WO2004069186A2 - Protection against sunburn and skin problems with orally-ingested high-dosage zeaxanthin - Google Patents

Abstract

A carotenoid substance called zeaxanthin, when ingested orally at suitable dosages such as 30 to 100 mg/day for a span of 1 to 2 weeks, can provide effective protection against sunburns, and can give skin a darker tint that emulates a healthy suntan. In tests involving adults, it was found that zeaxanthin dosages of 30 to about 80 mg per day were sufficient to induce: (i) a mild but noticeable tinting, shading, or darkening of skin color, comparable to a mild suntan; (ii) a substantial increase in the person's ability to withstand elevated levels of sun or UV exposure without any subsequent pain or discomfort, and without the subsequent peeling and flaking that characterizes sunburns; and, (iii) an increased ability of reddened and sunburned skin to convert into intact skin that looks browned and healthily tanned. By reducing the amount of exposure to sunlight (or tanning lights) that are required to achieve a desired level of tanning, zeaxanthin can reduce the risks of skin cancer, premature aging or wrinkling, and similar skin problems. Since zeaxanthin also has retina-protecting properties and reduces the risk of a disease called macular degeneration, oral ingestion of these dosages of a zeaxanthin to enhance a tanned appearance and/or to protect against sun damage is believed to pose no health risks, and can offer several benefits due to the anti-oxidant and other activities of zeaxanthin.

Description

PROTECTION AGAINST SUNBURN AND SKIN PROBLEMS WITH ORALLY-INGESTED HIGH-DOSAGE ZEAXANTHIN

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

This invention is in the field of biochemistry, pharmacology, and nutritional supplements, and relates to a new use for zeaxanthin, a carotenoid found in plants such as spinach, kale, and corn.

Numerous efforts have been made to identify drugs, nutritional supplements, or other biomolecules that can be orally ingested and that will safely accomplish any or all of the following: (i) cause a darkening of skin color (also referred to as tint, tone, pigmentation, or similar terms) in a mamier that looks like a healthy and natural suntan; (ii) reduce the risk of sunburn; and/or, (iii) reduce the risk and severity of other skin problems that can be caused by excessive exposure to sunlight, including melanomas and other skin cancers, and premature wrinkling and aging of the skin.

If any or all of these effects could be provided, safely and effectively, by a compound that could be put in a bottle, the value and benefits would be very large, both for cosmetic and commercial reasons, and for medical reasons as well. It is well known that overexposure to direct sunlight causes and accelerates premature aging and wrinkling of skin. It has also been shown that if a person suffers several serious sunburns (especially when young), it will increase that person's risk of skin cancer (including melanoma, an extremely malignant and deadly cancer) later in life. In addition, because of ozone depletion in the upper atmosphere, both of these risks are likely to accelerate and become worse in the future, since the ozone layer plays a crucial role in reducing and controlling the amount of skin-damaging ultraviolet rays that reach the earth's surface. hi addition, it is also likely that if people could obtain a "pre-season suntan", they might also get more exercise, and would be healthier as a result, since having an overly pale and "pasty" appearance tends to discourage people from getting involved in outdoor activities with other people.

It also is known that various types of drugs (such as quinoline antibiotics, as just one example) can create a condition of hypersensitivity to sunlight, which will increase the risk of sunburns and other skin problems. Accordingly, if someone is taking (or is planning to take) a therapeutic drug that will create a sunlight-related side effect, it would be highly useful if a second agent were available to prevent or mitigate the skin-related or sun-related side effects of the therapeutic drug. h addition, some people suffer from diseases or syndromes in which their skin is abnormally sensitive and vulnerable to sunburns, or to the formation of uneven or discolored patches (often called blotches or splotches) that go beyond the normal formation of freckles, or other types of discomfort or lesions when exposed to direct sunlight. One class of such diseases, which involve defects in the biosynthesis or metabolism of heme (the protein that complexes with iron to make hemoglobin), is generally referred to as porphyrias; this cluster of diseases is subdivided into at least a dozen named subclasses, such as "erythropoietic protoporphyria", etc. Another class of diseases or syndromes that render some people abnormally vulnerable to skin damage by sun involves the trait of albinism, in which people have abnormally pale skin due to low quantities of melanin, the dark brown or black pigment that normally occurs in skin and various other tissues. It is anticipated that orally-ingested zeaxanthin as disclosed herein may be able to help mitigate at least some of these types of skin diseases or syndromes, as can be evaluated through routine trials on patients who suffer from any such disease or syndrome.

The term "skin" as used herein refers to epidermal layers (including surface layers, as well as near-surface layers that can be affected by sunburns), in any one or more areas of the body, head, or limbs (including areas of the scalp, etc). As will be recognized by anyone skilled in the art, if a significant level of additional protection can be provided for one or more of areas of skin, by zeaxanthin treatments as disclosed herein, that is a valuable result. As just one example, a golfer, fisherman, fanner, or construction worker (or anyone else who spends substantial time outdoors) is likely to have his (or her) forearms, nose, forehead, and other areas exposed to sufficient sunlight, during the spring and early summer, to build up a sufficient tan in those areas to prevent any serious sunburns, during normal activities. However, after a day at a beach, pool, lake, or other such area, that person may suffer a severe sunburn on his feet, stomach, back, the tops of the ears (especially after a recent haircut), or some other area that is normally covered by clothing or hair. Those types of severe sunburns, even if limited to small areas, can cause serious pain, as well as increased risks of skin cancer, premature aging, and other problems. Accordingly, the zeaxanthin treatments disclosed herein can be used to protect against sunburns or skin damage that otherwise would be limited to small and/or normally covered areas of skin.

The term "skin" as used herein does not include epithelial surfaces, which are commonly referred to as mucous membranes, and which notably includes the lips (which occasionally suffer from sunburns that can be very painful, due to the large numbers of nerve endings in and near the lips). None of the test subjects reported in the Examples suffered any sunburns on their lips while taking zeaxanthin, and it is believed that high-dosage zeaxanthin supplements as disclosed herein can provide at least some level of increased protection against UN damage, for the lips and other epithelial surfaces. However, that likelihood has not yet been evaluated by any tests that focus specifically on lips or other epithelial surfaces.

Numerous ultraviolet-absorbing skin protective lotions are available. Although most of these are marketed as "suntan" lotions, they could be more accurately described as "sun- blocking" or "suntan-slowing" lotions, since they reduce the amount of UN radiation that reaches and enters the skin.

A much smaller number of "suntan in a bottle" compounds that claim to be able to directly darken the color of the skin have reached commercialization and actual public use. Nearly all of these involve lotions, creams, and other "topical" agents that are applied directly to skin surfaces, rather than being ingested orally. Examples of active coloring agents that are used in such lotions and other topical formulas include dihydroxyacetone, erythralose, and tyrosine.

It must be clearly recognized that "topical" agents, which are spread across a skin surface, are completely different from orally-ingestible formulations, such as capsules, tablets, drinks, food supplements, etc. Orally-ingested formulations can also be referred to as "systemic" agents or formulations, since they function by a series of actions that include oral ingestion, passage (also called uptake) through the intestinal walls into the bloodstream, and deposition into various tissues of the body (including but not limited to the slύή).

The prior art and the state of technology, in the two different fields of topical skin- coloring agents versus orally-ingested skin-coloring agents, are deemed to be completely separate, different, and distinct, because of a number of factors, including: (i) the two different classes of agents are used and administered in completely different ways; (ii) they function in very different ways; (iii) orally-ingested active agents raise questions and concerns involving safety, side effects, and interactions with internal organs and other tissues, that are not raised by topical agents that are spread on the skin; and (iv) they are regulated by government agencies in separate categories, using different standards and with different testing and safety requirements.

The principal focus of this invention involves orally ingested (systemic) formulations. Such formulations are referred to herein as "oral tanning" agents, compounds, products, or fomiulations. Since numerous lotions and other topical formulations are already available and effective, for imparting a darker tint if applied directly to the skin, and/or for protecting the skin against damage by ultraviolet radiation, the primary importance and value of the discovery and invention described herein resides in its disclosure of a truly safe yet effective and potent agent that, when ingested orally in the form of a capsule, tablet, drink, or food supplement, can help protect the skin against sunburn and other skin problems, regardless of dosage, and regardless of whether any UN-blocking lotions or other topical formulations are also applied directly to the skin.

The phrase used above, "regardless of dosage" is a crucially important phrase that requires specific and careful attention. It arises from information indicating that, unlike any other known carotenoid, zeaxanthin appears to be able to provide skin-coloring and skin- protective benefits even at very high dosages, without posing the risks of dangerous side effects that are posed by other carotenoids when ingested at high dosages.

This point is borne out by the following analysis of the prior art, which relates specifically to using caretenoids as skin-coloring agents that can create darker skin tints.

PRIOR ART RE: CAROTENOIDS AND SKIN COLORATION

Numerous items of published prior art explicitly state that carotenoids may be potentially useful, as oral tanning agents that can impart a darker tint to the skin, generally resembling a suntan (although some carotenoids impart a more orange than bronze tint). Recent publications include, for example, the following:

1. Stahl et al 2003, which states, "There is increasing evidence from human studies that carotenoids protect the skin against photooxidative damage."

2. Sies et al 2003, which states, "Lycopene and other carotenoids maybe used as oral sun protectants and contribute to the maintenance of skin health."

3. Stahl et al 2002, which states, "protection against UN light-induced erythema can be achieved by ingestion of a commonly consumed dietary source of lycopene. Such protective effects of carotenoids were also demonstrated in cell culture."

4. Heinrich et al 2003, which states, "The intensity of erythema [this term refers to sunburn or other skin reddening, after exposure to direct sunlight or controlled sources of ultraviolet light] 24 hours after irradiation was diminished in both groups that received carotenoids and was significantly lower than baseline after 12 weeks of supplementation. Long-term supplementation for 12 weeks with 24 milligrams/day of a carotenoid mix supplying similar amounts of beta-carotene, lutein and lycopene ameliorates UN-induced erythema in humans; the effect is comparable to daily treatment with 24 milligrams/day of beta-carotene alone."

5. Eichler et al 2002, which states, "Cultured human skin fibroblasts were used to examine the protective effects of the carotenoids, lycopene, beta-carotene and lutein on UNB-induced lipid peroxidation ... Lycopene, beta-carotene and lutein were capable of decreasing UV-induced formation of thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances at 1 hour to levels 40-50% of controls free of carotenoids."

6. Stahl et al 2001, which states, "Carotenoids are efficient antioxidants capable of scavenging reactive oxygen species generated under conditions of photooxidative stress. It has been shown that supplementation with high doses of beta-carotene protects skin against UV-induced erythema. ... The data demonstrate that it is feasible to achieve protection against UV light-induced erythema by ingestion of a commonly consumed dietary source of lycopene."

7. Stahl et al 2000, which stated, "Erythema on dorsal skin (back) was significantly diminished (P < 0.01) after week 8, and erythema suppression was greater with the combination of carotenoids and vitamin E than with carotenoids alone. CONCLUSION: The antioxidants used in this study provided protection against erythema in humans and may be useful for diminishing sensitivity to ultraviolet light." hi accord with these scientific statements, two carotenoid products have been sold, for tanning purposes. The first such product was called OROBRONZE(TM), and it contained canthaxanthin (also spelled as canthaxanthine). It was a successful product for several years; however, after people had been using it for some time, it was recognized and declared to be unsafe, and it was withdrawn, pulled off the market, and declared illegal for sale as a tanning agent, in the United States and presumably in at least some other countries as well. The unwanted side effect it caused involved crystals that were being formed in the retinas of people who had been taking OROBRONZE capsules for a sustained period, h those retinas, the canthaxanthin crystals were described as having an appearance similar to "gold dust", involving tiny discrete flecks that were clearly visible as small dots within the retinal tissue. That side effect is described in medical articles such as McGuinness et al 1985, Lonn 1987, and White et al 1988.

Even though canthaxanthin was declared illegal as a suntanning agent because of the retinal problems it caused, it is still being sold in the United States, as a suntanning agent, by various small companies, and it can be located fairly easily by anyone who searches the Internet. One such product that was readily found on an Internet search in January 2004 was CANTHOREX(TM) capsules, sold by Selmedica Healthcare, via websites such as www.tarniingpillsphts.com. It contains an enormous dosage of 500 mg per pill, with recommendations to take up to 6 pills per day depending on body weight. Most other canthaxanthin pills contain 30 nag/day, such as Bronze EZee, sold by Gibraltar Products (www . gibraltarproducts . com) .

After canthaxanthin was declared illegal, those who searching for a legal oral tanning agent turned their attention to beta-carotene. At least one product, called ELUSUN(TM) is still being sold for that purpose, and it has been discussed in numerous published articles (e.g., Mathews-Roth 1986, Stahl et al 1998).

However, high-dosage beta-carotene, when used as an oral tanning agent, suffers from at least three well-known problems and limitations.

First, it tends to impart a somewhat peculiar and jaundiced orange or yellowish color to the skin, rather than creating the type of golden-brown that appears in natural suntans (often referred to a "bronze" color, but that term is more suggestive than accurate). People who sell and/or choose to take large quantities of beta-carotene often refer to the orange-ish color it creates as a "carotenoid glow", to put the best face on the unpleasant fact that it is not a natural suntan color.

