically sluggish precursors, the positioning of one or more counter-electrodes and the use of passivating layers.
- Controlling the electronic state of the reference electrode can act to vary the potential at different electrodes, which can act to vary the composition and/or thickness of deposits at those electrodes. Additionally, varying the physical location of the counter electrode can vary the real current density at each electrode surface for a number of electrodes that are held at the same total and apparent current density. For example, as shown in figures 9-12, for an array of electrodes 902 where every electrode 901 is held at a potential that can initiate one or more redox events with solution species at rates determined by the individual current densities across each electrode 901, said current densities can be varied across the array of electrodes 902 merely by positioning the counter electrode 903 closer to one part of the array than to other parts of the array.
- Varying said current densities in this manner results in making thicker deposits 904 at the electrodes 901 nearer the counter electrode 903 compared to thinner deposits 905 made at the electrodes 901 farther from the counter electrode. This provides a ready mechanism to control the gross amount of material electrodeposited onto a particular electrode. Depositing other samples on top of said material then allows both compositional and structural control over the total sample prepared at a particular electrode.
- Pulse electrodeposition techniques can be used in combination with arrays of electrodes to prepare libraries of samples that have similar or nearly identical surface mo ⁇ hologies.
- an array of electrodes can be placed into a solution containing electrodeposition precursors.
- One or more electrodes can then be placed under potential control in such a way that the electrodeposition precursors are reacted to form deposits on the electrodes.
- Such reaction can occur by reducing the Fermi level (or "potential") of the electrodes until electrons pass from the electrodes to the precursors, where that electron transfer is accompanied by deposition of the desired composition.
- the mo ⁇ hologies of the deposits that are prepared onto the array of electrodes may be controlled to be similar or dissimilar by using pulse electrodeposition.
- Pulse electrodeposition methods involve pulsing the potential to regions where the precursors are reduced, followed by returning to a potential region where little reaction occurs.
- Figure 4 shows the potential vs time plot typical of a pulse electrodeposition synthesis process cycle. The starting potential 401, pulse potential 402, pulse duration 403 and rest time 404 between pulses can be controlled to provide the mo ⁇ hology required.
- an array of 1024 electrodes that are individually controlled and held at +0.5 volts (V) (vs. the standard electrochemical reference redox couple of Ag/AgCl) by computer can be placed into a water solution that contains one molar concentration of electrolyte NaNO 3 , one millimolar concentration of electrodeposition precursor CuSO , and one millimolar concentration of electrodeposition precursor AgNO 3 .
- the computer can be instructed to change the potential of one electrode from +0.5 V to -0.3 V and then to hold the potential at that value for 0.01 seconds.
- the computer can then be instructed to change the potential from -0.3 V to +0.5 V and then to hold the potential at that value for 0.09 seconds.
- the computer can be instructed to impose this potential/time "pulse” waveform multiple times ("cycles") onto the electrode until the electrode is covered by a sample of suitable thickness.
- the computer can then be instructed to perform identical (or different) waveforms onto a second electrode until another deposit is formed.
- the pulse duration is of sufficient time to deposit most of the precursors in the diffusion layer but not of sufficient time to deposit precursors which encounter the surface through mass transport processes.
- the rest duration is preferably of sufficient time to allow the precursor dissolved in the bulk solution (i.e. away from the electrode) to repopulate the diffusion layer.
- Typical values for these durations are pulse durations of less than 100 seconds, more preferably pulse durations of less than 10 seconds, more preferably pulse durations of less than 1 second, more preferably pulse durations of less than 0.1 seconds, more preferably pulse durations of less than 0.01 seconds, more preferably pulse durations of less than 0.001 seconds, more preferably pulse durations of less than 0.0001 seconds, more preferably pulse durations of less than 0.00001 seconds, or most preferably pulse durations of less than 0.000001 seconds.
- Typical values for the rest durations include rest durations of less than 100 seconds, more preferably rest durations of less than 10 seconds, more preferably rest durations of less than 1 second, more preferably rest durations of less than 0.1 seconds, more preferably rest durations of less than 0.01 seconds, more preferably rest durations of less than 0.001 seconds, more preferably rest durations of less than 0.0001 seconds, more preferably rest durations of less than 0.00001 seconds, or most preferably rest durations of less than 0.000001 seconds.
- the relative concentrations of the electrodeposition precursors can be varied after preparation of one deposit on one electrode and before preparation of a second deposit on a second electrode.
- a deposit can be formed at one electrode from a 1 : 1 molar ratio solution of CuSO 4 and AgNO 3 and a deposit of different composition can be formed at a second electrode from a 2:1 molar ratio solution of CuSO 4 and AgNO 3 .
