,.... Tow\ards Sustainable Development of tHe Coastal Resources of Llngayen Gulf, Philippines ...; J Towards Sustainable Development of the Coastal Resources of Lingayen Gulf, Philippines k/ ?'wards Sustainable Development of the Coastal Resources of Lingayen Gulf, Philippines Proceedings of an ASEANIUS Coastal Resources Management Project Workshop Bauang, La Union, Philippines 25-27 May 1988 Edited by Geronimo p e s t r e , Evangeline Miclat ahd Chua Thia-Eng Association of Southeast Asian NationsAJnited Sbtes Coastal Resources Management Project Conference Proceedings I Towards Sustainable Development of the Coastal Resources of Lingayen Gulf, Philippines Proceedings of an A S E M S Coastal Resources Managanent Project Workshop Bauang, La Union. Philippines 25-27 May 1988 EDITEDBY GERONIMOSILVESTRE EVANGELINE MICLAT AND CHUATHIA-ENG Published by the: Philippine Council for Aquatic and Marine Research and Develogment International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management on behalf of the Association of Southeast Asian NatiwsNnited States Coastal Resources Management Project Printed in Manila. Philippines. Silvestre, G.. E. Miclat and T.-E. Chua, editors. 1989. Towards ~ustainable development of the coastal resources of Lingayen Gulf, Philippines. ICLARM Conference Proceedings 17,200 p. Philippine Council for Aquatic and Marine Research and Development, Los Baiios. Laguna, and International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management, Makati, Mvletro Manila, Philippines. Cover: An iUustration of a coastal zonation scheme for Lingayen Gulf, Philippines, where major sustainableemnanic activities are enwuraged (anwork by Aque). ISSN 0115-4435 ISBN 971-1022-45-1 ICLNZM Contribution No. 515 Annex III List of Participants Ms. Juliet Abunyawan Research Assistant Centre for the Development of Human Resources in Rural Asia 2230 N m a St., United Paraiiaque I Subd. Patafiaque, Metro Manila Dir. Joseph Alabanza Director NEDA Region I Don Pedro Bldg., Pagdaraoan San Fernando, La Union Ms. Victoria Baflez Marketing Analyst Provincial Development Staff Lingayen, Pangasinan Arch. Edwin Barcia Chief Community Development Division Office of Product Rcsearch and Development Department of Tourism Bldg. T.M. Kalaw St., Ermita, Manila Mr. Carlito Aiionuevo Study Leader Coastal Resources Management Project CSWCD,UP Diliman. Quezon City Dr. Porfirio Basilio Dean College of Fisheries Pangasinan State University Binmaley, Pangasinan Dr. Viriginia Apricto Program Leader Coastal Resources Management Project PCAMRD, Los Baiios, Laguna Mr. Ernesto Baskinas Trainor for Pastoral Workers Diocese of Alaminos Pangasinan Mr. Nygiel Armada Project Leader Coastal Resources Management Project College of Fisheries UP in the Visayas Miag-ao, Iloilo Atty. Ramon Binamira General Manager Philippine Tourism Authority Department of Tourism Bldg. T.M. Kalaw St., Ermita, Manila Dean Remedios Baga College of Fisheries Don Mariano Marcos Memorial State University Balaoan, La Union Ms. Agnes Cargamento Senior Economic Developmcnl Specialist NEDA Region I Don Pedro Bldg., Pagdaraoan San Fernando, La Union 198 Mr. Leon Dacanay, Jr. (Observer) Officer-in-Chargc INERA Division NEDA Region I Tan Yao Bldg., Pagdaraoan San Fernando, La Union Mr. Ernesto Datuin (Observer) Chicf and Economic Division Specialist NEDA Region I Don Pedro Bldg., Pagdaraoan San Fcmando, La Union Mr. Elmer Ferrer Project Leader Coasfal Resources Managcment Projcct CSWCD, UP Diliman, Quezon City Mr. Roberto Ferrer Provincial Board Member and Secretary-General Office of the Provincial Planning and Development Council Capitol. Lingaycn, Pangasinan Ms. Florence Gacad (Observer) Chief Economic Dcvelopment Spccialist Social Development Division NEDA Region I Tan Yao Bldg., Pagdaraoan San Fernando, La Union Ms. Susan Barbosa-Gaffud Assistant Mariculturist I1 Sea Farming Reswrch and Development Center Bonuan-Binloc, Dagupan City Mr. Roberto Galvcz Senior Research Assistant Coastal Resources Management Project CSWCD, UP Diliman, Quezon City Dr. Edgardo Gomez Director MSI, UP Diliman, Quezon City Ms. Flordeliz G uarin Project Specialist Coastal Resourccs Management Project ICLARM Bloomingdale Bldg., Salcedo St. Legaspi Village, Makati, Metro Manila Dr. Rafael Gucrrero 111 Executive Director PCAMRD Los Bafios, Laguna Mr. Joe de Guzman Penguin Agro Marine, Inc. 30 1 Mc Arthur Highway Tapuac, Dagupan City Mr. Alfredo Jacang Chicf Fishery Section Department of Agriculture-Region I Pangasinan Ms. Tercsita Lana (Observer) Senior Economic Development Specialist NEDA Rcgion I San Fernando, La Union Ms. Rizalina Legasto Study Lcadcr Coastal Resourccs Management Project BFAR Marcelo Bldg., Quezon Ave., Quezon City Mr. Jaime Lucas Provincial Director Department of Tradc and Induslry Pangasinan Provincial Officc Pua Bldg., Rizal St., Dagupan City Ms. Mary Ann Leah Maaliw Senior Rescarch Assistant Coastal Resourccs Management Project MSI, UP Diliman, Quezon City Dr. Liana McManus Project Leader Coastal Resources Management Project MSI, UP Diliman, Quczon City Contents List of Acronyms vii Foreword ix Preface xi Introduction xiii Acknowledgements xvi Session 1: Coastal Resources Utilization Preliminary R e s u l ~of a Study of the Municipal Fisheries in Lingayen Gulf. A. Calud, G. Rodriguez, R. Aruelo, G. Aguilar, E. Cinco, N. Armada