The second major and well-known problem of beta-carotene as a tanning agent is that it is not very effective, reliable, or uniform, when taken at less than extremely high dosages. Although it will impart a tint to a light-skinned person if taken at extremely high dosages, controlled studies that limited dosages to high but scientifically and medically reasonable levels, and which then tested its ability to actually protect skin against ultraviolet damage under controlled conditions, have reported results that usually are characterized as inconsistent or only weakly effective. As stated in Biesalski et al 2001, "most clinical studies [involving protection against skin damage caused by ultraviolet radiation] have failed to convincingly demonstrate its beneficial effects so far." A more blunt and revealing commentary, from someone who actually tried it to see whether it would help generate a suntan, can be downloaded from http://www.sunless.com/safe/tanningpillsdontwork.php. Sample quotes include, "I have heard from several people who have taken it. They all informed me that not a single thing happened after they took the two month supply." It completely failed in that reviewer, when taken at 80 mg/day, but he suggested it might have some effect at 150 mg/day (apparently he did not try that dosage, because of the cost of that particular brand).

The third major problem and limitation is that when beta-carotene is taken at very high dosages, it passes beyond a safe level, into a danger zone, and begins to create important, severe, and even life-threatening health risks. These risks can be regarded as having two separate but possibly intertwined components. First, as stated in Eichler et al 2002, "The amounts of carotenoid needed for optimal protection [in certain types of cell culture tests, which used human fibroblast cells] were divergent at 0.05, 0.40 and 0.30 nmol/mg protein for lycopene, beta-carotene and lutein, respectively. Beyond the optimum levels, further increases of carotenoid levels in cells led to prooxidαnt effects." Similarly, as stated in Biesalski et al 2001, "Recent studies on skin cells in culture have revealed that beta-carotene acts not only as an antioxidant but also has unexpected prooxidant properties."

The term "j3ro-oxidant" is crucially important, and demands attention. It means that when beta-carotene is taken at high dosages, its normal and beneficial activity as an anti-oxidant is somehow reversed. For reasons that are not yet understood, it begins to act in the opposite direction, and it actually begins to aggravate, worsen, and increase the damage and destruction that are inflicted on cells and tissue by oxidative free radicals.

In addition to those very serious concerns over pro-oxidant activity and tissue damage, beta-carotene also has been shown to increase the risks of cancer, among smokers (it should be noted there is a large overlap, among people who lαiowingly disregard the health risks and warnings while they continue to smoke, and people who lαiowingly disregard the health risks and warnings while they continue to seek the best possible suntan). In the mid to late I990's, in three large and well-run trials involving multiple thousands of test patients and controls, it was clearly shown that daily ingestion of only 30 to 60 mg/day of beta-carotene substantially increased the risk of lung cancer among smokers, by factors approaching 30%. Those studies, which are reviewed in articles such as Goodman 2000, included the Beta Carotene and Retinol Efficacy Trial (CARET), done in the United States, and the Alpha-Tocopherol, Beta-Carotene (ATBC) Cancer Prevention Study, done in Finland.

To place the 30 to 60 mg/day dosages (which increased cancer risks) into context, they were only a fraction of the recommended dosage levels of 180 mg/day, in a test of people who were given beta-carotene to treat skin problems (Mathews-Roth 1993), and the 150 mg/day dosage level of that was contemplated, but not tried, by the reviewer at www.sunless.com.

Therefore, the increased risks of lung cancer at 30 to 60 mg/day raise very serious questions about whether beta-carotene can be taken safely, by anyone, at the >100 mg/day dosages that are required to induce any noticeable and substantial skin darkening.

Serious questions have been publicly raised by physicians and scientists about whether anyone should take supplements that contain more beta-carotene than present in conventional multi vitamins. Beyond those general warnings to the entire public, there can be no doubt that smokers should be advised strongly against taking beta-carotene supplements at high dosages.

On a practical level, despite some lingering interest among a few researchers who continue to study oral tanning agents, the huge majority of active interest in sunless tanning agents has shifted entirely to lotions, spray-on agents, "airbrush" tints, and other topical formulations that are spread directly on the skin, rather than being ingested orally. Such agents have been developed to a fairly high level of sophistication and effectiveness, and can generate an almost immediate, clearly noticeable, and (in most cases) streak-free, consistent, and appealing darkening of the skin. This can be quickly confirmed by consulting with anyone who works in that field, or by searching the Internet for active websites that appear when "sunless tanning" is used as the search term.

It also should be noted that the term "photoprotective" is frequently used to refer to agents that can protect against sunburn, create or enhance tans, etc. However, that term is not favored or used herein, since it is too broad and non-specific, and can include every type of formulation discussed herein, plus a wide range of other agents as well (including hats, sunglasses, conventional sunblocking and SPF-rated suntan lotions, and opaque ointments and creams). Many types of "photoprotective" agents are intended simply to block the harmful rays of the sun. By contrast, this invention relates to oral agents that can treat the skin in a maimer that will lead to a change in pigmentation and/or antioxidant concentration within and/or beneath the skin, in a manner which will render the skin better-prepared to deal with direct sunlight, thereby reducing the risk and/or severity of skin problems such as sunburns, premature wrinkling and aging, skin cancer, etc.

On the subject of orally-ingested tanning agents, it should be noted that other agents, such as tyrosine (an amino acid that is a precursor of melanin) are sometimes sold as being melanin accelerators. However, those are only marginally effective at best, and are generally dismissed as being ineffective in reviews and analyses that are available on websites such as www.sunless.com/safe/tanningpillsdontwork.php.

It also should be noted that research is being done on other agents, including "melanocyte-stimulating hormone" (MSH) and various analogs or active fragments thereof. Although such approaches may become available to the public someday, they are not available now, and they fall into a completely different class of treatment than carotenoid pigments, as discussed herein.

BACKGROUND ON CAROTENOIDS

"Carotenoids" were recognized, at least 20 years ago, as having good potential as orally-ingested tanning agents, because of the biological roles and effects of carotenoids in nature. Since zeaxanthin (the subject of this current invention) is a carotenoid, some background information on carotenoids in general is required.

Briefly, carotenoids are large organic molecules that have numerous double bonds between carbon atoms; the chemical structures of several important carotenoid molecules are shown in the enclosed Figure 1.

The alternating pattern of double and single bonds shown in Fig. 1 is referred to as "conjugation". The bond sequences shown in the drawings is conventionally used to represent carotenoids; because of the alternating positions of the double and single bonds, the electrons in those conjugated regions actually form a fluid-like and movable network, which resembles the "resonating" or "electron cloud" structures of aromatic rings such as benzene.

This "resonating" system of interacting electrons in a movable cloud allows carotenoids to absorb UN light very efficiently, without being destroyed. In a sense, this absorbing action is analogous to a boxing glove punching a rubber tire, rather than a wooden board; because the rubber in the tire can flex and adapt when it is struck, it will not be broken, even by a blow that would easily break a wooden board.

On the subject of conjugation, it should be noted that zeaxanthin has a higher degree of conjugation than lutein. As shown in FIG. 1, the conjugated (and therefore resonant) electron structure of zeaxanthin extends into both of the end rings. That does not occur with lutein, which is non-symmetric, and which has a non-conjugated end ring.

It also should be noted, from FIG. 1, that zeaxanthin and lutein each have a hydroxy group on each of their end rings, while beta-carotene does not have any hydroxy groups. As is well known to chemists, when hydroxy groups are added to a hydrocarbon molecule, they tend to make that molecule more polar, and more soluble in water. Since the two hydroxy groups on zeaxanthin and lutein are positioned on their end rings, they tend to cause zeaxanthin and lutein to align themselves, in a cell membrane, in a "membrane-spanning" or "membrane-straddling" orientation, with portions of the two end rings sticking out of both the interior and exterior sides of the membrane. By contrast, since beta-carotene has no hydroxy groups, it tends to remain aligned fully within the fatty interior layer of a cell membrane.

It should also be kept in mind that after beta-carotene is ingested, one of its predominant fates is to be cleaved in half, so that the two halves can be used to make Vitamin A and other retinoid molecules. That apparently does not happen with zeaxanthin. Therefore, ingested zeaxanthin appears to be capable of lasting and enduring, in a mammalian body, for substantially longer periods of time than beta-carotene.

Because of their extremely useful roles as UN absorbers, and also as anti-oxidants (as discussed below), carotenoids evolved over the eons to play very important roles in plant leaves, and in bacteria that must grow in direct and prolonged sunlight.

As indicated above, carotenoids are pigment molecules. Their colors are generally red, orange, or yellow, because those are the color ranges that remain and are reflected outwardly, when light in the blue and ultraviolet region of the spectrum is absorbed by the carotenoid molecules. When the leaves of trees or bushes turn red, orange, and yellow in the fall, those colors are due mainly to carotenoids, which become the dominant pigments in the leaves after chlorophyll production slows down because of cold weather, and after any chlorophyll that still remains in the leaves when cold weather arrives is gradually degraded. hi addition to being pigments that can absorb ultraviolet radiation, carotenoids also are potent anti-oxidant compounds. This means that they can "scavenge" or "quench" certain types of highly reactive and damaging molecules called "oxygen free radicals". Oxygen free radicals are commonly created when a photon of UV light breaks apart a biological molecule that contains oxygen, in a manner that creates a single "unshared electron" on one surface of the oxygen atom. Because oxygen free radicals are highly unstable and reactive, they pose a serious danger of randomly attacking and damaging nearly any type of biological molecule or membrane. Therefore, the ability of carotenoid molecules to absorb and "quench" oxidative free radicals played a very important and useful contributory role in the evolution of carotenoid molecules as one of the primary natural defenses against UV damage in plants, and among bacteria that must be able to withstand direct sunlight for hours. hi comparing zeaxanthin to beta-carotene as a potential orally-ingested tanning agent, two additional factors should be noted. First, zeaxanthin (as well as lutein, canthaxanthine, and various other carotenoids) are classified as "non-retinoid" compounds, whereas beta-carotene is a retinoid compound. The distinction between those two classes is that retinoid compounds are cleaved into two segments, and those two smaller molecules become Vitamin A, or similar molecules (which are generally classified as retinoid compounds). By contrast, "non-retinoid" carotenoids are not cleaved in that manner (at least, not in substantial quantities), and are not converted into Vitamin A or other retinoid compounds. A second major factor which distinguishes zeaxanthin from beta-carotene, as a skin tanning agent, centers on effective dosage levels. As mentioned above, when people were given beta-carotene to treat skin diseases such as porphyria, effective dosage levels of 180 mg/day were required. By contrast, among people taking zeaxanthin, dosages of only about one-sixth to about one-third of those levels (in the range of 30 to 60 mg/day) were required to induce substantial darkening of skin tint. Lower required dosages can lead not just to cost savings, but also to substantially higher margins of safety, and other benefits.

Some recent patents indicated that there may still be some interest in developing orally-ingested formulations for use in protecting people against the adverse effects of ultraviolet light, either for reducing the risks of skin cancer, or possibly for suntanning purposes.

US patent 5,290,605 (Shapira 1994) discloses the use of carotenoid mixtures in cold drinks, as opposed to pills. As stated therein, people who are subjected to hot sunlight are more likely to drink cold drinks, than pills or other formulations. Zeaxanthin, lutein, and numerous other carotenoids were mentioned at column 2, lines 24-26, as candidates that could be included, but no particular attention was given to either zeaxanthin or lutein.

US patent 6,254,898 (Bragaglia 2001) discloses a mixture of green tea extract, lutein, lipoic acid, and selenomethionine, for use as an oral tanning agent. One of those ingredients, lutein, is a carotenoid, and also is an isomer of zeaxanthin, as shown in FIG. 1, with the only differece between them being in the placement of a double bond in one (but not both) of the two end rings. As mentioned in the '898 patent, most of the plant sources (such as marigold flowers, which are bright yellow or orange) which are used to obtain commercial quantities of lutein also contain trace amounts of zeaxanthin; therefore, the tanning mixtures patented by Bragaglia referred to "lutein (zeaxanthin)".

US patent 6,433,025 (Lorenz 2002) claimed the use of a different carotenoid, called astaxanthin, in orally-ingested tanning products. According to Lorenz, astaxanthin has roughly ten times the potency of other carotenoids (including castaxanthin, lutein, zeaxanthin, etc.) as an anti-oxidant protective agent.

BACKGROUND INFORMATION ON ZEAXANTHIN AND LUTEIN

The subject invention focuses on zeaxanthin, a carotenoid that has been shown by the inventors herein to be useful as an orally-ingested tanning agent, when ingested at relatively high dosages in the range discussed below.

In the mid-1980's, it was discovered that zeaxanthin and lutein (their structures, which are very similar, are shown in FIG. 1) are the two carotenoids that are present in a small yellow-colored spot at the center of the human retina, called the macula.

Lutein can be obtained cheaply, in bulk, from marigold flowers, and it has been available for years. It is widely fed to chickens and to farm-raised salmon, since it helps create a darker and richer color to chicken skin, egg yolks, and salmon meat, which makes those pigmented products look fresher, healthier, and more appealing to purchasers and consumers. However, lutein tends to impart a yellow (rather than golden) tint to chickens and fish, when fed to them as a food additive. Therefore, lutein usually must be accompanied by at least one red-colored pigment, to allow the pigment mixture to impart a more desirable darker and richer golden tint to chickens and salmon.

Unlike lutein from marigolds, zeaxanthin has no simple and convenient plant source, and is present at only very tiny concentrations in natural foods. It also is very difficult to synthesize and purify. Therefore, zeaxanthin did not become commercially available to the public until 2002. It is sold in 3 and 10 mg capsules by ZeaVision LLC (the Applicant company herein), via a website, www.zeavision.com. It is also sold, in smaller quantities, by a number of other retailers.