- This invention provides at least two unexpected advantages: the use of pulse electrodeposition with an array of electrodes minimizes variations in mo ⁇ hologies observed when preparing multiple samples and allows ready comparison of chemical and physical properties of the samples; and the use of an array of electrodes with pulse electrodeposition allows the electrochemical variables used in the pulse electrodeposition such as starting potential, pulse potential, pulse duration, rest time, temperature, electrolyte concentration, relative and combined concentrations of the precursors, and number of cycles to be varied for different deposits in order to affect the physical and chemical characteristics of the deposits.
- an additional step may be employed to further process the materials for analysis.
- the processing step may occur while the material array is still within contact of the solutions or other components of the deposition step.
- Processing may include exposure of the array of materials to gaseous, liquid, or solid reactants, controlled heating or cooling of the array of materials, and treatment of the array of materials with electromagnetic radiation of wavelength between
- This invention also relates the use of arrays of electrodes as described to analyze materials comprising two or more elements.
- the array of electrodes may be used to synthesize the array of materials, but the array need not be used to synthesize the materials.
- the array of electrodes is used to synthesize and analyze the array of materials.
- Methods used to analyze the array of materials may or may not comprise combinations of one or more methods including, but not limited to electrochemical analysis of materials via the electrodes contained in the array or via some external electrode assembly.
- analysis techniques include electrochemical analysis of the materials using electrochemical methods including but not limited to potentiometry, coulometry, voltammetry, and polarography; analysis of the materials via optical methods including but not limited to infrared, Raman, electronic abso ⁇ tion, fluorescence, phosphorescence, and chemiluminescence spectroscopies, atomic spectroscopy, emission spectroscopy based on plasma, arc, and spark atomization, nephelometry, turbidity, refractometry, polarimetry, rotatory dispersion, and circular dichroism; analysis of the materials via x-ray spectroscopies including, but not limited to, x-ray fluorescence, abso ⁇ tion and diffraction spectroscopies; analysis of the materials via electron spectroscopic methods including, but not limited to, x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, ultraviolet photoelectric spectroscopy, Auger spectroscopy, ion neutralization spectroscopy, electron
- the array of samples can be examined for chemical reactivity (such as corrosion, poisoning by carbon monoxide, sulfur or other catalyst poisons, or other types of chemical reactions), electrochemical activity, catalytic or electrocatalytic activity toward a solution-bound species, conductivity, mo ⁇ hology, surface area, surface composition, bulk composition, thickness, presence of interfacial layers (such as metal oxide films or mixed metal oxide films), thickness of such layers, and other properties of relevance to the desired application, including the dependence of the properties above on temperature, pressure and solution composition.
- the array is "strobed" with an interrogating potential or current or combination.
- a preferred embodiment is where the potential or current or combination of the two is strobed across the array of samples at a rate of more than ten samples per one hundred seconds, or more preferably at a rate of more than ten sample per ten seconds, or more preferably at a rate of more than ten samples per one second, or more preferably at a rate of more than ten samples per 0.1 second, or more preferably at a rate of more than ten samples per 0.01 seconds, or more preferably at a rate of more than ten samples per 0.001 seconds, or more preferably at a rate of more than ten samples per 0.0001 seconds, or most preferably at a rate of more than ten samples per 0.00001 seconds.
- the potentiostat is directed to impose a constant current across one sample while the potential of the sample, referenced to a reference electrode in solution and charge balanced by a counter electrode in solution, is monitored. The sample is then returned to near zero current and the potentiostat is directed to perform a similar "polarization" experiment on another sample. This interrogation is continued until the performances of all of the desired samples have been examined.
- the potentiostat is directed to apply constant or varying potentials across a set of samples in a high-speed serial manner while the resultant currents are likewise monitored and recorded.
- the control of the surface mo ⁇ hologies of the deposited compositions is critical to any meaningful analysis or screening of the compositions for desired properties or characteristics. Variations in mo ⁇ hology may occur at different electrodes when conditions are not constant for each deposition step for different electrodes. Such variations in mo ⁇ hology introduce considerable difficulty when comparing the physical and chemical properties of the deposits.
- a first composition with a first mo ⁇ hology may show exceptional properties when analyzed or screened yet the first composition may still have inferior properties or characteristics compared to other compositions on the electrode array with a different mo ⁇ hology then the first mo ⁇ hology.
- an array of samples that all possess rough mo ⁇ hologies may exhibit anomalous characteristics in total when compared to bulk or smooth samples.