and G. Silvestre 3 Preliminary Results of a Study of the Commercial Trawl Fisheries in Lingaycn Gulf. D. Ochavillo, H.Hernandez, S. Resrna and G. Silvestre 31 Sociocultural Dynamics of Blast Fishing and Sodium Cyanide Fishing in Two Fishing Villages in the Lingayen Gulf Arca. R. Galvez, T.G. Hingco, C. Bautisra and M.T. Tungpalan 43 Status of Coralline Resources in Lingayen Gulf. L. McManus and L.A. Meiiez 63 Patterns and Levels of Aquaculturc Practices in the Coastal Municipalities Adjoining Lingayen Gulf. A. Palma 71 Prclirninaq Results of a Water Quality Baseline Study of Lingayen Gulf. M.A.L. Mualiw, N. Bermm, R. Mercado and F. Guarin 83 Land Use Patterns and Physical Characteristics of the Provinces and Municipalities Bordering Lingayen Gulf. J. Alabanza, 1;. Quitos and A. Cargumento 93 Session 2: Habitat RestoratiodEnhancement and Alternative Livelihood Artificial Reefs: a Fisheries Management Tool for Lingayen Gulf. R. Miclat and E. Miclat 109 The Marine Conservation and Development Program of Silliman University as an Example for Lingayen Gulf. A. White 119 Mariculture as an Alternative Source of Livelihood for Sustenance Fishermen in Lingayen Gulf. A. Palma, R. Legasto and J. Paw 125 Mariculture Potential of Giant Clams and Sca Urchins in the Lingayen Gulf Area. M. J. Trinidad-Roa 133 Session 3: Socioeconomic, Cultural and Legal/Institutional Framework The Economics of Municipal Fisheries: the Case of Lingayen Gulf. C. Aiionuevo 141 Prospects for Territorial Use Rights in Fisheries in the Lingayen Gulf Area. E. Ferrer 157 Overview of the Development Targets and Concerns for the Province of Pangasinan (1987-1992). Ilocos Regional Development Council-National Economic Development Authority (Region 1) 163 Overview of the Development Plan for the Province of La Union (1987-1992). Ilocos Regional Development Council-National Economic Development Authority (Region I) 167 Working Group Reports on Issues and Recommendations Group I: Resources Management Issues 180 Group XI: Sociocconomic and Cultural Issues in Relation to Alternative Management Oplions and Solutions 181 Group 111: Legal and Inslilutional Arrangements for CRM Implcmcnlation 181 Group IV: CRM Planning 186 Summary of Plenary Session Discussions 189 Annexes I. Program of Activities 191 11. Opening and Closing Rcmarks 193 111. List of Participants 197 List of Acronyms ARDP ASEAN-US CRMP BFAR COSAC CPUE CRM CVRP DA DECS DENR DOST EPA FAD FA0 FIBA GT hp IAD ICLARM IRDC JOCV LO1 MCDP MHS NEDA NGOs NPCC PAGASA PC PCG PCAMRD PD PPt RDC Artificial Reef Development Project Association of Southea~t Asian Nations-United States Coastal Resources Management Project Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resourccs Constabulary Offshore Anti-Crime Unit Catch per unit effort Coastal Resourccs Management Central Visayas Rural Project Depmmenl of Agriculture Department of Education, Culture and Sports Dcparunent of Environment and Natural Resources Department of Science and Technology Environmental Protection Agcncy Fish aggregating device Food and Agriculture Organization Fiber Industry Development Authority Gross ton(s) Horsepower Integrated Area Development International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management Ilocos Regional Development Council Japan Overseas Cooperation Volunteers Letter of Instruction Marine Conservation and Development Program Ministry of Human Settlements National Economic Development Authority Nongovernmental organizations National Pollution Control Commission Philippine Astronomical, Geophysical and Atmospheric Sciences Administration Philippine Constabulary Philippine Coast Guard Philippine Council for Aquatic and Marine Research and Development Presidential Decree Parts per thousand Regional Develypment Council vii TURF UP UP-CSWCD UPV US AID US AID-CRSP Territorial use rights in fishcrics Universily of the Philippines UP-College of Social Work and Community Developmen1 UP in the Visayas Unitcd States Agency for Inlernational Developmcnt US AID-Collaborative Research Supporl Program Foreword The provinces of Pangasinan and La Union are faced with immense challenges. The urgent need for accelerated socioeconomic progress comes under condhons or scant devclopmenl resources, extensively exploited natural endowments and a burgconing human population. The two provinces have a combined population of 2.4 million growing at 2% annually. The economically active sector (15-64 years old), which comprises 43% of the population and over half of which are engaged in agriculture, is beset by low incomcs and productivity lcvels and severe underemployment. It is estimated that 65% of the 390,000 families receive incomes below the poverty threshold for the region. Of the combined land area of 6,860 km2, about 35% is suitcd for crop production and human settlement and is at present extensively utilizcd. Anothcr 62% is suitable for limited grazing, fruit trees and forest production and is under increased exploitation. Within limitcd local government resources and increased competition with other national government development priorities, improverncnt in social serviccs and infrastructure related to health, education, water and electricity, irrigation, waste disposal, transportation and communications nccd immediate attention. Maintenance