Because they are both lαiown to be present in the human retina, and because they are both known to have UV-absorbing and anti-oxidant properties, lutein and zeaxanthin have recently begun to be advertised and sold as being potentially useful in helping treat or reduce the risk of a retinal disease called "macular degeneration", which is a leading cause of blindness among the elderly. Under the "DSHEA" law (an acronym for the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act, passed by Congress in 1994), those types of sales are allowed under a set of rules that apply to "dietary supplements" which contain ingredients that already exist in foods and are part of the normal human diet. Since lutein and zeaxanthin both exist in spinach, com, and certain other vegetables, they qualify for DSHEA (pronounced as "de-shay") treatment, and they are not regulated by the FDA under the types of strict standards that apply to drugs. However, because they have not undergone extensive testing in actual human clinical trials, lutein and zeaxanthin are prohibited by law from being labeled or advertised as having proven medical benefits. Under the DSHEA rules, the labels for lutein and/or zeaxanthin supplements are required by law to contain disclaimers such as, "These statements have not been evaluated by the Food and Dmg Administration. This product is not intended to diagnose, treat, cure, or prevent any disease."

Before 2002, commercially available "mixed carotenoid" products that claimed to contain zeaxanthin contained only very small ("trace") quantities of zeaxanthin, and much higher concentrations of lutein. These lopsided ratios occur because lutein is a much more dominant carotenoid, in plants. This is believed to occur because lutein has a "kinked" structure which allows it to fit better in certain types of structures used by plants in photosynthesis. As an illustration of the lopsided majority of lutein over zeaxanthin, various sales brochures and other publications issued by the Kemin company (Des Monies, Iowa) for their FLORA-GLO(TM) brand of lutein from marigolds indicate that the ratio of lutein to zeaxanthin in their products are about 20:1, in favor of lutein.

However, in the early 1990's, various scientific findings began to suggest that the human retina (in particular, the macular portion of the retina, which is a yellow-pigmented spot at the center of the retina) appears to prefer zeaxanthin over lutein. This is evidenced by three factors: (i) the concentration of zeaxanthin is highest, and the concentration of lutein is lowest, near the very center of the macula; (ii) the fraction of lutein becomes higher, and the fraction of zeaxanthin decreases, around the outer portion of the macula; and, (iii) the macular portion of the retina apparently converts at least some of the lutein it receives into zeaxanthin (as noted below, it converts lutein into the S-R meso-zeaxanthin stereoisomer, which is not found in natural food sources). These factors are discussed in more detail in articles such as Bone et al 1985 and 1993.

Although the reasons for those differing patterns of retinal deposition are not fully understood, they appear to reflect the following facts: (i) zeaxanthin is entirely symmetrical (i.e., it can be flipped end-to-end and give the exact same molecule), while lutein is not (its two end rings have different structures); and, (ii) zeaxanthin has a higher degree of conjugation, with an electron cloud that extends over a portion of both of the end rings of zeaxanthin; by contrast, one of the two end rings of lutein has no conjugation at all.

When considering the importance of those two factors, two more factors should be kept in mind: (1) the conjugated electron cloud over lutein or zeaxanthin is crucially important, in absorbing and quenching ultraviolet photons, and in absorbing and quenching destmctive oxygen free radicals as well; and, (2) because of their "membrane straddling" positioning, in an animal cell membrane, only zeaxanthin (and not lutein) can extend a conjugated electron cloud out beyond both the interior and exterior surfaces of an animal cell membrane.

One particular stereoisomer of zeaxanthin, referred to as the 3R,3'R isomer (or simply as the R-R isomer), is the only stereoisomer of zeaxanthin that is lαiown to exist in natural food sources. It is present (but only at very small quantities) in a com ("zea" is the Latin name for com), and various dark green vegetables.

As described below, two other stereoisomers (known as the S-S isomer, and the S-R isomer which is also called meso-zeaxanthin) are also lαiown, and the S-R isomer can be manufactured in commercial quantities, if desired, using lutein as a starting material. However, neither of those isomers are present in any significant quantity in any food sources. Although at least one report (Maoka et al 1986) reported that me-so-zeaxanthin had been found in certain types of marine life, it was later recognized that a harsh alkaline extraction process, which Maoka et al used to extract carotenoids from the fish tissue, was likely to have converted any lutein in those tissues to /ne-so-zeaxanthin.

Despite its absence from food sources, the me-so-zeaxanthin isomer is known to be present, in very small quantities, in human retinas. Since it is not present in food sources or in the circulating blood of humans, it is generally presumed and believed that me-so-zeaxanthin in human retinas is likely to be the result of enzymatic or possibly photo-activated chemical conversion of lutein into zeaxanthin.

It should be noted that the conversion of lutein into me-SO-zeaxanthin, inside the human retina, also provides additional evidence that the human retina needs and prefers zeaxanthin over lutein. Additional evidence which supports that conclusion is also contained in recent articles such as Gale et al 2003.

If lutein, zeaxanthin, and other carotenoids (including beta-carotene) are orally ingested in relatively high quantities, they compete against each other for uptake and transport tlirough the intestinal walls and into circulating blood. This is presumed to be attributable to a carotenoid transport system, which can become saturated and unable to transport higher quantities of carotenoids tlirough the intestinal walls and into the bloodstream. Therefore, if a mixture of zeaxanthin and lutein (or, presumably, zeaxanthin combined with beta-carotene or any other carotenoid) is orally ingested, the presence of the lutein or other carotenoid will hinder and reduce the quantity of zeaxanthin which will reach and enter the circulating blood.

Because of certain apparent and presumed advantages of zeaxanthin over lutein, the first Inventor herein has worked for more than a decade on the creation and commercialization of purified zeaxanthin (i.e., zeaxanthin which is free or essentially free of lutein, in a preparation that was not derived from a plant source). Among other things, he is the coinventor of five U.S. and numerous foreign patents on methods for making (and compositions containing) purified zeaxanthin, with little or no lutein present. Those US patents include two patents (US 5,308,759 and 5,427,783) which relate primarily to pigmented feed additives for poultry and farm-raised salmon, as briefly mentioned above, and three subsequent patents which relate to using zeaxanthin for medical purposes, in humans. Those three patents which relate to medical use in humans are US 5,854,015 (on a method of making the purified 3R,3'R stereoisomer of zeaxanthin), 5,747,544 (on a method of using 3R,3'R-zeaxanthin to treat macular degeneration), and Reissue patent Re-38,009 (on zeaxanthin formulations for human ingestion). The contents and teachings of all five of those patents are incorporated herein by reference, as though fully set forth herein.

Several years ago, that Inventor realized he had a unique opportunity to test zeaxanthin as a potential agent for preventing or reducing sunburn. He was already serving as one of the volunteers in a small-scale trial to measure zeaxanthin concentrations in circulating blood and retinal tissue, as a function of daily dosage levels, and he was planning a vacation trip to the Caribbean. He was aware of the problems (involving formation of canthaxanthin crystals in the retina) caused by the OROBRONZE product that had been pulled off the market some years earlier, and he realized that zeaxanthin probably would not cause similar problems, since it is naturally present in healthy retinas. Accordingly, he decided to begin taking a dosage of zeaxanthin (in the range of about 60 mg per day for roughly 2 weeks, increasing to about 80 mg/day for the week before the trip began) which began to cause a noticeable change in his skin color in a mamier comparable to a mild suntan, just before leaving for his trip to the Caribbean.

During that trip, he noticed that he did not suffer any significant sunburns, even though he deliberately subjected himself to prolonged sessions of direct exposure to sunlight on a couple of occasions, at levels that would have caused serious sunburns during other times.

That trip provided the initial evidence showing that zeaxanthin, as a sole active agent and at a sufficient dosage which could begin to provoke a noticeable change in skin color, could serve as an effective way to prevent sunburn. However, the only supplies of purified zeaxanthin that were available at that time had come from lab-scale fermentation of the F. multivoram bacterial cells that are discussed below, in Example 1, and in the US patents cited above.

Subsequently, as soon as adequate supplies of purified zeaxanthin became available for testing on other people, the Inventor mentioned above discussed his own experiences, in using high-dosage zeaxanthin to prevent sunburns, with certain other individuals. Two of those people decided to try it, and their successful and positive reports (described in Examples 2 and 3) confirmed that purified zeaxanthin, when taken at relatively high dosages, is highly effective in helping prevent and reduce the severity of sunburns.

Subsequently, three individuals carried out another set of skin protection tests, using a medical-grade ultraviolet lamp to determine their "minimal erythemal dosage" levels. The medical term "erythema" refers to the type of reddening of the skin that typically occurs during sunburn (similar types of erythema also occur during inflammation of an injured or infected area). Therefore, in the context of testing for sunburn protection, the phrase "minimal erythemal dosage" (abbreviated as MED) refers to a quantity of UN exposure that will generate a reddened surface appearance, of the type that occurs when skin is sunburned. MED values can be expressed in terms of minutes of exposure, if a single lamp is used for a series of tests, and if each volunteer ensures that the distance between the UN bulb, and his/her skin, is held constant throughovrt the entire series of tests (this can be done with the required degree of accuracy by steps such as leaning one hip against a wall while the other hip is being exposed, and placing the lamp base at a marked and unchanging location on the floor). hi all of the people who participated in the UN lamp tests, at all dosage regimens tested (30 mg/day or higher), MED levels increased substantially. The results are described in the Examples, below.

These positive results, on three different test subjects who are all adult Caucasian males, consistently indicated that zeaxanthin dosages of 30 mg or greater did indeed decrease the vulnerability and susceptibility of skin to sunbu ning, and led to substantial increases in UN-exposure levels that were required to demonstrate any noticeable reddening of the skin.

It also should be noted that the first subject described above commenced taking high-dosage anti-oxidants, a number of weeks before his zeaxanthin regimen started. Therefore, any effect that those anti-oxidants may have had, in protecting his skin against UN damage, were factored into his baseline (pre-zeaxanthin) reading, and the increase in UN protection provided by the zeaxanthin regimen had to act on top of that.

Accordingly, one object of this invention is to disclose that zeaxanthin, when ingested at suitable dosages (such as about 5 mg/day for children, and 20 mg/day or greater in small and or especially fair-skinned adults, and about 30 to 100 mg/day for a large adult), can provide highly effective protection against sunburns, even if no other tanning agents of any sort are used.

Another object of this invention is to disclose that zeaxanthin, when ingested at suitable dosages in a purified formulation where it is the sole or dominant carotenoid, can provide highly effective protection against sunburns.

A third object of this invention is to disclose that zeaxanthin, when ingested at suitable dosages over a span of several days, can provide effective protection against sunburns.

A fourth object of this invention is to disclose that zeaxanthin can be added, as an active agent, preferably at a concentration of at least about 25% of all carotenoids in the preparation, and preferably at a dosage of at least 20 and even more preferably at least 30 mg/day, to orally ingested tanning fomiulations that may contain any other desired active agent, and the zeaxanthin will increase the efficacy of the oral tanning agent.

A fifth object of this invention is to disclose that zeaxanthin can be included as an active agent in orally ingested tanning formulations, and it will provide significant ocular benefits, with no lαiown risk of retinopathy or other ocular damage or other tissue damage (as can be caused by other carotenoids), even when ingested in large dosages.

Another object of this invention is to disclose that zeaxanthin, when ingested at suitable dosages, can help protect the skin of at least some patients who suffer from abnormally high vulnerability to sunlight, such as among patients who are taking certain types of antibiotics or other pharmaceuticals, or patients who are suffering from a disease or syndrome such as albinism or porphyria. Another object of this invention is to disclose that zeaxanthin, when ingested at suitable dosages, is likely to help reduce the incidence and severity of various types of unwanted skin discolorations or irregularities, such as skin blotching, splotching, or other irregular discolorations, and possibly the formation of severe and unwanted freckling and various other adverse conditions, in at least some patients.

These and other objects of the invention will become more apparent through the following summary and description.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

A carotenoid substance called zeaxanthin, when ingested orally at suitable dosages such as 30 to 100 mg/day, can provide effective protection against sunburns. Zeaxanthin can also help sunburned and reddened skin be gradually converted into skin that appears to be completely healthy and tam ed, rather than flaking or peeling off. A person who is anticipating a high level of sun exposure during approaching summer months, or during a vacation, business trip, golf or fishing outing, ski trip, or other travel or activity, can take a suitable dosage (such as about 30 to 100 mg/day) of zeaxanthin, for a span of roughly one to two weeks, prior to the anticipated high levels of sun exposure. In tests involving adults with relatively light-skinned complexions, it was found that zeaxanthin dosages of 30 to about 80 mg per day were sufficient to induce: (i) a mild but noticeable tinting, shading, or darkening of skin color, comparable to a mild suntan; (ii) a substantial increase in the person's ability to endure and withstand elevated levels of sun or UV exposure without any subsequent pain or discomfort, and without the subsequent peeling and flaking that characterizes most sunburns; and, (iii) an increased ability of reddened and sunburned skin to convert into intact skin that looks browned and healthily tanned.

A person can take oral zeaxanthin at suitable dosages for such purposes, in unit dosage fomiulations such as capsules or tablets, or in syrups or other liquid formulations, or as additives in various types of drinks or food preparations or substances that do not require high- temperature cooking, h this manner, zeaxanthin can be combined with controlled and/or supplemental exposure to direct sunlight or tanning lights, and/or combined with other active agents, such as dihydroxyacetone and/or tanning lotions or creams. This can reduce the amount of exposure to sunlight (or tanning lights) that will be required to achieve a desired level of tanning. In this manner, zeaxanthin can reduce the risks of skin cancer, premature aging, and similar problems.

Zeaxanthin can also provide preventive or therapeutic benefits among at least some patients who suffer from, or who are at elevated risk of, various other types of skin conditions, syndromes, or diseases. This includes patients who suffer from albinism, porphyria, or skin blotching or other lesions, and among patients taking certain types of antibiotics that increase their sensitivity to sunlight.

Since zeaxanthin is a potent anti-oxidant, and since it also has retina-protecting properties and appears to reduce the risk of a retinal disease called macular degeneration, oral ingestion of these dosages of a zeaxanthin, to enhance a tanned appearance and/or to protect against sunburn, premature aging and wrinkling of the skin, and skin cancer, is believed to pose no health risks, and instead can offer several health advantages, due to the anti-oxidant and retina-protecting activities of zeaxanthin.

