Abstract
Mangrove forests are threatened by natural and anthropogenic factors resulting in their degradation and the loss of the ecosystem services they provide. The analysis of degradation factors (DFs) is essential to guide mangrove conservation efforts. The aims of this study were to identify DFs and perform an environmental impact assessment (EIA) on their impacts over the mangroves of Mallorquin Lagoon, Colombian Caribbean. The main mangrove DFs were documented during field campaigns. Also, mangrove structural characteristics, physicochemical conditions, and pollutant concentrations in water and sediments were measured to determine the ecosystem degradation status. Subsequently, the qualitative methodology of EIA allowed calculating the importance of the impacts resulting from DFs on the ecosystem components. The main DFs identified were wastewater discharges, unregulated litter dumps, mangrove logging, and urban sprawl. Mangrove species in Mallorquin Lagoon included Rhizophora mangle, Laguncularia racemosa, and Avicennia germinans, the latter being the one with the highest density, basal area, and importance value index. Mangrove sediments showed high concentrations of Cu, Ni, Cr, and Zn that could lead to adverse effects on the mangrove's aquatic organisms. The EIA indicated that water and soil quality were severely impacted by wastewater discharges. While unregulated litter dumps had moderate impacts, mangrove logging and urban sprawl caused significant changes in the ecosystem, critically impacting water, soil, and forest integrity. Efficient control of urban sprawl, ecological restoration of the deteriorated areas and effective environmental protection measures are required to conserve Mallorquin Lagoon, a fragmented Ramsar wetland.
Resumen
Los manglares están amenazados por factores naturales y antropogénicos que provocan su degradación y pérdida de servicios ecosistémicos. El análisis de los factores de degradación (FD) es esencial para orientar los esfuerzos de conservación. Este estudio se centra en identificar los FD y evaluar sus impactos ambientales (EIA) sobre los manglares de la Ciénaga Mallorquín, Caribe colombiano. Se documentaron los principales FD y se midieron la estructura del bosque, parámetros fisicoquímicos y la concentración de contaminantes en aguas y sedimentos, para determinar la degradación del manglar. La metodología cualitativa de la EIA permitió calcular la importancia de los impactos de los FD en el ecosistema. Los principales FD identificados fueron los vertidos de aguas residuales, los vertederos incontrolados de basura, la tala de mangles y la expansión urbana. Se registraron las especies de mangle Rhizophora mangle, Laguncularia racemosa y Avicennia germinans, siendo esta última la de mayor densidad, área basal e índice de importancia. Los sedimentos del manglar mostraron altas concentraciones de Cu, Ni, Cr y Zn, con efectos potencialmente adversos sobre los organismos acuáticos. El impacto de los vertidos de aguas residuales sobre la calidad del agua y suelos es severo, mientras que el de los vertederos de basura es moderado. La tala y expansión urbana causaron cambios significativos en el ecosistema, impactando críticamente las aguas, los suelos y la integridad del bosque. La conservación de la Ciénaga Mallorquín, un humedal Ramsar fragmentado, requiere controlar la expansión urbana, restaurar las áreas deterioradas e implementar medidas efectivas de protección ambiental.
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Data Availability
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the Information Services Laboratory (LABSIS) of the Marine and Coastal Research Institute (INVEMAR), Colombia, and may be shared with interested parties upon reasonable request and with permission of the Director-General of INVEMAR.
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Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the support of their respective institutions, particularly the Marine Environmental Quality Laboratory for the analysis of water and sediment samples and the Information Services Laboratory of INVEMAR for the cartography, as well as the researchers of the Line of Evaluation and Monitoring of Environmental Quality and the Line of Prevention and Protection of Marine Ecosystems for their support in field activities. We also thank Mr. Efrain Leal, an official of the Corporación Autónoma Regional del Atlántico—CRA and the members of the La Playa community, especially Mrs. Luis Duncan and Elvis Benavides, who accompanied us during fieldwork. GRC Geociències Marines is funded by the Catalan Government (grant 2021 SGR 01195) within its program for excellence research groups. Scientific contribution of INVEMAR No. 1364.
Funding
This study was co–financed by Marine and Coastal Research Institute (INVEMAR) and the Corporación Autónoma Regional del Atlántico (CRA) within the framework of the Monitoring Network for Conservation and Protection of the Marine and Coastal Waters of Colombia (REDCAM).
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Ostin Garcés-Ordóñez: Visualization, Investigation, Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation, Formal analysis, Writing—Original Draft, Writing—Review & Editing. Mary Ríos-Mármol: Visualization, Investigation, Conceptualization, Methodology, Validation, Formal analysis, Writing—Original Draft. Lizbeth-Janet Vivas-Aguas: Funding acquisition, Visualization, Writing—Review & Editing. Luisa Espinosa-Díaz: Project administration, Writing—Review & Editing. Diana Romero-D’Achiardi: Visualization, Methodology, Formal analysis, Writing—Original Draft. Miquel Canals: Writing—Review & Editing, Visualization, Supervision.
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Garcés-Ordóñez, O., Ríos-Mármol, M., Vivas-Aguas, LJ. et al. Degradation factors and their environmental impacts on the mangrove ecosystem of the Mallorquin Lagoon, Colombian Caribbean. Wetlands 43, 85 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13157-023-01731-1
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13157-023-01731-1
Keywords
- Mangrove pollution
- Environmental impact assessment
- Urban sprawl
- Coastal wetlands
- Environmental management