of environmcntal quality is of prime importance to the peoplc of Pangasinan and Ln Union. It is recognized that conccrled and long-rangc efforts are needcd in this rcgard since potentla1 stresses and degradation arc likely to increase, given thc pressurc to meet rising socioeconomic needs and expectations. Concern has been expressed by various scctors in the two provinces for pollution and siltation from mining, farming, forest denudation and increased population in the neighboring upland provinces. Flooding in the Agno-Bued Delta is of increasing concern, together with rising urbanization and domcstic pallution in the PatalanDagupan arca. The concept of integrated area development (IAD) has been incorporated in the current five-year medium-term plans of the two provinces. Such approach is essential for devclopmenl to be optimally sustainable, given the multiple, competing and sometimes conflicting uses of available areas/resources. The coastal zone is of special significance in the two provinces. About 35% of the population is in the coastal municipalities immediately adjoining Lingayen Gulf, not to mention the bulk of population is in the Agno-Bued Delta through which rivers discharging into the gulf pass. Capture fisheries and aquaculture are important sources of income, and provide chcap fish protein to inhabitants of Pangasinan, La Union and neighboring land-locked provinces. Walcr-orienlcd tourism and recreation are importan1 in the coastal municipalities of La Union and thc SualHundred Islands arca of Pangasinan, Majority of the economic activities and inhabitants are a t uated in the coastal belt. This is reflected by the relative concentration of social services and infrastructure in these areas. Particular concern, however, has been raised with respect to man-induced strcsses in the coastal arcas. Mangrove denudation, coral reef degradation, overfishing, the use of destructive fishing methods such as explosives and poisons, and siltation and pollution of coastal waters arc some of the issues that have drawn increasing attention. Our capabilities in the region to assess the extenl of these problems and to prescribe and enfo~cecorrective measures arc still largcly in ix the initial stages of development. We welcome efforts to quantiry the nature and extent of these problems and assist us in formulating practical and imple~nentablemanagement schemes toward integrated and optimally sustainable devclopment of the coasul resourccs of Lingayen Gulf. Thc efforts of ASEAN-US CRMP in the Philippines come at an opportune dme of serious reassessment of our development priorities and strategies. The approach undertaken offers a refreshingly holistic perspective of current realities in contrast to previous disjunct and largely land-based development orientations. For and in behalf of the people of Pangasinan and La Union, we extend our gratitude and congratulations to all individuals and organizations who have assisted in this endeavor. We particularly would like to thank h e International Centcr for Living Aquatic Resources Management (ICLARM) and the Philippine Council for Aquatic and Marine Research and Development (PCAMRD) for choosing Lingayen Gulf as one of its pilot sites in Southea~tAsia for CRM implernentalion, and the United States Agcncy for International Development ( U S A I D ) for financial support for the project. We look forward to a long and fruitful collaboration. Rafael M. Colet Govcmor Province of Pangasinan Joaquin Ortega Governor Province of La Union Preface The coastal watcrs of Southeast Asian countries have some of the world's richest ecosystems characterized by extensive coral reefs and dcnse mangrove forests. Blessed with warm uopical climate and high rainfall, these waters are rurther enriched with nutrients from land which enable them to support a wide diversity of marine life. Because economic benefits could be derived from them, the coastal zones in these countries teem with human settlements. Over 70% or the population in the region lives in coastal areas which have been rccently characterized by high-level rcsource cxploitation. This situation became apparent between the 1960s and 1970s when socioeconomic pressures wcre increasing. Large-scale destruction of thc region's valuable resources has causcd serious degradation of the environment, thus affecting the economic life of the coastal inhabitants. This lamentablc situation is mainly the result of ineffective or poor management of the coastal resources. It is cssential to consider coastal resources as valuablc assets that should bc utilized on a sustainable basis. Unisectoral overuse of some resources has causcd grave problems. Indiscriminate logging and mining in upland areas might have brought largc economic benefits to companies undertaking thesc activities and, to a certain cxtent, incrcased govcrnrnent revenucs, but could prove detrimental to lowland activities such as fisheries, aquaculturc and coastal-tourism depcndent industries. Similarly, unregulated fishing efforts and the use of deslructive fishing methods, such ,as mechanized push-net$ and dynamiting, havc caused serious destruction of fish habitats and reduction of fish stocks. Indiscriminalc cutting of mangroves for aquaculture, fuel wood, timber and the like has brought temporary gains in fish production, fuel