This invention also discloses capsules containing zeaxanthin in a dosage range of about 20 to about 50 mg. These quantities are substantially higher than any capsules developed for any other purposes, such as for treating or preventing macular degeneration. If such formulations also contain lutein, beta-carotene, lycopene, astaxanthin, canthaxanthin, or any other carotenoids, the zeaxanthin content preferably should comprise at least 25% of the total carotenoid content.

This invention also discloses capsules containing zeaxanthin in a range of about 20 to about 50 mg, accompanied by one or more other carotenoids selected from the group consisting of lycopene, astaxanthin, and canthaxanthin, preferably without also containing substantial quantities of lutein or beta-carotene.

This invention also discloses capsules, foodstuffs, and drinks, that contain zeaxanthin in a dosage range of about 20 to about 80 mg per day, wherein the zeaxanthin comprises at least about 25% of total carotenoid content. If such formulations also contain one or more additional carotenoids, the preferred carotenoids are lycopene, astaxanthin, and canthaxanthin. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIGURE 1 shows the chemical structure of zeaxanthin, along with beta-carotene and lutein for comparative purposes. Although the alternating single and double bonds (which are "conjugated") are shown in fixed positions in these drawings, the electrons are actually in a movable and "resonant" electron cloud that is distributed across the entire straight-chain portions of these molecules, in a manner comparable to the electrons over a benzene ring. This allows the electron clouds to absorb ultraviolet photons and oxygen radicals very efficiently, without destroying the carotenoid molecules. It should be noted that zeaxanthin is symmetric while lutein is not, and that the conjugation of zeaxanthin extends over a portion of both of its end rings, while lutein's conjugation extends partially over only one of its two end rings.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

As summarized above, zeaxanthin, when ingested orally at relatively high dosages, has been shown to be effective in: (i) protecting against sunburns; (ii) causing a tinting of the skin in a manner that resembles a healthy and natural suntan; and, (iii) allowing sunburned and reddened skin to gradually convert to a healthy-looking tanned brown shade, rather than flaking or peeling off.

In addition, orally-ingested zeaxanthin also caused two other highly useful effects, when skin was tested using a medical-grade UV lamp, as described in Example 5. These tests were carried out in a manner which ensured that some small patches of skin, exposed to high-intensity UV radiation through the openings in a specialized shield that had been taped to the skin, would become seriously sunburned. The results of those tests clearly indicated, first, that the ingestion of about 60 or more mg of zeaxanthin per day led to "plateau effects", in which exposed patches of skin that received fairly long durations of UN exposure would reach a certain level of redness, but would not become significantly redder, even if exposed to substantially longer durations of light.

Secondly, the results of those tests also indicated that even if a patch of skin turned a fairly bright and intense shade of red, following extended exposure to high-intensity UN light, that patch of skin would not blister, flake, or peel off during the following days. Instead, in volunteers who were taking more than about 50 mg of zeaxanthin per day, a red patch of UN-burned skin would be converted, over a span of roughly 1 to 2 weeks, into a brown patch with a healthy suntanned appearance, which strongly suggested the presence of increased levels of melanin (the dark brown pigment that appears in naturally suntanned skin) rather than zeaxanthin (a reddish-orange pigment).

Accordingly, stated in various alternate but consistent terms, this invention discloses that zeaxanthin (in sufficient dosages) can (i) reduce the risks of skin damage due to ultraviolet radiation; (ii) inhibit the adverse effects of ultraviolet radiation on the skin; and, (iii) increase skin tolerance to ultraviolet radiation. These types of skin damage and/or adverse effects that can be prevented or reduced by zeaxanthin include sunburn, premature aging or wrinkling associated with excess ultraviolet exposure, skin cancer (including melanoma or any other type of skin or cutaneous cancer), elevated risk of skin cancer, and skin lesions or uneven-pattern discolorations (including skin blotching, abnormally severe freckling, etc).

A purified form of zeaxanthin recently has become available to the public, from a company (ZeaVision LLC; www.zeavision.com) founded by the first designated inventor herein. It currently is sold in 10 mg capsules that can be ingested easily and conveniently. Accordingly, a person who is anticipating a high level of sun exposure during approaching summer months, or during a vacation or business trip that may involve golf, fishing, boating, skiing, sporting, or other outdoor activity or travel, can take from two to about ten of these capsules per day, for a span of roughly one to two weeks, prior to the anticipated high levels of sun exposure. Alternately or additionally, someone who wants to maintain a reasonably dark and suntanned skin tone throughout the course of the summer and into the fall can take from one to about five of these capsules per day, for as long as desired (including throughout the entire winter and spring seasons).

Alternate preferred formulations include capsules containing zeaxanthin in a dosage range of about 20 to about 50 mg. These quantities are substantially higher than any capsules developed for any other purposes, such as for treating or preventing macular degeneration. If such fomiulations also contain lutein, beta-carotene, lycopene, astaxanthin, canthaxanthin, or any other carotenoids, the zeaxanthin content preferably should comprise at least 25% of the total carotenoid content.

Alternate preferred formulations include capsules or tablets, foodstuffs, or drinks containing zeaxanthin in a range of about 20 to about 50 mg (either per unit dosage, or as a recommended daily dosage), accompanied by one or more other carotenoids selected from the group consisting of lycopene, astaxanthin, and canthaxanthin. Preferably, such formulations should not also contain substantial quantities of lutein or beta-carotene. If a zeaxanthin formulation does contain other carotenoids, the zeaxanthin preferably should comprise at least about 25% of total carotenoid content (and even more preferably at least about 50°0o of of total carotenoid content). Preferred carotenoids are lycopene, astaxanthin, and canthaxanthin.

Lycopene (which is the main red-colored carotenoid that is present in tomatoes and cooked tomato products) is an especially preferred carotenoid, and can be present (along with zeaxanthin) at any desired dosage. By contrast, astaxanthin and canthaxanthin are both used and treated as food colorings, and preferably should be ingested only sparingly, in relatively low quantities.

As used herein, references to "high dosages" and similar terms refer to any dosage of zeaxanthin that is about 20 mg or higher per day. Minimal effective dosages for skin-tinting or UN-protection use have not yet been carefully evaluated, and dosages as low as about 10 or 20 mg/day are anticipated to be capable of producing at least some detectable results (i.e., darker skin color and/or increased resistance to UN burning) in at least some people, including children and some adults with relatively pale skin. It is generally presumed that: (i) people who weigh less and/or have lower skin surface areas will likely show noticeable skin responses at lower dosage levels, compared to people who have more body mass and more skin surface; and, (ii) people who have light or very light complexions are likely to notice greater responses, in terms of more intense skin tinting and/or an increase in resistance to UN burning, than people who naturally have darker complexions.

Although dosages of only 10 to 20 mg/day may provide some benefits to some people, preferred skin-protecting dosages for adults heavier than about 60 kg (about 130 lbs.) start at about 30 mg/day, and extend up to about 100 mg/day. hi tests involving several moderately large male adults with light or medium complexions, it was found that zeaxanthin dosages in a range of about 30 to about 80 mg per day were sufficient to induce: (i) a mild but noticeable darkening of skin pigmentation, comparable to a mild suntan; (ii) a substantial increase in the person's ability to endure and withstand elevated levels of sun or UN exposure without any subsequent pain or discomfort, and without the subsequent peeling and flaking that is characteristic of most sunburns; and, (iii) an increase in a person's ability to convert a reddened patch of skin, following high UN exposure levels, to a browned shade that appeared as a normal and healthy tan.

When considering preferred daily dosage ranges, the following general principles should be borne in mind:

1. A dosage level which induces a noticeable darkening or yellowing of the skin, in the palms of the hands and/or in one or more areas that are not normally exposed to sunlight, should be sufficient to provide at least some level of additional protection against sunburn;

2. A slight and mild yet clearly noticeable darkening of skin color can provide a good and useful way for a person to determine and use what will be, for that particular person, a safe and effective dosage of zeaxanthin that can provide increased sunburn protection;

3. Any person taking this product should be advised to use the normal precautions that are prudent whenever taking any new medicine. In most conditions, where rapidly accelerated tanning will not be necessary to avoid a sunburn, any person who begins taking it for the first time should start out with a dosage in a range of about 20 to 30 mg/day, and should continue that dosage for roughly a week before escalating to a higher dosage. Alternately, if someone leams that he or she will suddenly be subjected to dangerously high levels of sun, starting within a few days or a week, that person probably would be well-advised to start with a dosage of about 50 or 60 mg/day, before trying a higher dosage such as about 80 to 100 mg/day.

4. If a high dosage intended for skin tanning and/or sunburn protection leads to any noticeable adverse side effects, the person should stop taking it immediately, and if the adverse condition does not abate promptly, the person should consult a physician.

Accordingly, this invention also disclosed capsules or tablets containing zeaxanthin in a range of about 30 to about 50 mg. These unit-dosage quantities are substantially higher than any capsules or tablets previously developed for any other purposes, such as treating or preventing macular degeneration.

There is a strong preference herein for any such zeaxanthin to be limited, as much as practically possible, solely to the 3R,3'R stereoisomer, which is the only stereoisomer that has ever been shown to exist in any natural food source. Although meso-zeaxanthin can be synthesized by alkaline treatment of lutein, its safety has not been evaluated, h view of the important roles of stereoisomers in nutrition (such as in amino acids) and in drags, serious questions and concerns are raised by any attempt to sell me-yø-zeaxanthin for human use, without long-term safety testing done in advance of any such sales and use.

It should also be noted that "zeaxanthin" as that term is used herein is deemed to be interchangeable with "zeaxanthin esters". Such esters are known to be present in some but not all types of plants; however, any such esters are hydrolyzed (apparently relatively quickly) within the intestines, by esterase enzymes, thereby releasing zeaxanthin in its free form (also called its alcohol form, since it has hydroxy groups at both ends).

As used herein, "tablet" includes any solidified unit-dosage formulation that is homogenous, rather than encapsulated by a different layer of material. As is well known in the industry, tablets are typically formed by mixing an active agent with a so-called "binder" material that will take a fixed, specific, and durable shape when compressed to a suitable pressure in a mold. "Capsule" includes any unit dosage in which any type of distinct coating layer is used to encapsulate an active agent; this term includes conventional capsules, as well as so-called "soft-gel" capsules, and capsule-tablet hybrid forms (often called coated tablets, or "caplets") that include compressible binders but which are also coated with an outer layer (such as, for example, an enteric coating that will prevent degradation of a compound by stomach acids, and that will dissolve once the coated tablet reaches the intestines).

It should be noted that "unit dosage" formulations can also be provided in other manners, such as in individually- wrapped packets of a granular material, in a syrup or other liquid that has a lαiown concentration of active agent and that is accompanied by instructions to take a certain volume of the liquid each day, etc.

UPPER DOSAGE LIMITS

Unlike beta-carotene, and apparently in contrast to all other carotenoids that were reported and described in articles such as Stahl et al 2002 and Eichler et al 2002, there is no known and specific upper limit to dosages of zeaxanthin that can be ingested safely. To the best of the Inventors' knowledge and belief, no tests that have ever been done to date have ever indicated any "pro-oxidant" effects, or any other adverse impacts, of any sort, from high concentrations of zeaxanthin.

Based on tests done using lab animals, to determine whether any adverse effects could be detected at extremely high dosages, a "No Adverse Effect Level" (NOAEL) value of 1200 mg/day was reported to the U.S. Food and Dmg Administration (US-FDA), by Roche Vitamins hie. This value was subsequently made public by the US-FDA, in the "75-day Premarket Notification" for zeaxanthin, which was opened for public inspection by the FDA in June 2001, under docket number 95S-0316.

It should be recognized that NOAEL values do not state or imply that higher dosages would be injurious. Instead, a NOAEL value is merely a statement to the effect that: (i) an applicant company tested a certain compound up to a certain dosage level which is higher than the company anticipates using or recommending; and, (ii) the compound, when administered at that dosage level, did not cause any significant and observable adverse medical effects. With regard to NOAEL tests, it should be noted that if an animal or human turns an abnormal and unnatural shade of an orange, yellowish, or red color, that hyper-tinting effect is not regarded as an injurious medical effect, for the purpose of calculating NOAEL levels, so long as the abnormal tinting will recede and disappear within a reasonably brief period of time after pigment ingestion is discontinued.

Accordingly, it is presumed (unless and until human clinical trials indicate otherwise) that levels of several hundred milligrams per day likely can be tolerated by humans, with no adverse medical effects other than potentially abnormal and undesired tinting of the skin in ways that do not resemble natural and healthy tans. However, it must be emphasized that such dosages are not anticipated or recommended herein; instead, the maximum dosage that has been actually tested to date, in human volunteers, has been 80 mg/day, and one of the surprising results of those tests was in discovering how effective dosages of zeaxanthin in the range of 30 to 80 mg/day could be, in causing noticeable skin darkening, when compounds such as beta-carotene require much higher dosages to have a noticeable effect.

It should also be noted that high dosages of zeaxanthin tend to cause changes in fecal coloration, in humans. This is a reassuring factor, since it indicates that mammals can simply excrete zeaxanthin in their feces, if abnormally high dosages are ingested.

In view of the foregoing facts, it is recommended that anyone who wishes to take zeaxanthin for skin-tinting or skin-protection purposes should generally be advised to start with an initial dosage of about 30 to 50 mg/day, and stay at that initial dosage for at least a week or two before deciding whether to increase their ingestion levels to a higher dosage. It is also recommended by the Inventors that no one should exceed a dosage of 100 mg/day (or possibly 150 mg/day, if a person suddenly learns that he or she will be travelling to a high- sunlight region with less than 10 days advance notice), unless they are under the supervision of a qualified physician.