- the macroelectrode array allows the electrochemistry for a class of compositions to be explored with fewer yet larger electrodes. This provides a convenient amount of deposit to be prepared, enabling easy and rapid analysis of the chemical and physical characteristics of the deposit, including surface mo ⁇ hology, thickness, composition, compositional distribution (i.e. homogeneity), etc. This information can then be used to determine experimental conditions used in preparing an array of samples onto an array of electrodes.
- Pulse electrodeposition techniques can be used in combination with arrays of electrodes to prepare libraries of samples that have similar or dissimilar surface mo ⁇ hologies.
- an array of electrodes can be placed into a solution containing electrodeposition precursors.
- One or more electrodes can then be placed under potential control in such a way that the electrodeposition precursors are reacted to form deposits on them.
- Such reaction can occur by reducing the Fermi level (or "potential") of the electrodes until electrons pass from the precursors into the electrodes, where that electron transfer is accompanied by deposition of the product deposit.
- Such "reductive deposition" as described above results in deposits with widely varying mo ⁇ hologies that depend on precursor concentration, movement of the solution, temperature, and potential.
- the mo ⁇ hologies of the deposits that are prepared onto the array of electrodes are controlled to be similar or dissimilar by using pulse electrodeposition.
- This method is particularly suited to preparation of samples with fairly smooth surfaces. This method involves pulsing the potential to regions where the precursors are reduced, followed by returning to a potential region where little reaction occurs.
- Figure 1 shows the potential vs time plot typical of a pulse electrodeposition synthetic experiment. The starting potential, pulse potential, pulse duration and rest time between pulses can be controlled to provide the mo ⁇ hology required.
- an array of 1024 electrodes that are individually controlled and held at +0.5 volts (V) (vs. the standard electrochemical reference redox couple of Ag/AgCl) by computer can be placed into a water solution that contains one molar concentration of electrolyte NaNO 3 , one millimolar concentration of electrodeposition precursor CuSO 4 , and one millimolar concentration of electrodeposition precursor AgNO 3 .
- the computer can be instructed to change the potential of one electrode from +0.5 V to -0.3 V and then to hold the potential at that value for 0.01 seconds.
- the computer can then be instructed to change the potential from -0.3 V to +0.5 V and then to hold the potential at that value for 0.09 seconds.
- the computer can be instructed to impose this potential/time "pulse" waveform multiple times ("cycles") onto the electrode until the electrode is covered by a sample of suitable thickness.
- the computer can then be instructed to perform identical (or different) waveforms onto a second electrode until another deposit is formed.
- the relative concentrations of the electrodeposition precursors can be varied after preparation of one deposit on one electrode and before preparation of a second deposit on a second electrode. For instance, a deposit can be formed at one electrode from a 1 : 1 molar ratio solution of CuSO 4 and AgNO 3 and a deposit of different composition can be formed at a second electrode from a 2:1 molar ratio solution of CuSO 4 and AgNO 3 .
- This invention provides at least two unexpected advantages: the use of pulse electrodeposition with an array of electrodes minimizes variations in mo ⁇ hologies observed when preparing multiple samples and allows ready comparison of chemical and physical properties of the samples; and the use of an array of electrodes with pulse electrodeposition allows the electrochemical variables used in the pulse electrodeposition such as starting potential, pulse potential, pulse duration, rest time, temperature, electrolyte concentration, relative and combined concentrations of the precursors, and number of cycles to be varied for different deposits in order to learn how they affect the physical and chemical characteristics of said deposits.
- the deposits react with the precursors to degrade or change the deposit surface composition, surface mo ⁇ hology, and other characteristics.
- This reaction illustrated in Figure 6a, occurs between deposited atoms 601 & 602 and the precursor(s) 603 & 604.
- the deposited type of atoms that possess less positive redox potentials 601 than the Fermi levels of the precursors) 604 are involved in an exchange reaction.
- the deposited types of atoms that posses more positive redox potentials 602 remain unaffected by the associated precursor 604.
- a deposit of copper and silver placed in a solution containing copper salt and silver salt will spontaneously and preferentially reduce silver from the salt to give silver metal at the deposit while dissolving copper salt from the electrode. This event interferes with clear and efficient control over electrodeposition used to prepare the composition and mo ⁇ hology sample.
- the present invention describes a method whereby the array of electrodes is held under potential control by the potentiostatic device at all time during the synthesis, processing and analysis of an array of samples deposited onto the array of electrodes.
- the electrodes 701 with deposits of materials are supplied with a potential to control the exchange reaction of precursor 702, while the addressed electrode 703 has the desired deposition reaction 704 taking place. This potential control avoids uncontrolled reaction between the deposits and the precursors in solution.
- An unexpected benefit of this invention include the ability to prepare arrays of materials onto arrays of electrodes where the materials have compositions and mo ⁇ hologies that are a result of the electrodeposition method employed and not of uncontrolled side reactions.