wood and timber supply but losscs in nurscry areas of commercially important fish and shrimp, coastal erosion and land accretion. Thc coastal zones of most nations in the Association of Southcast Asian Nations (ASEAN) are subjected to increasing population and economic pressures manifested by a variety of coastal activities, notably, fishing, coastal aquaculture, waste disposal, salt-making, tin mining, oil drilling, tankcr traffic, rural construction and industrialization. This situation is aggravated by the expanding economic activities atlcmpting to uplift thc standard of living of coastal people, the majority of whom live below the official poverty line. Some ASEAN nations have formulated regulatory rncasures for their coaslal resources management (CRM) such as the issuance of permits to fishing, logging, mangrove harvesting, etc. However, most of Lhese mcasures havc not proven effectivc due partly to enforcemcnt failure and largely to lack of support for the communities concerned. Experience in CRM in developed nations suggests the need for an integrated, interdisciplinary and ~nultiscctoralapproach in dcveloping plans that provide a course of action usable for daily management of the coastal areas. The ASEAN Coastal Resourccs Management Project (CRhP)arose from h c existing CRM problems. Its goal is to increase cxisting capabilities wilhin ASEAN nations in dcveloping and implementing CRM strategies. The project, which is funded by the United Slates Agency for X1 International Development (USAID) and executed by the International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management (ICLARM), attempts to attain its goals through these activities: analyzing, documenting and disseminating information on trends in coastal resources development; increasing awareness of the importance of CRM policies and identifying, and where possible, strengthening existing management capabilities; providing technical solutions to coastal resources use conflicts; and promoting institutional arrangements that bring multisectoral planning to coastal resources development. In addition to implementing training and information dlssemination programs, CRMP also attempts to devclop site-specific CRM plans to formulate integrated strdtegics that could be implemented in the prevailing conditions in each nation. The Philippines has laken a major step in thc conservation and protcclion of its valuable coastal resources through active participation in the devcloprnent of its CRM plan for Lingayen Gulf. This workshop proceedings, a product of the third in a scries of consultative meetings undcr the auspices of the Philippine component of the ASEAN-US CRMP, reflects the spirit of cooperation and collaboration that would make an operational CRM plan for Lingayen Gulf a rcality. Chua Thia-Eng Project Coordinator ASEAN-US Coastal Resources Management Project xii Introduction The tremendous increase in human population and the intense activities to meet ils cconomic needs have placed immense pressure on the natural rcsourccs of dcvcloping countries like the Philippincs. Coupled wilh the need for foreign exchange, increased integration into the world commodity markets and economic system, and convcntional cconomic devclopmcnt modcls, thesc havc Icd to misuse or abusc of available resources. The fast pace of technological developmcnl and cconomic activitics has generally not allowed for the evolution of appropriate attitudes, structures and institutions to chcck misusc or minimizc conllicls in rcsource cxploilalion. Cognizant 01thc increasing problems of rcsource depletion and habitat/ environmental degradation (and the resulting impovcrishmcnt and alienation that these are causing), resource managcrs and policymakers in the Philippincs havc takcn vigorous intcrcst in the optimal sustainability and integrated development of the country's resources. The Lingayen Gulf coastal area, located in the northwestern part of Luzon island, illustrates in microcosm the depletion and degradation problems resulting from unplanned and compcting resources utilization in the country. Lingayen Gulf covers approximately 2,085 km2 of water area with a 160-km semicircular coastline bounded b the provinces of Pangasinan and La TJnion (with an aggregate land arca of about 7,000 km ). In 1987, the combined population of these two provinces was roughly 2.4 million, most of whom were involved in activitics in thc natural resources seclor (agricullure, forestry, fisheries and mining). Some 810,000 people resided in the coastal municipalities bordering the gulf which has an aggregate land area of 1,755 km2. In 1985, the average incomc for a family of six in the two ptovinccs was only slightly higher than the official poverty threshold of f2,400(US$120) per month for the region. The mix of water-based (c.g., capture fisheries, aquaculture, sca Wansport, tourism) and landbased (e.g., urban development, farming, logging, mining) economic activities in the area has put considerable stress on the resource systems which are the very basis of the viability of these activities. Issues or problems that are thc subject of increasing conccm in thc arca includc, among others, the following: (1) overexploitation and/or depletion of the fisheries resources; (2) use of destructive fishing methods; (3) mangrove and