Despite that warning and recommendation, it should be recognized that a limited group of potential users is likely to want substantially higher dosages. This group includes people who are often referred to as "sun worshipers", who want to have a tan so dark that passers-by or strangers in a bar or restaurant will notice it quickly. The Inventors herein will not speculate on maximal tolerable or safe dosage levels, for people who are determined to have the darkest skin possible regardless of elevated risks of skin damage. However, the Inventors would point out that, among people who have chosen to pursue intensely dark tanning despite the known medical risks of accelerated wrinkling, aging, and skin cancer, ingestion of high dosages of zeaxanthin may well be able to render that type of tanning, which is potentially dangerous and wrinkle-accelerating, at least somewhat less dangerous, and less prone to premature aging and wrinkling, than exposure to prolonged direct sunlight, and with less danger than large dosages of canthaxanthin, tyrosine, β-carotene, or other orally-ingested agents that are known to be harmful in large dosages, or that remain unproven despite years of efforts to prove them effective.

Finally, it should be recognized that a third category of potential users also exists, who may want drastic results. This category includes people who wish to undergo a drastic darkening of their skin color, in a mamier that will deliberately blur or minimize racial, ethnic, cultural, or other differences. Such people may include, for example, tourists, businessmen, missionaries, or diplomatic and military personnel who are visiting or stationed in a part of the world where light-skinned people are resented, have difficulty doing business with the local population, or are at elevated risk of kidnapping or other hostile activity. In such situations, extremely high dosages of zeaxanthin, combined with aggressive exposure to tanning beds or sunlight to stimulate melanin production, may be able to provide those types of results. However, any such efforts should not be undertaken except under the supervision of a qualified physician.

USE TO PREVENT SUNBURNS IN CHILDREN

The use of zeaxanthin to provide skin protection among children deserves special attention, because studies have shown that children who suffer more than just one or two serious sunburns, while they are still young and growing, tend to suffer from higher rates of cancer, decades later. This is consistent with a number of other areas of medical concern, and it is consistent with what is known about genetics, genetic damage, and cancer. The general rale is that, if genetic damage is inflicted upon "fully adult" cells, in tissues that are no longer growing or reproducing actively and that have reached a "mere maintenance" level of reproduction, then the damage is likely to disappear when the cells gradually die out and are replaced by other cells. By contrast, if genetic damage is done to cells that are still involved in an active process of growing and reproducing (such as in a toddler or young child), the risks are much higher that any chromosomal abnormalities that may have been created in actively-reproducing cells will be passed on to subsequent progeny cells that descend from the damaged cells.

Effective dosages for toddlers and children have not yet been evaluated, but will deserve attention and analysis in the near future. For now, it is presumed that the preferred ranges of adult dosages, as discussed herein, should be decreased for toddlers and children in a manner that is roughly proportional to their body weight, compared to adult body weights. Accordingly, dosages of about 5 mg/day or higher are likely to provide noticeable skin tinting in toddlers and children who weigh about 10 to 25 kilograms (about 25 to about 60 pounds). Parents can monitor and supervise the process, and can ensure that their children are getting effective and useful dosages that will help protect against sunburns, by monitoring the tint of a child's skin, preferably with the aid of a color chart for comparison purposes. In general, as with adults, a preferred dosage is one that can generate a color change of at least 2 steps (also describes as increments, stages, etc.), when a skin color chart (as used by dermatolo gists) is used.

Accordingly, a vitamin-like compound that can be orally ingested, and that will help protect young children and even teenagers from severe sunburns, deserves careful attention, and offers a highly useful and valuable product. However, given the general reluctance of many children to eat vitamin pills (and the frequent failures of most parents to make sure their kids eat their vitamins every day), additional steps need to be taken, to provide maximal benefit from the ability of zeaxanthin to prevent sunburns among children and teenagers.

Therefore, this invention anticipates zeaxanthin as an additive in various types of food that are designed (which includes labeling, advertising, and other aspects of market segmenting) to appeal to, and to be ingested by, children and teenagers (collectively referred to herein as non-adults). Examples include various types of candy, cookies, cakes, pies, ice cream, and other sweetened foods that generally are regarded as treats, as well as hot dogs, lunch meats, chips, cheese preparations, pizza, cereal, and other salty, savory, or other foodstuffs that are deliberately targeted at market segments that specifically include large numbers of children and/or teenagers. Other candidate foodstuffs that are targeted at children and teenagers include gum, fruit juices and other types of flavored drinks (including sodas), and candy-fruit combinations (such as "Gummy Bears", "Fruit Rollups", etc.). Among babies, nearly any type of prepared baby food can be used, and preferred candidates would be those which already have a yellow, orange, or red color (such as sweet potatoes, bananas, etc.).

Preferred embodiments of these types of food substances include food substances that are targeted at non-adult market segments (this type of active "targeting" can be determined by evaluating the types of packaging and advertisements that are used to sell a food substance) which contain a quantity of zeaxanthin that is sufficient to cause a noticeable darkening of skin tint if a single helping of such food substance is ingested every other day. In general, food substances that have a reddish or orange color will usually be preferred for use as the carrier for zeaxanthin.

This invention also anticipates periodic high-dosage administration of zeaxanthin to children, in a manner comparable to vaccinations followed by periodic "booster shots", to reduce their risks of skin cancer. As one example, and in view of the growing risks and rates of skin cancer both (i) in certain countries, such as Australia, and (i) relating to the ongoing depletion of the earth's ozone layer, by chlorofluorocarbon compounds, parents may choose to have their children's skin deliberately rendered darker, and less subject to sunburns and skin cancer, at a chosen sequence of ages, such as (for example) 2 to 3 years old, 6 to 8 years old, and/or 12 to 15 years old. TIMING OF INGESTION; OILY CARRIER SUBSTANCES

A preferred regimen for ingesting oral zeaxanthin involves talcing one or more zeaxanthin capsules or tablets along with a meal, or with a snack that contains a significant quantity of oil or fat. This is due to the fact that zeaxanthin (like most carotenoids) is relatively hydrophobic, and is not soluble in water. Therefore, its uptake through the intestinal walls and into circulating blood can be promoted and increased by the release of bile and certain pancreatic fluids secreted by the biliary system (which involves the liver, the pancreas, and the gall bladder). The release of those fluids, which help solubilize or emulsify hydrophobic compounds, normally occurs shortly after a food substance containing a significant quantity of oil or fat has been ingested. Accordingly, if desired, one way to ensure that this occurs can involve adding zeaxanthin to a food substance that contains at least one type of oil or fat.

One method that can be used to promote that goal involves formulating zeaxanthin in an oily carrier material, such as olive oil, com oil, or other vegetable oils. If this approach is used, zeaxanthin can be sold at the appropriate dosages in watertight capsules (comparable to conventional capsules that contain Vitamin E), in a syrup-type liquid product or a chilled product such as yogurt or ice cream, in a product such as olive oil that is labelled and marketed for bread-dipping and similar uses, or in various other types of liquid products.

On the subject of zeaxanthin suspended in an oily carrier substance, it should be noted that methods for creating micro-crystalline zeaxanthin, with extremely fine particle sizes (having submicron diameters) are disclosed in US patent application serial number 10/173,174, which has been assigned to ZeaVision LLC, the same assignee and owner herein. That application has been published by the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office on its website (www.uspto.gov), and the contents of that application are incorporated herein by reference, as though fully set forth herein. The methods disclosed therein can be used to prepare a zeaxanthin formulation, suspended in an oily carrier, with improved bioavailability.

Even though the teachings herein disclose that purified zeaxanthin, by itself, can be used effectively for providing a tanning effect and preventing sunburns, it also should be recognized that zeaxanthin can be taken in combination with any other agent that may be able to provide an additive and/or synergistic effect, in terms of providing a darker tan and/or better protection against sunburns. Candidate agents that merit early evaluation in any such effort include other carotenoids that are normally present in the human diet (especially lycopene, as noted above). In addition, zeaxanthin at dosages of about 20 mg/day or higher can be combined with any other lαiown or hereafter-discovered agent that is believed to be helpful in inducing a skin-darkening response when ingested orally. Such agents can include, as examples, tyrosine and/or any or all of the ingredients listed in US patent 6,254,898 (Bragaglia 2001), which include green tea extract, lutein, lipoic acid, and selenomethionine. For those under the care of a physician (such as for the treatment of a skin disorder), such additional agents may also include melanocyte-stimulating hormone, or analogs or active portions thereof.

It also should be recognized and understood that the method of this invention does not require rigid or rigorous adherence to a fixed daily schedule of taking a certain number of capsules per day. Instead, this method requires only that a sufficient quantity of zeaxanthin should be taken to cause an increase in either or both of the following: (i) a darkening of skin color or tint, in a manner and to an extent that is noticeable to the person taking the zeaxanthin, if used in conjunction with a skin color chart; and/or (ii) an increase in the skin's ability to withstand ultraviolet radiation without suffering erythema, in a manner and to an extent that can be detected using equipment and methods known to dermatology researchers (such as the MED or "minimal erythemal dosage" tests, as described in the Background section).

Because of various phaimacodynamic and "loading" factors, a preferred dosage regimen for achieving those two goals will involve daily ingestion of a reasonably consistent quantity of zeaxanthin (such as two or three capsules containing 10 mg each, on all or most days). Nevertheless, because of those same types of pharmacodynamic and "loading" factors, nearly any type of periodic and/or intermittent ingestion of zeaxanthin, in sufficiently high dosages, can achieve the same or similar overall results, by leading to the deposition of higher concentrations of zeaxanthin in the surface and/or near-surface layers of the skin.

Accordingly, various passages in this text and in the claims refer to "periodic or intermittent" dosages of zeaxanthin, in quantities sufficient to cause at least one of the two following effects: (1) a noticeable darkening of skin color, and/or (2) a measurable increase in the skin's ability to withstand ultraviolet radiation without suffering erythema. hi the first numbered phrase above, the term, "noticeable darkening of skin color," should be interpreted as being noticeable by an observant person with good vision who uses a printed color chart, to help evaluate and quantify any changes in skin coloration. Standardized skin color charts are available, and are used by dermatologists. Similar charts designed for use by the general public can be developed, in a manner comparable to color charts for teeth, which are sold publicly in kits that are marketed for over-the-counter tooth-whitening treatments. Accordingly, zeaxanthin which is sold for skin-darkening (i.e., artificial tanning) purposes can and preferably should be sold in packages that also contain skin color charts. In general, preferred dosages for skin protection purposes should be a daily dosage which, for a specific user, will induce a change in skin tint of at least two steps (or increments, stages, etc.), when post-ingestion skin tint is visually compared against pre-ingestion skin tint, using a printed color chart.

It should be recognized that printed color charts, although useful as a tool for measuring and quantifying the skin-darkening effects of zeaxanthin in any particular person, are not essential or necessary for carrying out the invention. Instead, in the various cases described in the examples, all of the volunteers who ingested 30 mg or more of zeaxanthin per day observed and reported darkened coloration in various areas of their skin (such as in the palms of the hands), even without the aid of any printed color charts.

The second phrase numbered above, referring to "measurable increase in the skin's ability to withstand ultraviolet radiation without suffering erythema", should be interpreted as being (i) detectable and measurable in quantitative terms, using equipment and methods known to dermatology researchers, and (ii) causing an increase which would be regarded by most skilled dermatologists as significant, rather than trivial, unproven, or failing to rise to a level of statistical significance. As one example of a significant increase, if three different measurements on a single person indicate that three different areas of skin which normally are covered by clothing have baseline (pre-zeaxanthin) MED levels which range from 4.5 to 5.0 minutes and which provide an average value of 4.8 minutes, when tested using consistent procedures and a specific UN lamp, and if periodic or intermittent ingestion of zeaxanthin by that same patient (regardless of how many pills he took on any particular day) raise his MED levels to a range of 5.0 to 5.5 minutes with an average value of 5.3 minutes (using the same procedures and the same UN lamp), most skilled dermatologists would conclude that the increase in MED for that patient was significant.

In this context, it also should be recognized that large numbers of measurements, in order to determine statistical significance, are not required. For example, if a single baseline measurement on a certain patient indicates an MED level of 5.0 minutes, and if periodic or intermittent ingestion of zeaxanthin by that patient (regardless of how many pills he or she takes on any particular day) increases his or her MED level to a higher number (such as 5.5 or more minutes), that increase should be regarded as a measurable and significant increase in his or her MED level.

For quantification purposes, some of the claims refer to MED increases of at least about 30%, when post-ingestion MED values (measured in minutes of exposure to a high-intensity UV lamp) are compared to pre-ingestion MED values. The 30% level is regarded as a "benchmark" standard of efficacy, for preferred dosages. That level was indeed surpassed by each of the volunteers who participated in the UV lamp tests described in the Examples.

It also should be recognized that specific and individual measurements, on a specific patient, are not required, if that patient is periodically or intermittently ingesting dosages of zeaxanthin which have already been reported to be sufficient to darken skin color and/or increase UN radiation resistance in significant numbers of other people, when such other people were tested objectively. As one example, if clinical trials are carried out to confirm this invention, and if the data from those clinical trials confirm that some particular dosage of zeaxanthin per day does indeed cause darkened skin color and/or increases resistance to UN radiation as an average result in most of the people who were tested, and if those results are published in a respectable scientific or medical journal, then that dosage will have been shown and reported to actually cause (i) a noticeable darkening of skin color, and/or, (ii) a measurable increase in the skin's ability to withstand ultraviolet radiation without suffering erythema.

ZEAXANTHIN STEREOISOMERS

Several factors should be noted about different sources and supplies of zeaxanthin, which can include various different stereoisomers of zeaxanthin.