- Electrodeposits occurs by reduction of an electrodeposition precursor to give a reaction product and attachment of the product to the electrode surface. Growth of electrodeposits occurs by reduction of an electrodeposition precursor to give a reaction product and attachment of the product to the previously deposited material.
- Electrode potential 506 used at an electrode 501 to reduce the electrodeposition precursor is the same or similar to the standard reduction potential 507 of that precursor, most electrodeposition occurs by growth onto fewer nucleation sites.
- Deposits 504 prepared in this manner typically exhibit rough surface mo ⁇ hologies.
- Electrode potential 505 used at an electrode 502 to reduce the electrodeposition precursor is much less than the standard reduction potential 507 of that precursor, most electrodeposition occurs by nucleation at the nearest surface.
- Deposits 503 prepared in this manner typically exhibit smooth surface mo ⁇ hologies.
- This invention describes a method that is comprised of the use of an array of electrodes and a method of electrodeposition whereby the potential of each electrode is controlled so that preparation of deposits with identical, similar, or different compositions and similar or dissimilar surface mo ⁇ hologies is enabled.
- An unexpected benefit of this method is that ready comparison of the physical and chemical properties of the deposits is possible without adjustment for real or perceived variations in mo ⁇ hology between deposits. Use of kinetically sluggish precursors
- the deposits react with the precursors to degrade or change the deposit surface composition, surface mo ⁇ hology, and other characteristics.
- This reaction illustrated in Figures 6a & 6b, occurs between deposited types of atoms that possess less positive redox potentials than the Fermi levels of the precursor(s).
- a deposit of platinum and silver placed in a solution containing platinum salt and silver salt will spontaneously and preferentially reduce silver from the salt to give silver metal at the deposit while dissolving platinum salt from the electrode. This event interferes with clear and efficient control over electrodeposition used to prepare the composition and mo ⁇ hology sample.
- the present invention describes a method whereby kinetically sluggish redox species are employed as the electrodeposition precursors.
- the use of such species for this application is both novel and of great utility.
- the spontaneous reaction between some or all of the deposited material and the precursors in solution is significantly slowed by employing kinetically sluggish precursors.
- electrochemical reaction between the deposit and a precursor occurs only when the reaction is initiated by a deliberately-applied ove ⁇ otential at the deposit.
- An unexpected benefit of this invention include the ability to now prepare arrays of samples onto arrays of electrodes where the samples have compositions and mo ⁇ hologies that are a result of the electrodeposition method employed and not of uncontrolled side reactions.
- Another unexpected benefit of this invention include the ability to now prepare arrays of samples onto arrays of electrodes where the samples can remain in solutions containing the precursors without degradation. This ability enables ready preparation of samples of more than one composition.
- An additional control technique is the use of passivating layers to prevent deposits from reacting with solution phase components or precursors.
- passivating layers are made of materials that can be electrochemically grown and removed.
- potential control can effect the availability (or lack of it) of a given layer.
- the electrodes 801, 802 & 803 are immersed in a solution containing the passivating agent(s) and the desired precursors.
- the electrodes 801-803 are first passivated by the passivating agent(s) to form passivating layers 804.
- the electrode 802 is then biased to remove the passivating layer 804.
- the deposition of the desired composition 805 then occurs at electrode 802.
- the electrode 802 is then passivated again with a passivating layer 804 where the desired composition 805 is also protected by the passivating layer 804.
- the next electrode 803 to be deposited is then biased to remove the passivating layer 804 and addressed for deposition.
- the steps of biasing an electrode, depositing a desired composition and passivating the electrode and composition are repeated for the entire array.
- passivating agents are self-assembled monolayers, oxides and electropolymerized films. Self-assembled monolayers attach to every electrode and passivate the entire array of electrodes. A single passivating agent or combinations of passivating agents may be used. These agents can include thiols, pyridine and its derivatives, amine or thiol terminated dendrimers, etc. Tthe passivation layer is removed from the electrode where the next deposition is desired via electrochemical hydrogen or oxygen evolution via a chemical deso ⁇ tion step.
- the oxide is electrochemically formed via oxidation of the deposit in aqueous solution. Then, that deposit is not available for further deposition chemistry until the oxide has been pu ⁇ osefully reduced.
- the deposition solution conditions are typically oxidizing, so spontaneous and uncontrolled reduction of these oxide films in such solutions is not likely.
- An electropolymerized films is used to block the surface toward any further chemistry until the layer is removed (e.g. electrochemically or via laser irradiation, photochemically or via ablation).