forest denudation; (4) siltation and sedimcntation; (5) coral reef degradation; (6) potcnlial pollution from mining, aquaculture and agriculture runoff; (7) floodmg; and (8) the consequences of these on the socioeconomic wcllbeing of the people. Dcspitc the apparent resource-related problcrns and widcsprcad conccrn for Ihc threats to sustainable utilization of Lingaycn Gulf coastal rcsourccs, the information necessary for proper resources management has remained exceedingly patchy and inadequate, and the cornpcting human uses have remained unrelated and unplanned. It is in this context that the Lingayen Gulf area was chosen as an appropriate site for intensive studies and development of a comprehensive coastal resources management (CRM) plan. Sincc the commencement of ASEAN-US CRMP activities in Lingayen Gulf in July 1986, a considerable amount of primary and secondary information on the biogeographical, socioeconomic, and legal/institutional featurcs of the study site has been compiled. ... J Xlll Consistent with the need for widespread consultation and the reahation t h a ~planning is a dynamic, responsive and continuing activity rathcr than a static one, two previous national workshops were held to assess the available information. Thc participants came from a wide varicty of disciplines and institutional affiliations. The first workshop (held in Punta Baluarte, Calatagan, Batangas, in Dcccmbcr 1986) principally focused on the assessment of available secondary information, critical issues and data gaps, and the preliminary coastal environmental profile of Lingayen Gulf. The subjects for intensive studics to fill the existing information gaps or to clarify certain issucs were also identified. The second workshop (hcld in thc University of the Philippines (ID'), Diliman, Quc~onCity, in December 1987), on the olhcr hand, was primarily hcld to asscss thc dala collection and studies initiated as a rcsuli or the recommendations from the first workshop. After the first quarter of 1988, morc information became avrulable as thc data collection phases of most studies were nearing completion. Morc concrete inferences and planning of initial management strategies were dcemed largely possible bascd on h c available data. Thus, a third workshop intcndcd to bring togahcr resource planners, pohcymakcrs and scientists was held in Bauang, La Union (part of Region I where Lingayen Gulf is situated) on 25-27 May 1988. The choicc of vcnuc for this workshop was purposive. First, it encouraged widcr participation of the regional government and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). Second, it indicatcd that the CRMP, through an act of endorsing its scientific findings, recognized the dcccntralizaLion cffort of the governmcnt and h e appropriateness of thc rcgional offices bemg made to dccidc, plan and manage the coastal resources in their rcspcclive areas. Finally, it establishcd good working relationship bctwccn thc CRMP and the agencics in Rcgion I at the early p h a e of CRM planning, which should be continuously strengthened until thc implementation of the management plan. Thc objectives of the workshop were to: determine thc typcs of data needed for CRM planning; evaluatc and analyze the available CRMP data and identify possiblc data gaps as viewed by both scientists and planners; determine prcliminary action plans and environmental management slrategies in order to attempt to resolve actual conflicts in resources use; and identify governmenlal and nongovernmental organizations that would be responsible for the implcmcntation of the CRM plan. In line with thcsc objectives, the paper presentations were divided Into lhrec sessions: I: Coastal resources utilizatron - a presentalion of current resourccs utilization and conflicts arising from these uses; 1 : Habitat resloration and enhancement and altemativc livelihood - a discussion of activities which will lead to the restoration and enhancement of damaged ecosystems and proposed livelihood projccts as alternatives to capture fisheries; 111: Socioeconomic/cultural and JegaVinstitutional framework - an analysis of social and cultural aspects in coastal communities, labor and market forces, cost and return, existing legal framework for coastal resources utilization and development, institutional arrangement for planning and dcvclopmcnt and management plan formulation. For thc workshop proper, four working groups wcre formed to tackle (1) CRM iswcs; (2) socioeconomic/cultural issues in relation to alternative management options and solulions; (3) legal and institutional arrangement for CRM implementation; and (4) revisions of plans and programs of the planning division of the CRMP for Lingayen Gulf. Each working group considered issues raised during thc open forum at the end of each scssion, in addition to those already outlined in the papers presented. For uniformity of outputs, the first b e e groups were tasked to: (I) outline and prioritize all issues related to their topic of concern; (2) detcrminc and enumerate xiv causes of these issues; and (3) formulate workable action plans suggesting, if possible, order of priority, agencies to be responsible, timing of action and geographic areas of implementation. Group IV, on the other hand, embarked on the review and revision of the CRM planning framework, formulation