Three different and distinct stereoisomers of zeaxanthin are known, and all three are included within the term "zeaxanthin" as used herein. As is lαiown to any chemist, stereoisomers arise when a particular carbon atom (known as a chiral carbon atom) has four different atoms or groups bonded to it. When this happens, the four different groups can be bonded to that carbon atoms in either of two different spatial configurations. In general, if polarized light is passed through a purified stereoisomer which has been suspended or dissolved in a suitable liquid solvent, one of the stereoisomers of that compound will cause rotation of the polarized light in a rightward (or clockwise) direction; this isomer is usually referred to as the R (right) or D (dextrorotatory) isomer. The stereoisomer having the opposite configuration of groups attached to the chiral carbon atom will cause the rotation of polarized light in the opposite (leftward, or counterclockwise) direction; this stereoisomer is usually referred to as the L (left) or S (sinistra) isomer. Occasionally, one may also see references to "+" isomers (the "plus" isomers, which generally are the R/D isomers) and "-" isomers (the "minus" isomers, which generally are the L/S isomers); however, to avoid possible confusion between minus signs and hyphens, those types of references are not preferred, and nearly all articles which address the subject refer to zeaxanthin stereoisomers as being either R, or S.

Zeaxanthin has two different chiral carbon atoms, at the two positions known as the number 3 carbon atom, on one end ring, and the number 3' (pronounced three-prime) carbon atom, on the opposite end ring. Therefore, zeaxanthin can have any of three different stereoisomers. These three stereoisomers are: (1) the 3R,3'R isomer (also known as the R,R isomer, for convenience); (2) the 3S,3'S isomer (also known as the S,S isomer); and, (3) the 3S,3'R isomer (also lαiown as the "meso" isomer, or as meso-zeaxanthin).

Because zeaxanthin is a symmetrical molecule, the 3S,3'R isomer and the 3R,3'S isomer are exactly identical to each other, and one can be converted into the other by merely flipping the molecule end-to-end. Therefore, rather than trying to nail down consistent references to either 3S,3'R or 3R,3'S zeaxanthin, most researchers and articles refer to the "mixed" or "half-and-half combination simply as me-so-zeaxanthin.

All zeaxanthin preparations that were tested as disclosed herein are believed to contain the 3R,3'R stereoisomer of zeaxanthin, as a sole or highly dominant stereoisomer. This is the isomer that is heavily dominant in nature; indeed, it is so heavily dominant, in naturally-occurring plants and bacteria, that the S,S and meso isomers are presumed to simply not exist in plants or bacteria. Accordingly, since the initial preparations that were tested by the first named inventor, as described in Example 1, were created by fermenting Flavobacterium multivorum cells, as described below, those zeaxanthin preparations were believed to contain essentially all R,R isomers, and essentially no S,R or S,S isomers.

However, the other zeaxanthin preparations that were tested in subsequent tests (as described in Examples 2-7) were created and purified by methods that involved chemical synthesis, rather than fermentation. Those preparations are believed to typically contain about 2 to 4% (by weight) of the S,R and or S,S stereoisomers, as a byproduct of the synthesis and purification methods that were used. That low concentration of unwanted byproduct stereoisomers was reviewed by the U.S. Food and Dmg Administration, and that agency did not take any steps to regulate or require any reduction in that level of byproduct isomers.

However, it should be noted that recently, certain companies (operating mainly outside the United States) have discovered that commercial quantities of meso-zeaxanthin can be created, by chemically treating lutein from marigold flowers. The companies doing that type of work have patented those processes and the resulting meso-zeaxanthin products.

As mentioned above, researchers have discovered that meso-zeaxanthin is present in human retinas. Since the meso isomer is not present in naturally-occurring foods, any meso-zeaxanthin that is detected in human or animal retinas is presumed to be a byproduct of certain naturally-occurring enzymatic (or possibly photo activated) processes, which are believed to convert lutein into me-ra-zeaxanthin, inside the macula.

These factors raise serious questions about whether meso-zeaxanthin that has been deliberately manufactured in bulk quantities by treatment of lutein (as distinct from very small quantities of me-sO-zeaxanthin which are unavoidable byproducts of chemically synthesized zeaxanthin) can or should be approved for inclusion, as a "dietary supplement", in products intended for human consumption, under the terms of the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act (DSHEA), briefly discussed above. Since the Patent Office has no authority or obligation to consider or resolve those issues, a patent filing is not the proper place to address those issues in any detail. Accordingly, the inventors herein simply state that both rneso-zeaxanthm and S,S-zeaxanthin are intended to be included within the term "zeaxanthin", as used herein. Although the R,R isomer clearly is preferred for any human ingestion, and should comprise either the sole or at least the dominant isomer of zeaxanthin in any formulations sold to the public, me-rø-zeaxanthin and S,S-zeaxanthin are also covered by any claims or other passages herein that refer to zeaxanthin without specifying only the R,R isomer. It should also be mentioned that one reason for and goal of deliberately including me-sO-zeaxanthin in these patent claims is to use any resulting patents to prohibit the sale of me-so-zeaxanthin, in substantial quantities, to unsuspecting and/or uninformed consumers, while any long-term testing (if such tests are done) are carried out to evaluate its safety.

ZEAXANTHIN ESTERS

Most plants and many bacteria synthesize esters of zeaxanthin, lutein, and other carotenoids, instead of or in addition to so-called "free" carotenoids. Briefly, an ester is the type of molecule that is created when a hydrogen atom (which is part of one of the two hydroxy groups in the two end rings of zeaxanthin) is substituted by a certain type of relatively small organic molecule, in a manner which creates an ester bond.

When zeaxanthin esters are ingested by humans, most of the ester molecules will be broken apart, in a manner which will break the ester bond and release free (non-esterified) zeaxanthin molecules. This chemical reaction usually falls within a categoiy of reactions called "hydrolysis", since a water molecule is effectively inserted into what was previously the ester bond. These reactions are catalyzed by enzymes generally known as "esterase" enzymes (since they break apart ester bonds). Although enzymatic cleavage of zeaxanthin esters does not occur at 100% efficiency, these reactions nevertheless comprise an important class of enzymatic reactions that occur readily within a human body, and these reactions will indeed release free zeaxanthin molecules, either in the gut or in the bloodstream, if zeaxanthin esters are ingested. Accordingly, the term "zeaxanthin" as used herein includes zeaxanthin esters.

Finally, any references to stereoisomers of zeaxanthin (such as 3R,3'R (or R,R) zeaxanthin, or meso-zeaxanthin) also include any stereoisomeric ester forms. In any zeaxanthin ester, the ester bonds that are coupled to the #3 and #3' chiral carbon atoms on the end rings of zeaxanthin will be in a spatial orientation that must be either the R or the S orientation, as described above under the heading "Zeaxanthin Stereoisomers."

TOPICAL FORMULATIONS

If desired, zeaxanthin also can be added to any type of topical agent (such as a lotion, ointment, or cream) that is designed to be spread across a skin surface to create or enhance a tanned appearance. As mentioned in the Background section, agents which are used in such lotions and other topical formulas include dihydroxyacetone, erythrulose, and tyrosine. Such topical formulations can be used in conjunction with "systemic" (i.e., orally-ingested) tanning agents, including the zeaxanthin-containing oral formulations disclosed herein. If desired, any such topical formulation can also contain a permeation-enhancing agent (such as dimethyl sulfoxide, DMSO), to increase permeation of the zeaxanthin or any other ingredient into the epidermal tissue layers.

APPARENT ZEAXANTHIN-MELANIN INTERACTIONS

During the days and weeks that followed the UN-lamp tests described in Example 5, below, it was observed that, in areas of skin that clearly had been burned to a fairly dark reddened state by exposure to long durations of high-intensity UV radiation, those areas gradually converted to a clearly brown rather than red tint during the following days, over a span of roughly two weeks. This change in coloration, from clearly reddish to clearly brown, was so distinct and noticeable in that it has created, among the inventors herein, a belief that there is likely to be some type of active interactions) between zeaxanthin (a reddish pigment) and melanin (a dark brown pigment). This is not yet a certainty, and it cannot yet be supported by hard data, since no tissue biopsies have been carried out to determine the actual concentrations of zeaxanthin and melanin pigments in the various layers of the skin, following this type of treatment. Nevertheless, the visual results observed to date have been sufficiently clear, distinct, and noticeable to convince the inventors herein that some sort of interaction between zeaxanthin and melanin appears to be an active part of the biochemical processes that will occur if high-dosage zeaxanthin is ingested.

As examples of the types of interactive processes that maybe involved and that should be studied, the interaction may involve some type of recmitment or activation process, where elevated zeaxanthin concentrations in the skin may help trigger or boost one or more cellular or molecular mechanisms that induce the synthesis of higher concentrations of melanin by affected cells.

Alternately or additionally, it may involve one or more processes of cellular survival or endurance, in which two or more steps occur in sequence, such as: (i) surface or near-surface skin cells that have been severely assaulted by lethal dosages of UV radiation will begin pumping out melanin, as a dying gesture, in order to help minimize damage in the lower epidermal layers; (ii) at least some of those upper-layer cells will be rescued and spared, by the anti-oxidant, UV-absorbing, or other protective properties of the zeaxanthin; and, (iii) the UV-stimulated cells which suffered a near-death experience will continue to pump out high quantities of melanin, because the production of melanin has no clear or abrupt turn-off switch, and instead tapers off or dies down only gradually.

As yet another biochemical mechanism that may be involved, zeaxanthin's anti-oxidant or other biochemical properties may help reduce the degradation of melanin after it has been synthesized by skin cells.

These potential types of interactions are only postulated, and biochemical analysis will be required to determine whether a true cause-and-effect relation exists between zeaxanthin supplements, and melanin responses. Nevertheless, it should be recognized that actual observations of the results that arose during the UV lamp tests convinced several observers that some sort of interaction probably did occur, which somehow tied together a zeaxanthin increase in the skin (due to ingestion of high-dosage supplements) with an increase in melanin production, in skin that was subjected to high-intensity UV radiation.

Accordingly, one of the methods disclosed herein for creating a darker tan and/or for protecting the skin against UV damage involves a two-step process: (i) ingesting zeaxanthin, at the dosages discussed herein; and, (ii) exposing at least one area of skin to ultraviolet radiation at a level which induces melanin production within the exposed area of skin. These two steps, if taken in combination, will create a combination of elevated zeaxanthin concentration (due to oral ingestion), and elevated melanin concentration (due to natural skin responses to UV light), in one or more epidermal layers in the exposed area of skin. That combination, of both elevated zeaxanthin and elevated melanin concentration in the skin or near-surface layers of the skin, can offer a better combination than either agent can provide by itself, of both desirable color which emulates a naturally suntanned tint, and highly effective protection against subsequent sunburns.

CLAIMS THAT INCLUDE LABELLING LIMITATIONS

This invention also relates to articles of manufacture, comprising: (i) ingestible formulations (such as capsules, tablets, syrups, or foodstuffs) that contain sufficient zeaxanthin to cause a noticeable darkening of skin color and/or a measurable increase in the skin's ability to withstand ultraviolet radiation without suffering erythema, provided that such formulations are enclosed within (ii) a package which contains, on the label, a printed statement which indicates to prospective purchasers that the zeaxanthin enclosed therein can be effective in causing a darkening of skin color in a manner which will resemble a suntan. hi this type of article of manufacture, which relies upon the printed label as one of the points of novelty, it should be noted and understood that: (i) the printed label is not being relied upon to establish patentability, and the invention as a whole includes, as an essential element, the tangible physical and chemical contents within the package; (ii) a number of decisions by the Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit (and its predecessor) have explicitly stated that if printed matter is merely one item in an otherwise tangible and patentable article of manufacture, then the printed matter cannot be excised or deleted from the item before the Patent Office examines the claim; and, (iii) the laws and regulations that are enforced by the Food and Drag Administration, and that apply to such items of commerce, require that the contents and the label must be regarded as a single indivisible item of commerce. Accordingly, if the contents and the label are examined as a single item of commerce, as required by the FDA, then they meet and surpass all requirements for patentability.

EXAMPLES

EXAMPLE 1: INITIAL POSITIVE RESULT

The first named inventor's initial work in identifying and isolating a strain of bacteria which synthesize zeaxanthin as a sole carotenoid is described in US patents 5,308,759 and 5,427,783, both invented by Gierhart. That work was carried out with the goal of obtaining a source of zeaxanthin, in bulk, for use as a pigment additive for chickens and farm-raised salmon. As mentioned above, when fed to poultry, either zeaxanthin or lutein will undergo an enzymatic conversion that leads to a deeper, darker, richer color for chicken skin and egg yolks, and when fed to farm-raised salmon, zeaxanthin leads to a deeper, darker, richer appearance of the meat. Both of those intensified colorations are appealing to consumers, since they make the resulting food products look fresher and healthier.

Lutein, which is obtained in bulk from marigold flowers, is currently used as the standard pigment additive for poultry and farm-raised salmon. However, this inventor suspected that zeaxanthin, which has certain advantages over lutein but which is much rarer in nature, might be more effective than lutein, if a reasonably pure source of zeaxanthin could be obtained at a reasonable price. Accordingly, inventor launched an effort to locate and isolate, from nature, a bacterial strain that could synthesize zeaxanthin. That effort succeeded, as described in US patents 5,308,759 and 5,427,783. The strain of Flavobacterium multivorum that was shown to synthesize zeaxanthin was deposited with the American Type Culture Collection, and was given ATCC accession number 55238.

Some years later, the inventor realized, upon reading a scientific article, that zeaxanthin is one of the two carotenoid pigments (along with lutein) that create the yellow color of the macula, which is the extremely sensitive portion of the retina that is located at the exact center of the retina, directly above the location where the optic nerve connects to the eyeball. Upon learning that fact, and upon correlating it with various other items of information lαiown to the inventor at that time (including knowledge about the UN-absorbing and anti-oxidant activities of carotenoids), the inventor realized that zeaxanthin might play a potentially important protective or other beneficial role in the macular portion of the retina. Accordingly, he commenced a series of follow-up activities to develop zeaxanthin into a product suited for human use.