- Oxidation of phenol is a preferred example, because it is a self-healing passivating film (if a spot is left uncoated, phenol gets in and is oxidized to block that spot). Vigorous gas evolution is employed to remove the passivating layer.
- Another embodiment is to drain the flow cell, then irradiate a given spot with UV (through a quartz widow) and ablate the film off of the metal surface.
- An array of electrodes that is controlled by a multiplexed potentiostat instrument can be placed into solution.
- the array of electrodes is comprised of fifty or more electrodes, or more preferably 100 or more electrodes, or more preferably 1000 or more electrodes, or more preferably 10,000 or more electrodes, or most preferably 100,000 or more electrodes.
- the solution is comprised of one or more species that are affected by electrochemistry. For example, a species can be affected by removing one or more electrons from it, by adding one or more electrons to it, by applying a potential across it, by changing the conditions of the solution near the electrode such that these conditions lead to the deposition of the species from solution, or by similarly affecting solvent or other species that interact in some manner with the species.
- one manner in which a species can be affected involves using an electrode to remove one or more electrons from a species or add one or more electrons to a species so that the species precipitates from solution onto the electrode. This event is termed electrodeposition.
- the array could be immersed in a solution that contains 1 mM of a metal salt such as CuSO .
- a metal salt such as CuSO
- the solution will also contain 1 M of an electrolyte salt such as NaNO 3 , although this is not necessary.
- the array could be immersed in a solution that contains 1 mM of a metal salt such as CuSO 4 and 1 mM of another metal salt such as AgNO 3 .
- a metal salt such as CuSO 4
- another metal salt such as AgNO 3
- Other contexts suitable for electrodeposition include those where the number of metal salts is more than two, those where the relative concentrations of the metal salts are varied from 1 M to 0.000001 mM, those where the electrolyte concentration is varied from 5 M to 0.001 mM, and those where other experimental variables (such as temperature, movement of the solution, type of solvent, etc.) are controlled to provide additional conditions for electrodeposition.
- One preferred experimental context is to immerse an array of 1024 electrodes into a water solution containing 1 M NaNO 3 , 0.5 mM CuSO 4 , and 0.5 mM AgNO 3 .
- the solution is contained in a "flow cell" that mechanically holds the array in place and provides inlet and outlet tubes to flow the solution across the array of electrodes.
- the flow cell also contains mechanical devices (holes) that allow inclusion of a counter electrode and a reference electrode. Neither electrode is included as a part of the array. Alternately, the reference electrode can be included as a part of the array.
- the counter electrode is fabricated to be of high surface area and positioned so that the electrochemical events occur similarly across the array.
- One or more electrodes in the array are used in conjunction with the counter and reference electrodes to perform electrochemistry at the one or more electrodes in the array.
- the electrochemistry that is performed involves pulse electrodeposition, whereby the potential of one or more electrodes in the array is reduced to a less positive value than that of one or more precursors in solution to remove one or more electrons from one or more precursors, and then the potential is returned to a more positive value where electrons are not removed from at least one precursor.
- This pulse is repeated from two to several million times at one electrode until the desired amount of deposit has been formed.
- the relative concentrations of the precursors in solution are then changed by a small increment to 0.49 mM CuSO and 0.51 mM AgNO 3 and the pulsed electrochemical process is repeated at a different electrode.
- the array of sample- supporting electrodes can be immersed in an 80 °C water solution that contains oversaturated hydrogen gas, and the potential of an individual electrode that support a sample of interest can be held at 0.7 volts positive of the Ag/AgCl redox couple while the current that is passed through the electrode is monitored. That sample-supporting electrode can then be returned to open circuit or another potential, and a similar analysis can be performed at a second sample-supporting electrode. This process can be continued until all of the samples of interest have been examined.
- the information that is obtained can indicate the array of activities that the array of samples show for oxidizing hydrogen. That array of activities can be examined manually or by algorithmic computer search to indicate samples that show exceptional or unexpected activities for oxidation of hydrogen. Samples which show exceptionally high activities for oxidation of hydrogen can then be employed to indicate compositions of matter that can be useful for devices that are used to oxidize hydrogen, such as fuel cells and electrolytic cells.
- Methods and apparatus employ the use of arrays of two or more electronically-discrete electrodes to facilitate high-throughput preparation and testing of materials comprising two or more elements.
- High rates of deposition, synthesis and/or analysis of materials are achieved with the use of arrays of electrodes whereby desired materials are developed.
- the high rate synthesis and/or analysis of an array of materials uses deposition control techniques in conjunction with the electrode array to develop a meaningful array of materials and to analyze the materials for a desired characteristics to develop one or more materials with the desired characteristics.
- the use of an array of electrodes is a technique for high-throughput development of materials having scientific or economic advantages.