of mechanisms by which the project can accomplish its planning tasks, identification of agencies and personnel to be involved in the drafting of the integrated CRM plan, and development of outlines for the project's ultimate target outputs, namely, a general CRM policy plan, issue-oriented action plans and special area management plans. The group reports incorporated in these proceedings reflect not only the ideas and decisions generated by the group members, but also those Lhat evolved during thc plcnary session. At the end, a summary of what transpired during the plenary session is provided, highlighting recommcndations deemed most urgent by all participants. We believc that the rcsults of this workshop, and the degree of participation and interaction that they facilitated, have taken us a step closer to an operational management plan towards an optimally sustainable development of Lingayen Gulf coastal resources. Acknowledgements Thc workshop and its subsequent procccdings would not havc bccn possible without the assistance and support of various agencies and individuals (both in government and private organizations) to whom we owe special thanks. The workshop greatly benefited from the active participation of representatives from agencics/entities outsidc Ihc rcgular Philippine CRMP organizational structure. For this, we thank the following: Center for the Development of Human Resources in Rural Asia Department of Agriculture Department of Environment and Natural Resources Department of Tourism Department of Trade and Industry Dioccsc of Alaminos, Pangasinan Don Mari,ano Marcos State University Pangasinan Slate University Pcnguin Ago-Marinc, Inc. Philippine Navy Philippine Tourism Authority Provincial Govcrnmcnt of Pangasinan Provincial Government of La Union Sca Farming Kcscarch and Dcvclopmcnl Ccntcr We wish to acknowledge the valuable assistance of the National Economic Development Authority (NEDA) (Rcgion I), cspccially Dircctor Joseph Alabanza and Deputy Director Leonardo Quitos, for committing manpower and logistics in making thc workshop a success. Special thanks go lo the invited resource speakers, namcly: Edwin Barcia, Ramon Miclat and Marie Josephine Trinidad-Roa. The support and assistance of ICLARM facilitated the conducl of thc workshop and comple~ionof proceedings. Thanks are due to Ma. Angcliria Agulto, Rachel Josue and Ma. Socorro Guerrero for typing the manuscript; Rachel Ahnacio Sor drafting the rigures; Ginna Guiang for assislancc in transcribirlg rhe various sessions, and Marie Sol Sadorra and Angelli Tugado for assistLmccin cditing thc manuscript. Flordcliz Guarin and James Paw provided efficient technical support. Gratitude is extended lo those who reviewed all or par1 of thc procccdings, namcly: Jay Maclean, Danicl Pauly, Rogcr Pullin, Max A g k r o and Alan Whitc (all or ICLARM). Finally, we wish to thank the United States Agency lor Inrcrnational Dcvclopmcn~(USAID) for the financial suppoli, and the Government of the Republic of the Phihppines, through the Philippine Council for Aquatic and Marine Research and Dcveloprncn~or thc Dcparlmcnl of Scicnce and Technology, for making the nalional project possible. xvi Session 1 Coastal Resources Utilization Preliminary Results of a Study of the Municipal Fisheries in Lingayen Gulf AUGUSTUSCALUD~, GIOVANNI RODRIGUEZ~, ROMEOARUELO~, GLENNAGULLAR~, ELVIRO CINCO~, NYGIELARMADA"and GEKONIMO SILVES'IRE~ Calud, A., G. Rodriguez, R. Aruelo, G. Aguilar, E. Cinco. N. Armada and G. Sivestre. 1989. Preliminary results of a study of the municipal fisheries in Lingayen Gulf, p. 3-29. In G. Silvestre, E. Miclat and T.-E. Chua (eds.) Towards sustainable development of the coastal resources of Lingayen Gulf, Philippines. ICLARM Conference l'roceedmgs 17,2M3 p. Philippine Council for Aquatic and Marine Rcsearch and Development. Los Raiios, Laguna, and Intemational Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management, Makati, Metro Manila, Philippines. Abstract This paper presents a summary of preliminary results obtained during the course of the municipal fisheries and blast fishing s~udiesin Lingayen Gulf covering the period May 1987 to April 1988. Information on gear design and spccifications and catch rates of the various municipal gears (including blast fishing) arc presented. Rcsults of inidal studies on lethal ranges of explosivcs uscd in blast fishing are also given. A p r c h i n a r y attcmpt to estimate the magnitude of landings frcm~municipal and blast fishing activities gives an aggrcgate of about 10,500 tJyear. This indicates rclatlvely high annual extraction rates of 10.1 lJkm2 of municipal fishing ground, and a yield-to-biomass ratio of 3.97. Rccommendations center around the nccd for reduction in fishing effort and improved managmcnt of the fisheries. Introduction The term "municipal fisheries" rcfers to fishing activities that utilize vessels of 3 gross tons (GT) or less, or gears not requiring the use of boats [Prcsidential Decrcc (PD) No. 7041. Municipal fisheries are roughly equivalent to artisanal, small-scale or traditional fisheries. A considerable numbcr of residenls in the coastal areas of Lingayen Gulf rely on fishing for their main sourcc of livelihood. Of late, complaints of municipal fishcrrnen on low catch rates and economic returns have become