One aspect of that project involved testing both zeaxanthin and lutein, in various dosages and fomiulations, to evaluate the increases that would result in circulating blood, and in retinal tissue, in human volunteers. A set of tests on human volunteers was developed with assistance by outside experts with skill and experience in that type of planning, and proper steps were taken to obtain informed consent from all volunteers. The inventor was an active participant in the zeaxanthin treatment arm of those studies. He ingested purified zeaxanthin at various dosage levels over a span of several months, and provided numerous blood samples that clearly established a valid dosage response in circulating blood concentrations.

At one point during those tests, after several relatively low dosages of purified zeaxanthin had been evaluated with no adverse effects of any sort, this inventor realized that an approaching vacation he was planning to take, to a Caribbean island during the month of February, offered a good opportunity to test purified zeaxanthin as a possible treatment to prevent or reduce the risk of sunburn. Accordingly, he increased his daily dosage level to a point where a noticeable change in the color and tint of his skin began to appear, in areas that normally are not exposed to substantial direct sunlight (such as the inside portion of the arm). That dosage was in the range of about 60 mg of zeaxanthin per day for roughly 2 weeks, then about 80 mg/day for a week). During that time, even though he was planning a trip to the Caribbean, he did not visit any tanning salons, and did not make any effort during those winter months to obtain a "base tan" that could provide some additional protection against sunburn.

While in the Caribbean, he intentionally exposed himself to direct sunlight at a substantially higher intensity than he normally received in his home state of Missouri, for sufficient periods of time to give him an "onset" type of sunburn, which would convert to a suntan over a span of several days if he took proper care of his skin and put lotion on it. However, he noticed that he did not get sunburned in the normal manner, despite the higher level of sun exposure. Instead, any mild redness he experienced in the evening, at the end of a day with a prolonged session in the sun, was not accompanied by sensations of pain, burning, tightness, or dryness in the skin, and it converted to a normal (or slightly reddish, but not uncomfortable) suntan within less than 24 hours.

These differences in responses by his skin were sufficiently unusual that they were clearly noticed by him, at the time. However, there was not a sufficient supply of purified zeaxanthin to repeat the test on any one else. Therefore, he continued on the path toward scale-up, manufacturing, and commercialization of purified zeaxanthin. As soon as a sufficient quantity of purified zeaxanthin was available in capsules having known and controlled dosages, he discussed the above-described experiences with several coworkers, who chose to carry out their own tests to see whether they would get the same results.

EXAMPLE 2: FIRST CONFIRMATORY EXPERIENCE BY COWORKER

In April 2002, a company (ZeaVision LLC, located in St. Louis, Missouri) founded by the first-named inventor began selling purified zeaxanthin in 3 mg and 10 mg capsules, primarily tlirough its website (www.zeavision.com). During the startup phase, bottles of 10 mg capsules were given to a number of people who had played important roles in helping get the company started.

The first-named inventor talked with several coworkers who happened to have light skin complexions and blue or green eyes, all of whom are prone to sunburn. At various times, the inventor discussed with those coworkers a number of factors, including (i) his experience on his Caribbean trip, (ii) dosage and safety data (including the 1200 mg/day "no adverse effect level" that had been reported to the U.S. Food and Drag Administration by Roche Vitamins, as mentioned in the Background section; and, (iii) the effects of zeaxanthin compared to lutein, on the color of chicken skin when either compound was fed to chickens.

After considering those and other discussions, some of the first inventor's coworkers decided to try sunburn-related tests on themselves, using elevated dosages of zeaxanthin, either as the summer season approached, or as more information became available during the summer.

One coworker, a male in his 30's, began taking 10 mg/day during April, and increased to 20 mg/day during May, and then increased to 40 mg/day during June. At the 40 mg dosage, he began to detect a slight but noticeable darkening of his skin, toward a color that he found pleasing and described as a "golden tan" color. In July, he increased his dosage to 80 mg/day during several week-long periods, to see what effect it would have on skin color, and on sunburn resistance. His skin color turned noticeably darker, once again in a mamier which he regarded as pleasing and described as a "golden tan" color.

On a couple of weekend days during July, and during a family vacation in early August, he deliberately subjected himself to prolonged sun exposure without any sun-blocking lotion, including sessions that normally would have caused him substantial or severe sunburns accompanied by serious discomfort. Instead of receiving those types of sunburns, by the evening of a day like that, he could detect some redness in his skin color, and a heightened condition of skin sensitivity; however, he felt no serious discomfort or sense of "radiating heat" in his skin, and no interference with his ability to sleep comfortably; in addition, by the following day, the redness appeared to be entirely gone. In his opinion, the zeaxanthin provided both (i) excellent protection against sunburn, and (ii) a darkened skin color, which he enjoyed and regarded as an entirely satisfactory and pleasing look of someone who has a good suntan.

EXAMPLE 3: SECOND CONFIRMATORY EXPERIENCE

After seeing and hearing the highly positive results obtained by the two people described in Examples 1 and 2, another coworker, a male in his 0's, decided to also begin taking zeaxanthin at 40 mg/day, starting a couple of weeks before going on a summer vacation with his family. His skin turned a mildly darker and more tanned shade, before he left.

Upon returning from his vacation, he reported that he had not suffered any sunburns, despite a couple of sessions of prolonged sun exposure, with no protective lotion, that normally would have resulted in sunburns for him. Even after he deliberately subjected himself to prolonged sun exposure sessions that normally would have resulted in a sunbum, he reported that there was a slightly heightened sensitivity in a couple of areas, mainly on his forehead and face, but there were no feelings of significant pain or discomfort, and no difficulty sleeping, and by the next morning any redness had turned into what appeared to be a normal and healthy suntan.

EXAMPLE 4: LACK OF SUNBURN PROTECTION AT 10 MG/DAY

A third coworker, a male in his 50's, began taking 10 mg of zeaxanthin per day. Although he was aware of the above-described anecdotal reports of sunburn protection being provided by higher dosages, he decided to not alter his dosage, and he stayed at a dosage of 10 mg/day. He reported that, during a family vacation, he suffered a noticeable sunburn after a prolonged session of exposure to the sun, and he indicated that he had not detected and could not detect any change in his skin color, or any change in his sensitivity to sunbum.

Accordingly, the three positive reports listed in Examples 1-3, and the negative "control" test by a person who took only 10 mg/day, were entirely consistent, and indicated that when zeaxanthin is taken at a dosage that is higher than 10 mg per day, over a span of about 2 weeks or longer, it can significantly improve and enhance the ability of a person to withstand prolonged exposure to direct sunlight, with reduced risk of a sunburn.

EXAMPLE 5: TESTS USING ULTRAVIOLET LAMP

After assessing the results of the tests described above, the inventors herein realized that the tests described above were all prone to some degree of subjectivity, since they reported impressions and beliefs rather than quantified data. Accordingly, they embarked on an additional effort to determine whether and how they could gather objective and impartial data, within a limited budget and without requiring full-scale human clinical trials. After consulting with some dermatologists, they settled upon a method of using a medical-grade UV lamp, which could be purchased at reasonable expense and then used any number of times, to determine "Minimal Erythema Dosage" (MED) levels. This type of measurement, which has been used many times in numerous clinical trials, is discussed in the Background section.

Briefly, a person doing this type of test tapes a heavy paper shield, with small holes in it, onto an untanned area of skin, such as around the hip or buttocks; or, if the test is being done during the winter months, this test can also be done on the untanned imier side of the forearm. An additional masking device (such as dark masking tape, or a strip of cardboard) is used, and is moved or altered in a progressive manner, so that the small areas of skin that are exposed tlirough the holes in the shield will be exposed to progressively greater levels of UV radiation, from the UV lamp. The small area of skin which had the lowest duration (in minutes) of UV exposure, and yet which turned noticeably red with clear margins, corresponded to the MED value for that person, on that day. By carrying out a "pre-ingestion" MED test before any zeaxanthin was ingested, and by comparing that MED value against a "post-ingestion" MED value from the same person after a number of days of ingesting 30 mg or more of zeaxanthin per day, a comparative, impartial, and objective assessment could be obtained, to determine whether the zeaxanthin regimen caused an increase in the skin's resistance to burning.

To carry out these tests, a Sperti medical-grade UV lamp was purchased. It was rated at 800 watts of UV light, with 60-70% of the UN radiation in the "UN- A" part of the spectrum, and 30-40% of the UN radiation in the "UN-B" part of the spectrum. The three volunteers who did these tests discussed and shared their experiences with each other, to help ensure that their approaches and methods were similar and consistent. All three volunteers stood as motionless as possible (such as with one hip or forearm pressed against a wall), and placing the lamp a fixed distance away, using the short edge (8.5 inches) of a sheet of typing paper to provide a convenient method of establishing a proper and consistent distance. The lamp had a timer with a visible counter, and it shut off automatically when a test period finished.

The first named inventor (the same person who had detected a protective effect of zeaxanthin during a previous trip to the Caribbean, as described in Example 1) determined an exposure of seven minutes as his pre-ingestion MED value. He had refrained from taking any zeaxanthin for three months before the test. However, during that period, he took a daily multivitamin, which contained 100% of the recommended daily allowances for the standard set of vitamins, as well as two "Protegra Anti-Oxidant" softgel capsules as well, because Protegra contains high levels of various lαiown anti-oxidants (including daily dosages as follows: β-Carotene, 10,000 I.U.; Vitamin C, 500 mg; Vitamin E, 400 I.U.; selenium, 30 micrograms; copper, 2 mg; manganese, 3 mg; and zinc, 15 mg). This high level of anti-oxidant ingestion was intended to ensure that any protective effects of zeaxanthin would need to extend over and abo e any protective effects that might be caused by either β-carotene, or other anti-oxidants.

The results of this person's pre-ingestion test indicated an MED value of 7.0 minutes (with exposure intervals of 30 seconds). This baseline value was confirmed on both the forearm and the buttocks. Inspections were done at 8 hours, 24 hours, and 48 hours, and did not appear to change significantly over that time span.

Promptly after that baseline determination, this person began ingesting 30 mg of zeaxanthin per day (10 mg with his morning meal, and 20 mg with his evening meal, using the 10 mg capsules available from ZeaVision LLC). During that time, he continued to take the same anti-oxidant regimen as before. After three weeks of zeaxanthin ingestion at 30 mg/day, there was a slightly perceptible color change in the palms of the hands when examined in clear bright light; however, it was not easily perceivable in the test skin areas. He then re-tested himself, using the same UV lamp and procedures as before. His MED values, after 3 weeks of taking 30 mg/day of zeaxanthin, increased his baseline value of 7 minutes, up to 10.5 minutes.

This same person then increased his dosage of zeaxanthin to 60 mg/day, for another 3 -week span. He then tested himself again, using the same UN lamp and procedures. His MED level in that test increased to 16 minutes, which was more than double his baseline value of 7.

Another volunteer (the same person described in Example 2) carried out a similar set of tests, using the same lamp, and using conditions modelled closely on the first person's experiences. This volunteer generally has a lighter complexion than the first subject, and is more prone to sunburns, and did not take any other anti-oxidants either before or during his test period. His baseline test, before any ZX ingestion, gave an MED value of 5.0 minutes. Subsequently, after taking 60 mg/day of zeaxanthin for 20 days, his MED value doubled, to 10. hi addition, both of these two test subjects noticed certain additional results, involving the small patches of clearly sunburned areas of skin that were created by their post-ingestion tests (these small areas of skin were the exposed areas that received high-intensity UN radiation for substantially longer periods than the MED duration). Both test subjects noticed that their clearly UN-burned spots did not begin peeling or flaking after several days; instead, those spots did either of two things, depending on how badly burned they were. Spots that were burned only mildly either faded into the background skin color within a day or two, or they gradually converted into a natural and healthy-looking shade of brown, which emulated a natural suntan, over a span of roughly 1 to 2 weeks. Spots that were more severely burned usually converted into a natural and healthy-looking shade of brown, which emulated a natural suntan, over a span of roughly 1 to 2 weeks or somewhat longer. hi addition, both of these test subjects also noticed another effect, after ingesting zeaxanthin. Even though they subjected a number of small patches of skin to fairly long sessions of high-intensity UN light (up to durations that exceeded 20 minutes, in the first subject discussed, and up to 15 minutes, in the second subject), the longest-duration patches of skin did not become any redder or more uncomfortable than the other patches that had been exposed to somewhat shorter durations, hi other words, the zeaxanthin apparently created a "plateau effect", which protected their skin against more severe burning.

Another volunteer decided to try a dosage of 50 mg/day for a single week, to determine whether someone could substantially boost his resistance to sunburn within 7 days. Not realizing that zeaxanthin is ingested more readily if eaten with a meal, he took 5 capsules per day at irregular periods, separated by at least 2 hours between successive capsules. His baseline MED level was 5.0, and his MED level after 7 days of taking zeaxanthin increased to between 7.0 and 7.5 (interpolated to be about 7.3).

Accordingly, all 3 of these test subjects experienced substantial increases in their MED values. In addition, as mentioned above, the zeaxanthin also appeared to have other beneficial effects, including: (i) unproved conversion of UN -burned areas of skin into browned and apparently tanned areas; and, (ii) a "plateau effect", which caused the intensity of burning and reddening to level off at a moderate level, even in areas of skin that received substantially longer durations of high-intensity UV radiation.