- Example 1 Synthesis and screening of anode catalysts for fuel cells
- Binary compositions can be electrodeposited from aqueous solutions containing metal complexes of the desired metals, in particular PtCLj 2' and RuCl 6 3" . These dilute solutions have molarities in the range of 1-10 mM. The use of high valence metal anions allows for use of mutually miscible deposition solutions. Suitable experimental conditions for the co-deposition of Pt-Ru compositions on bulk electrochemical electrodes (standard electrodes for electrochemical evaluation) can be initially determined using bulk electrodes. These conditions can then be used for deposition of compositions upon the electrode array.
- Ove ⁇ otential deposition is the method of choice.
- the fabrication may be automated by computer control of the solution composition in the deposition cell, and, since electrodeposition are carried out at the same ove ⁇ otentials, mo ⁇ hology variations will be minimized.
- This similarity in particle size, mo ⁇ hology, and surface area is essential for the comparison of catalytic reactivities of different compositions, simplifying data analysis.
- Procedures to be used to electropotentially evaluate the electrocatalysts for methanol and CO oxidation involve two different testing protocols.
- the reactivity of the electrocatalysts electropotentially in an essentially linear (but extremely rapid and highly automated) fashion is analyzed.
- the primary method by which the reactivity of the many alloys is examined will be based on direct electrochemical measurement of the electrocatalytic reaction rate. This is done using traditional electrochemical approaches.
- predosing the solution with CO, followed by oxidation in a clean electrolyte may be used as a means of determination of catalytic activity towards CO oxidation.
- the testing procedure may be modified to measure the current that results from the cathode at specific voltages as the level of carbon monoxide in solution is increased. Test procedures may also evaluate the ability of the catalyst to reactivate itself after exposure to CO.
- the combinatorial electrochemistry techniques described above are used to synthesize and characterize known and new catalysts for use as cathode catalysts in fuel cells.
- the primary desired characteristic in this example is a high rate of reduction of oxygen.
- a secondary desired characteristic is a high selectivity for oxygen over other species such as methanol.
- the aqueous salt solutions used may include H 2 PtCl 4 (tetrachloroplatinic acid) and Cr 2 (SO 4 ) 3 (chromic sulfate) with NaNO 3 electrolyte.
- Electrodeposition takes place in a typical three electrode configuration comprised of a reference electrode, a counter electrode and the working electrode array. Electrodeposition is carried out under a variety of concentrations, flow rates, currents, potentials, and temperatures to achieve the most smooth and reproducible surfaces. Typically, ove ⁇ otential deposition, high frequency pulse deposition, and protecting the deposits with passivating layers such as self assembled monolayers, electrooxidizable polymers, and metal oxide coatings allows preparation of smooth, well-controlled samples.
- Rough mo ⁇ hology may be mitigated further by the use of high valence metal anions and the inco ⁇ oration of complexing agents, such as sulfamate urea or substituted urea derivatives, formamide or other amine additives in the deposition baths. These can increase the polarization of chromium and enhance simultaneous codeposition of both the components of the bath. However, the effects of such additives on the catalysts may interfere with the overall activity of the alloys.
- catalytic activity can be ascertained first for bulk samples. The primary method of analysis is direct electrochemical measurement of the electrocatalytic reaction rate. This can be done using traditional electrochemical approaches.
- CO stripping voltammetry i.e. pre-dosing the solution with MeOH, followed by oxidation in a clean electrolyte
- This testing procedure is modified to measure the current that results from the cathode at specific voltages as the level of methanol in solution is increased.
- Test procedures can also be included to evaluate the ability of the catalyst to reactivate itself after exposure to transient MeOH.
- Characterization of oxygen reduction catalytic activity can be accomplished via half-cell testing. This method requires the use of an oxygen saturated solution. The compositions are tested at 1.0 - 0.2 V vs. a reference hydrogen electrode. This test results in the determination of polarization curves for the catalytic oxygen reduction of the various compositions (potential (V) vs. specific current density (A/cm 2 )).
- Resistance to methanol and, by association, carbon monoxide is measured by introducing methanol in 5 mM increments to the test solution. This step provides an absolute measure of both the selectivity of the catalyst for oxygen reduction and the resistance of the catalyst to methanol or CO poisoning.
- Deposition from solutions containing the metals as precursor compounds is a flexible approach, especially with regard to depositing more than one element simultaneously.
- the solution contains a mixture of metal alkoxides. Deposition occurs via an electrochemical process.
- the deposition could be effected by creating oxidizing conditions at a particular electrode in the array of electrodes. These oxidizing conditions can produce protons, thereby driving the decomposition of the metal alkoxide precursors, precipitating the metal oxide product, and depositing a mixed metal oxide on the electrode.