more frequent; and conccrn about the deterioration of their already low soc~oeconomicstanding has been repcalcdly expressed. Despite low catches, however, they continue to fish due to lack of alternative sources of livelihood. Somc have resorlcd to illegal fishing methods which are ecologically destructive. The "open acccss" situation has resullcd in an cvcr-increasing competition for the finite resources the gulf sustains. The study of Lingaycn Gulf municipal fishcries is deemcd to be a significant part in the proccss of formulating an implementable CRM plan. The study, in general, aims to asscss the status of the municipal fisheries in the gulf; and specifically, to: (1) estimate the aCollcge or Fisherics. Univenily of thc Philippines in the Visayas (Ul'V). Mag-ao, noilo, Philippines. bCumnt address is ICLARM, MC P.O. Box 1501, Makati. Metro Manila. Philippines. 4 catch by municipal gear typc and its species composition; (2) determine the seasonality in catch of the various municipal gears; and (3) dclcrmine the scasonal and spatial distribution of the gear types and their catches. Closely associated with the municipal fisheries study is thc investigation of blast fishing activities in the gulf. Blast fishing is one of the most common illegal fishing mcthods in the arca. To date, however, there has been no study to substantiate its effects and Ihe extent of damage it causcs. The blast fishing study aims to document the types of cxplosives uscd in the gulf; quantify fisheries production due to this activity in thc m a ; and evaluate the losscs attributed to it. Lingayen Gulf and Its Municipal Fisheries Lingayen Gulf is located approximately within latiludes 16000'N and 16040'N, and longitudes 119055'E and 120025'E (Fig. 1). It is bounded in the west and south by Pangasinan Province, and in the northcast by La Union Province. Thc mouth of the gulf is bounded in the west by Cape Bolinao and in thc east by Poro Point. Thc gulf has a total area of 2,085 km2. Table 1 gives the arca distribution of the gulf by 10-fathom depth range. Thc gulf is mostly shallow with about 90% of the area bclow 90 m. A series or shoals extends nearly halfway across the cnuance from Cape Bolinao. The ccnual and northern entrances are a190 studded with coralline growth (Warfel and Manacop 1950). From the southern and central portions of thc gulf to the castern coast, the substrate is gencrally muddy with occasional patches of hardlrocky bottom. Bascd on bottom type and/or characteristic ecosystems, Lingayen Gulf is often subdivided into three sectors (Mincs 1986) (Fig. 1): Sector I (Western Coast) - extends from Cape Bolinao to Sual; characterized by coral reefs and seagrass beds; Sector I1 (Inner Coast) - extends liom Sual to Damortis; characterized by mangrove and nipo swamps, and where the aquaculture industry of Region I is concentrated; and Sector III (Eastern Coast) - bounded by the coast of La Union Province; characterized by generally soft and muddy substrate. Sixteen towns and one city (nagupan) bordcr Lingayen Gulf from Cape Bolinao to Poro Point. In 1985, the Burcau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR) reportcd a total of 12,464 municipal fishermen in these areas (BFAR 1985; 1985b; 1 9 8 5 ~ )(Table 2 and Fig. 2). About 46%, 36% and 18% of thesc fishermen are in Sectors I, I1 and ID, respectively. A total of 7,054 boats (4,234 motorized and 2,820 nonmotorized) werc reported from the area, giving a fishing boat (bancaj-to-fisherman ratio of 0.57 (Table 2). The lowest ratio occurred in Binmaley (0.07), while the highest occurred in Rosario (1.22). Among the thrcc sectors, Sector I11 (comprising the La Union municipalities) accounted for thc highest bunco-to-fisherman ratio, 0.9 1. Mcan municipal landing for the period 1980 to 1984 in the Lingaycn Gulf area was about 6,000-8,700 t/year. This implies that each municipal fisherman landed about 0.480.70 tlyear on the average, or about 40-70 kg/month. Average monthly incomes in 1983 were reported to be about F'1,12O (USSO) and P430 (LJS$31) for fishermen using motorized and nonmotorized boats, respectively (Ferrer et al. 1983). The municipal fisheries of Lingayen Gulf are typically mulligear and multispecies. Mines (1986) rcported 159 spccies belonging to 87 genera and 55 families in the landings of the municipal fishcrrnen in the gulf. There are 32 types of fishing gears used in the gulf as gathered from various rcpons (Umali 1950; Lucas 1952; Cefre 1953; Bailen 1978; NCSO 1980; Kitamado 1984; and Mines 1986). Aside from bag net, purse seine and mediumtlarge trawls, the rest of thc gears are used by municipal fishcrmen. The most widely used fishing gears in each city/municipality bordering the gulf are given in Table 3. Note that the gill net and hook line arc the most predominant gears utilized. Fig. 1. Lirigaycn Gulf showing the geographical divisions of its internal waters and surrounding coastal areas. Depth contours in fathoms. Table 1. Area distribution of Lingayen Gulf by depth rangc. Depth range Fathoms Meters Area &m2) 70or total arca TabIe 2. Distribution of the number of fishermen and b a t s by sector in Lingayen Gulf as of 1985. Municipal fishemen Motorized boats Konmaorized boats Boat-tofisherman ratio 'Y' Pangasinan S a n Fernando Sector I Bolinao Anda Bani Alarninos Sual Sector II Labrador