Clearly, the reports listed above are preliminary, and need to be followed up with more controlled research that can evaluate the limits and parameters of zeaxanthin's ability to do any or all of the following: (i) protect against sunburns; (ii) help create or enhance, either by itself or in conjunction with controlled amounts of sun exposure, other carotenoids, and/or other active agents, a darkened skin color which will appear as a healthy and natural suntan; and/or (iii) reduce the risk or severity of skin cancer, skin discoloration (such as mottling, "liver spots", etc.), and other skin problems. Such tests can be done either among the general population (presumably excluding people who already have skin that is sufficiently dark that they would not normally desire darker skin through suntanning), or they can be limited to selected groups or classes of people, such as people who are exceptionally fair-skinned and at high risk of sunburns, people who have suffered multiple sunburns in the past, people who have already been treated for skin cancer, people who suffer from unusual numbers of liver spots, mottling, or other skin discolorations, etc. hi addition, more research can be carried out, if desired, on whether combinations of zeaxanthin with one or more other carotenoids (such as lutein, lycopene, astaxanthin, beta-carotene, etc.) and/or other ingredients (such as melanocyte-stimulating hormone and any analogs or active fragments thereof, tyrosine, dihydroxyacetone, erythrulose, or anti-oxidants such as Vitamin E and other tocopherols. selenium, etc.), applied in either oral or topical form, may be able to provide better responses than zeaxanthin by itself, in terms of protecting the skin against overexposure to the sun, and/or in providing a desired cosmetic darkening of the skin which will resemble a suntan.

Although more research is needed in testing zeaxanthin in combination with other candidate active agents, and in fine-timing the preferred dosage levels of zeaxanthin for different people, different skin types, etc., it should be recognized and understood that the anecdotal reports described above are all entirely consistent, and point to a highly useful invention and treatment. These initial results strongly indicate that, for at least some people, ingestion of higher than 10 mg or more of zeaxanthin per day (and preferably in the range of at least about 20 or 30 mg/day, up to about 80 to 100 mg/day) can provide a substantial and highly useful and beneficial form of protection against sunbum, and may also provide a useful, healthy, and desirable agent for allowing people to achieve a desirably suntanned appearance, with less exposure to direct sunlight, and with lower risks of skin cancer and premature aging of the skin.

This invention also discloses a method of inhibiting a skin-hypersensitivity side-effect of a therapeutic drag which induces skin-hypersensitivity (such as quinoline antibiotics). This method comprises the step of ingesting at least about 10 mg of zeaxanthin per day, while the therapeutic dmg is being taken. If desired, the zeaxanthin can be packaged in the same capsule, tablet, liquid, or other formulation with the therapeutic drug.

Thus, there has been shown and described a new and useful agent that can be orally ingested, to help safeguard the skin against sunburns and future risks of skin cancer and other problems. Although this invention has been exemplified for purposes of illustration and description by reference to certain specific embodiments, it will be apparent to those skilled in the art that various modifications, alterations, and equivalents of the illustrated examples are possible. Any such changes which derive directly from the teachings herein, and which do not depart from the spirit and scope of the invention, are deemed to be covered by this invention.

REFERENCES

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Bone R.A., et al, "Stereochemistry of the macular carotenoids," Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 34: 2033-2040 (1993)

Eichler, O., et al, "Divergent optimum levels of lycopene, beta-carotene and lutein protecting against UVB irradiation in human fibroblasts," Photochem Photobiol 75: 503-6 (2002)

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Heinrich U, et al, "Supplementation with beta-carotene or a similar amount of mixed carotenoids protects humans from UV-induced erythema," J Nutr. 2003 Jan; 133(1): 98-101

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Lonn, L.I., "Canthaxanthin retinopathy," Arch Ophthalmol 105: 1590-1 (1987)

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Claims

1. A method of providing a darker skin tint that emulates a healthy suntan, comprising the step of periodically or intermittently ingesting zeaxanthin in a quantity which is sufficient to cause a noticeable darkening of skin tint.

2. The method of Claim 1, wherein the noticeable darkening of skin tint is noticeable to a person who uses a printed color strip that enables comparison of skin tint prior to ingesting zeaxanthin, to skin tint of the same person after periodic or intermittent ingestion of zeaxanthin.

3. The method of Claim 1, wherein the quantity of zeaxanthin ingested by a person who wishes to have a darker skin tint has previously been shown to cause a noticeable darkening of skin tint as an average result among volunteers having light complexions in a clinical trial.

4. The method of Claim 1, wherem zeaxanthin is ingested by an adult in a quantity of at least about 20 milligrams per day, for a sufficient number of days to cause a noticeable darkening of skin tint.

5. The method of Claim 1, wherein zeaxanthin is ingested by an adult in a quantity that ranges from about 30 to about 100 milligrams per day, for a sufficient number of days to cause a noticeable darkening of skin tint.

6. The method of Claim 1, wherein zeaxanthin is ingested by a child in a quantity of at least about 5 milligrams per day, for a sufficient number of days to cause a noticeable darkening of skin tint.

7. The method of Claim 1, wherein zeaxanthin is ingested periodically or intermittently in a quantity that is sufficient to cause a darkening of at least two color shades, when measured using a color chart used by dermatologists, when post-ingestion skin color of a person taking zeaxanthin is compared to preingestion skin color of the person.

8. The method of Claim 1, wherein zeaxanthin is ingested periodically or intermittently in a quantity that has been shown in at least one human clinical trial to be sufficient to cause an increase of at least about 20% in average values for minimal erythemal dosages, when post-ingestion minimal erythemal dosages among volunteers are compared to pre-ingestion minimal erythemal dosages for those same volunteers.

9. The method of Claim 1, wherein the zeaxanthin is formulated in an oily carrier substance.

10. The method of Claim 1, wherein at least one second active agent is also ingested in a dosage which is believed to induce darker skin tint in at least some people.

11. The method of Claim 10, wherein the second agent is selected from the group consisting of melanocyte-stimulating hormone and analogs or active portions thereof, non-zeaxanthin carotenoids, tyrosine, green tea extract, lutein, lipoic acid, and selenomethionine.

12. The method of Claim 10, wherein zeaxanthin and at least one additional skin-darkening agent are present in a single combined formulation.

13. The method of Claim 10, wherein zeaxanthin and at least one additional skin-darkening agent are present in a unit-dosage formulation.

14. The method of Claim 1 wherein zeaxanthin ingestion is also accompanied by a step which comprises exposing at least one area of skin to ultraviolet radiation at a level which induces melanin production within the exposed area of skin, thereby creating a combination of elevated zeaxanthin concentration and elevated melanin combination in one or more epidermal layers in the exposed area of skin.

15. A method of reducing risk of skin damage due to ultraviolet radiation, comprising the step of periodically or intermittently ingesting zeaxanthin in a quantity and over a span of time sufficient to cause a measurable increase in a person's ability to withstand a fixed dosage of ultraviolet radiation without suffering erythema.

16. The method of Claim 15, wherein the quantity of zeaxanthin ingested by a person who wishes to reduce risk of skin damage due to ultraviolet radiation has previously been shown to cause a measurable increase in ability to withstand a fixed dosage of ultraviolet radiation without suffering erythema, among volunteers having light complexions in a clinical trial.

17. The method of Claim 15, wherein zeaxanthin is ingested by an adult over a span of at least about 5 days prior to sustained exposure to ultraviolet radiation, at an average dosage of at least about 20 mg of zeaxanthin per day.

18. The method of Claim 15, wherein zeaxanthin is ingested by a child over a span of at least about 5 days prior to sustained exposure to ultraviolet radiation, at an average dosage of at least about 5 mg of zeaxanthin per day.

19. The method of Claim 15, wherein the zeaxanthin is formulated in an oily carrier substance.

20. The method of Claim 15, wherein at least one second active agent is also ingested in a dosage which is believed to induce darker skin tint in at least some people.

21. The method of Claim 20, wherein the second agent is selected from the group consisting of melanocyte-stimulating hormone and analogs or active portions thereof, non-zeaxanthin carotenoids, tyrosine, green tea extract, lutein, lipoic acid, and selenomethionine.

22. The method of Claim 15 wherein zeaxanthin ingestion is also accompanied by a step which comprises exposing at least one area of skin to ultraviolet radiation at a level which induces melanin production within the exposed area of skin, thereby creating a combination of elevated zeaxanthin concentration and elevated melanin combination in one or more epidermal layers in the exposed area of skin.

23. A method of inhibit adverse effects of ultraviolet radiation on human skin, comprising the step of ingesting zeaxanthin in a sufficient quantity and over a sufficient span of time to cause a measurable decrease of skin susceptibility to damage by ultraviolet radiation.

24. The method of Claim 23 wherein the decrease of skin susceptibility to damage by ultraviolet radiation is measured by demonstrating an increase in a person's ability to withstand a fixed dosage of ultraviolet radiation without suffering erythema.

25. The method of Claim 24, wherein the quantity of zeaxanthin ingested by a person who wishes to inhibit adverse effects of ultraviolet radiation on his or her skin has previously been shown to cause a measurable increase in ability to withstand a fixed dosage of ultraviolet radiation without suffering erythema, among volunteers having light complexions in a clinical trial.

26. The method of Claim 23 wherein the decrease of skin susceptibility to damage by ultraviolet radiation is measured by a visual examination which confirms a noticeable darkening of skin tint following commencement of zeaxanthin ingestion.

27. The method of Claim 23, wherein the quantity of zeaxanthin ingested by a person who wishes to reduce risk of skin damage due to ultraviolet radiation has previously been shown to cause a measurable increase in ability to withstand a fixed dosage of ultraviolet radiation without suffering erythema, among volunteers having light complexions in a clinical trial.

28. The method of Claim 23, wherein zeaxanthin is ingested by an adult over a span of at least about 5 days prior to sustained exposure to ultraviolet radiation, at an average dosage of at least about 20 mg of zeaxanthin per day.

29. The method of Claim 23, wherein zeaxanthin is ingested by a child over a span of at least about 5 days prior to sustained exposure to ultraviolet radiation, at an average dosage of at least about 5 mg of zeaxanthin per day.

30. The method of Claim 23, wherein the zeaxanthin is formulated in an oily carrier substance.

31. The method of Claim 23, wherein at least one second active agent is also ingested in a dosage which is believed to induce darker skin tint in at least some people.

32. The method of Claim 31, wherein the second agent is selected from the group consisting of melanocyte-stimulating hormone and analogs or active portions thereof, non-zeaxanthin carotenoids, tyrosine, green tea extract, lutein, lipoic acid, and selenomethionine.

33. The method of Claim 23 wherein zeaxanthin ingestion is also accompanied by a step which comprises exposing at least one area of skin to ultraviolet radiation at a level which induces melanin production within the exposed area of skin, thereby creating a combination of elevated zeaxanthin concentration and elevated melanin combination in one or more epidermal layers in the exposed area of skin.

34. A method of increasing skin tolerance to ultraviolet radiation on human skin, comprising the step of ingesting zeaxanthin in a sufficient quantity and over a sufficient span of time to cause at least one skin change selected from the group consisting of a noticeable darkening of skin tint, and a measurable increase in minimal erythemal dosage levels.

35. A method of inhibiting a skin-hypersensitivity side-effect of a therapeutic drag which induces skin-hypersensitivity, comprising the step of ingesting at least about 10 mg of zeaxanthin per day while said therapeutic drag is being taken.

36. The method of claim 35, wherein said zeaxanthin is packaged in a pill or capsule with said therapeutic drug.

37. An article of manufacture, comprising a unit dosage formulation which contains (i) a pharmacologically useful quantity of a therapeutic drag which induces skin-hypersensitivity side effects, and (ii) a quantity of zeaxanthin which is effective in reducing skin-hypersensitivity side effects of the therapeutic drug.

38. An article of manufacture, comprising:

(a) a sealed package that contains zeaxanthin in an orally-ingestible formulation; and,

(b) an orally-ingestible formulation of zeaxanthin within said package, in a concentration that allows convenient oral ingestion of at least about 20 milligrams of zeaxanthin per day, wherein the sealed package also contains, on the label and in a location which is visible to prospective purchasers, a printed statement which informs prospective purchasers that the zeaxanthin enclosed therein can be effective in causing a noticeable darkening of skin tint.

39. The article of manufacture of Claim 38, wherein the orally-ingestible formulation of zeaxanthin comprises capsules or tablets which contain at least 10 milligrams of zeaxanthin in each capsule or tablet.

40. The article of manufacture of Claim 38, wherein the orally-ingestible formulation of zeaxanthin comprises capsules or tablets which contain at least 20 milligrams of zeaxanthin in each capsule or tablet.

41. An article of manufacture, comprising:

(a) a sealed package that contains zeaxanthin in an orally-ingestible formulation; and,

(b) an orally-ingestible formulation of zeaxanthin within said package, in a concentration that allows convenient oral ingestion of at least about 20 milligrams of zeaxanthin per day, wherein the sealed package also contains, on the label and in a location which is visible to prospective purchasers, a printed statement which informs prospective purchasers that the zeaxanthin enclosed therein can be effective in reducing risk of at least one adverse effect selected from the group consisting of sunbum, premature aging, wrinkling, skin damage caused by ultraviolet light, or increased risk of skin cancer.

42. The article of manufacture of Claim 41, wherein the orally-ingestible formulation of zeaxanthin comprises capsules or tablets which contain at least 10 milligrams of zeaxanthin in each capsule or tablet.

43. The article of manufacture of Claim 41, wherein the orally-ingestible formulation of zeaxanthin comprises capsules or tablets which contain at least 20 milligrams of zeaxanthin in each capsule or tablet.

44. An article of manufacture, comprising a food substance that is targeted at non-adult market segments, wherein said food substance contains a quantity of zeaxanthin which is sufficient to cause a noticeable darkening of skin tint if a single helping of such food substance is ingested every other day.

45. An article of manufacture, comprising capsule or tablet containing zeaxanthin in a range of about 30 to about 50 milligrams.