- the deposit comprises a metal oxide with the metal composition being defined by the relative amounts of the metal alkoxide precursors in the original solution.
- Control of the metal oxide composition may be achieved by varying the composition of the solution from which the deposition occurs.
- this approach is controllable and reproducible to produce varied metal oxide deposits.
- Metals in various host matrices is achieved by addition of the appropriate host compounds.
- a silicon precursor compound such as tetraethoxysilane is added to the solution.
- Metal aluminates may be deposited from solutions containing aluminum alkoxide reagents, etc.
- oxalates Several other types of precursors can also be used, including oxalates, acetates, and properly-tuned crown ether complexes.
- dissociation of the complexing agent from the metal center can be driven by redox decomposition of the complex.
- oxalates in particular, this leads to clean production of the "bare” (i.e. solvated) metal ion plus CO 2 .
- alkoxides such as those discussed above, these metal ions become trapped within the silica or alumina (or other material) matrix. This point is important because it suggests that several different metals can be codeposited from a variety of complexation environments, which will allow for unexpected flexibility in the design of the deposition conditions.
- compositions of typical target phosphors can derive from combinations of the following materials: type A elements (Si, Al, P, B, Mg, Ge, Sn), type B elements (Ba, Sr, Ca, Y, Gd, K, Na), activators (Eu, Tb, Ce), and sensitizers (any other rare earth metal).
- type A elements Si, Al, P, B, Mg, Ge, Sn
- type B elements Ba, Sr, Ca, Y, Gd, K, Na
- activators Eu, Tb, Ce
- sensitizers any other rare earth metal
- An example is the phosphor defined by Si as the type A elements, a combination of Y and Ba as the type B element, with Ce added as an activator and Nd added as a sensitizer.
- samples are electrochemically prepared that contain the type A element compositionally varied in 5% increments, giving 20 possible combinations.
- the concentration of type B elements in the samples is likewise varied in 5% relative w/w increments, giving a total of about 400 compositions.
- the activator may be varied from 1 - 15% in 1 % increments, giving a total of 6000 compositions.
- the sensitizer may be varied from 0.001% to 1% in factors of 2 on a logarithmic scale (i.e. 0.001%, 0.003%, 0.01%, etc.) for a total of seven additional variations. This brings the total number of compositions to 42,000 for a fairly simple phosphor material.
- alkoxide complexes for all of the precursor metals can be used. Specifically, these are Y(OEt) 3 , Ba(OEt) 2 , Si(OEt) and Eu(OEt) 3 .
- Deposition is effected in a solution containing 95-99% ethanol and 5-1% H 2 O. It is necessary to keep the water concentration low, because the presence of large amounts of water in the solution can drive premature hydrolysis of the sol-gel precursors, leading to bulk phase precipitation of the material.
- sol-gel deposition is achieved by applying a more positive electrode potential. This oxidizes water and leads to hydrolysis of the alkoxide complexes, leading to deposition of a metal silicate containing the metals that were present.
- Key variables for the deposition step include: a) the temperature, which influences the rates of the hydrolysis and deposition processes, b) the applied potential, which influences the rate of water oxidation and therefore the rate of generation of protons, c) the manner in which the positive potential is applied, either galvanostatically or potentiostatically, which influences the time dependence of the rate of proton generation, d) the time for the deposition, which influences the amount of material deposited, e) using solution flow to replenish reagents near the electrodes, and f) the structure of the alkoxide or other precursor complex, which affects the stability and hydrolysis rate of the complex. Exploration of these variables may be done at both conventional bulk electrodes and on an array of electrodes.
- metal oxide deposition from solution A fairly wide range of other solution/deposition conditions is envisioned for metal oxide deposition from solution.
- metal salts can be used in aqueous solutions as precursors for metal-containing thin films of oxides or other phases.
- deposition is driven by interfacial pH changes and/or by changes in the redox state of the metals (i.e. to generate an oxidation state that is not soluble under the solution conditions).
- This technique may be used to deposit PbO 2 films doped with a wide variety of second metals, including As and Bi. Adapting this technique to allow co-deposition of many different, mixed composition metal phases, including oxides, silicates and aluminates, using precursors that are modestly stable in aqueous solutions, at arrays of electrodes is an innovative step.
- One more example is of preparation of a simple metal phosphate phosphor.
- the electrode array is housed in a flow cell, so that it can be exposed to a solution of controlled, but variable, composition.
- a solution of controlled, but variable, composition for deposition of a europium (I ⁇ )-doped BaPO 4 material a solution containing the appropriate mixture of the rare earth and alkaline earth ions (typically as nitrate salts), plus a source of phosphate (e.g. H 3 PO ), is introduced into the flow cell.
- a source of phosphate e.g. H 3 PO
- Applying a less postive potential drives water reduction, which causes the pH near the electrode surface to high values. This produces PO 4 3" which drives deposition of the target material.
- This process can be repeated under computer control at many different electrode locations in a given array, but with slight variations in the solution phase composition in order to produce a new and slightly different composition at each electrode. In this way, the entire compositional phase space for the material is examined in a short time.
- An additional approach to deposition of various oxide, silicate, aluminate, and other materials is through the deposition of combinations of small colloidal particles containing the various materials that are desired to be in the deposit.
- Deposition from colloidal solutions can be achieved by electrochemically driving a flocculation process.
- the material precursors are present as constituents of a colloidal suspension.
- Stabilization of such suspensions is typically electrostatic.
- Surface charge control is achieved either by manipulating the pH of the solution to take advantage of the acid-base character of the colloidal particles or by manipulating the identity, charge and number of adsorbates on the particles.
- Ionic strength is used to control the electrostatic repulsion between the particles. Low ionic strength gives greater repulsion and more stability while higher ionic strength gives less repulsion and less stability.
- deposition from a colloidal suspension can be driven by causing any of several changes in the solution conditions near the electrodes in the array of electrodes.
- a simple case involves the use of colloidal particles that are stabilized by surface charges that derive from acid-base chemistry at the particle surface.
- An example is ⁇ -Al 2 O 3 .
- This material has a pH pzc of 8.5.
- pH values below 8.5 the net surface charge is positive.
- Application of reducing potentials at an electrode in an aqueous solution containing such particles drives water reduction. This leads to an increase in the pH near the electrode. If this pH change is carefully controlled, conditions can be created near the surface that cause the particle surface charges to approach zero.
- solutions containing more than one stable colloidal suspension are prepared.
- stable suspensions of metal oxides and silicates can be prepared.
- suitable solutions and ionic strengths so that all the particles in solution bear a net positive (or negative) charge and experience significant electrostatic repulsion due to low ionic strength.
- Appropriate control of solution conditions enable colloid mixtures to be compatible (with respect to flocculation).
Abstract
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AU23848/00A AU2384800A (en) | 1998-12-22 | 1999-12-21 | Electrode array for development and testing of materials |
US10/681,285 US6937002B2 (en) | 1998-12-22 | 2003-10-09 | Method of using an array of electrodes for high throughput development and testing of materials |
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US10/681,285 Continuation US6937002B2 (en) | 1998-12-22 | 2003-10-09 | Method of using an array of electrodes for high throughput development and testing of materials |
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WO2002005367A2 (en) * | 2000-07-08 | 2002-01-17 | Uop Llc | Method of screening compositions for electrocatalytic activity in a gas diffusion electrode |
US7060385B2 (en) | 2001-08-03 | 2006-06-13 | Toyota Jidosha Kabushiki Kaisha | Noble metal-base metal alloy catalyst, evaluation of such catalyst, and method of producing such catalyst |
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US5296125A (en) * | 1990-08-31 | 1994-03-22 | The United States Of America As Represented By The United States Of Department Of Energy | Electrochemical sensor/detector system and method |
US5424186A (en) * | 1989-06-07 | 1995-06-13 | Affymax Technologies N.V. | Very large scale immobilized polymer synthesis |
US5667667A (en) * | 1992-04-24 | 1997-09-16 | Isis Innovation Limited | Electrochemical treatment of surfaces |
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1999
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US5424186A (en) * | 1989-06-07 | 1995-06-13 | Affymax Technologies N.V. | Very large scale immobilized polymer synthesis |
US5296125A (en) * | 1990-08-31 | 1994-03-22 | The United States Of America As Represented By The United States Of Department Of Energy | Electrochemical sensor/detector system and method |
US5667667A (en) * | 1992-04-24 | 1997-09-16 | Isis Innovation Limited | Electrochemical treatment of surfaces |
Cited By (3)
Publication number | Priority date | Publication date | Assignee | Title |
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WO2002005367A2 (en) * | 2000-07-08 | 2002-01-17 | Uop Llc | Method of screening compositions for electrocatalytic activity in a gas diffusion electrode |
WO2002005367A3 (en) * | 2000-07-08 | 2003-03-27 | Uop Llc | Method of screening compositions for electrocatalytic activity in a gas diffusion electrode |
US7060385B2 (en) | 2001-08-03 | 2006-06-13 | Toyota Jidosha Kabushiki Kaisha | Noble metal-base metal alloy catalyst, evaluation of such catalyst, and method of producing such catalyst |
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