Lingayen B inmaley Sari Fabian Dagupan City La Union Sector III R o sario Sto. Tomas Asm Aringay Caba Bauang San Fernando Total 12,464 4,234 2,820 0.57 Swrce : BFAR municipal fisheries data, BFAR Region I Office, San Fernando, La Union. Fig. 2. Distribuiion of municipal fishermen in the mash1 towns of Lingayen Gulf. (Source: BFAR 19S5b). Tablc 3. Dominant municipal fishing gears used in the coastal municipalities bordering Lingaycn Gulf. Area Dominant gear Sector I Alaminos Anda Crab lilt net Cast nct Bani Bolinao Push nct Hook and linc Sual Hook and linc Sector lI Labrador Lingayen Troll line Gill net Rinmaley Crab lift net San Pahian Gill net Dagupan City Gill net Hook and Yule Aringay Gill net Bauang Hook and l i e Caba Rosario San Fernando Sto. Tomas Gill net Gill net Push net Gill net Olher gears Hook and line, cast nct, long line, push net. fish corral Troll linc, fish corral, hook and line, fiitcr net, gill net, bcach seinc, long linc, push nct, ring nct, lamhklada Lilt net, gill net, beach scine, cast act, fish corral, long line Crab lift net, gill net, fish corral, push iict, beach scine, filtcr net, cask net, lift net, long lime, dredge Gill nct, long line, push net, beach seinc Gill nct, push nct, long line, beach seine, hook and line Lift net, push net, bcach seine, cast net, hook and line, fish corral, filter net, baby trawl, dredgc, long line, lambaklad Cast net, push net, hook and line, gill net, fish corral, round haul, seinc, bahy trawl, filter net, beach seine, troll line, ring net, lambaklad Push net, troll line, cast net, beach scine, crab lilt net, dredgc, long line, filter net Cast nct, hook and line, push net, crab lift net, beach scine, fish corral Long line, baby trawl, troll line, beach seine, gill net, push net, round haul seine, cast net, ring net, crab lift nct Crab lilt nct, baby trawl, push net, cast net, bcach seine, dredgc, fish corral Gill net, long line, beach scine, cast net, fish corral, ring net, push nct, bahy trawl Fish corral, ring net, troll lime, push net, baby trawl Hook and linc, baby trawl, long line, cast net, push net, ring net, Cast nct Hmk and linc, push net, fish corral, cast net, filter net, baby trawl, long line alomhaklad is a modified fish corral made of bamboo and nct. Source: NCSO 1980. Data Collection Data gathering (beginning May 1987) for the municipal fisheries study was conducted in six fishing towns selected on the basis of dominant (and other) gears found in the area. The fishing towns of Aringay, Agoo and Rosario (all in La Union) were monitored cvery othcr day by locally contracted researchers. In Pangasinan, the towns of Sual, Labrador and Alaminos were monitored twice a month by researchers based in UP Dilirnan, Quezon City, for an average of seven sampling days in one month. Data collccted include the magnitude of the catchcs of municipal fishing gears and their corre- sponding species and length compositions. Some biological data (e.g., maturity, length, weight) on the more abundant species composing the catchcs were also obtained. Members of the research team joined fishing trips to observe operations and obtain information for use in validating the data generated through the monitoring surveys. The inirial approach in collecling data for thc blast fishing study involved the establishment of sampling stations in selected communities. Twelve areas were identified around the gulf, but only six stations wcre being monitored thus far (Fig. 3). This is because access to information required systematic building of rapport with fishermen in San Fornondo A< Fig. 3. Sampling stations and listening posts around Lingayen G11ifor thc blast fishi.ng study. the idcntified localities. The six areas served as listening posts [or monitoring the frequency of explosions per unit time interval, and also as catch data collection stations. Systematic sampling of catches has so far been possible only in onc of the six areas. Dam collected included the total catchboattrip, number and type of explosive used, species composition and length-ftcquency distribution of the more abundant species caught. In vivolin situ experimcnts (in cooperation with blast fishermen) to determine thc lethal ranges and rcmote damage zoncs of the differcnt types of explosives used in the area will also be conducled. Design, Operation and Catch of Municipal Fishing Gears The data generated thus far allowed thc rcsearch t a m to characterize (albeit prcliminarily) h e typical d e s i p and specifications, operation, and catch rate and species composition of the various municipal fishing gears uscd in the gulf. llluslrations and detailed spccifications of the more common or dominant gears/techniques are given in Appndix 1. The specics composition data generated for selected fishing gears and towns covered in the study are givcn in Appendix 2. The mean catch per unit effort (CPUE) and operational details on the various gcars in thc study sites monitored are presented in Table 4. Gill nets Gill nets are rectangular panels of netting designcd to gill or entangle fish. They are the most widely used fishing gear in the gulf since they can be used at various depths or types of bottom substrate, either anchored at the bottom or set adrift at the surfacc or middepth. Bottom Gill Nets (Sigay). These arc operated with the use of eithcr a motorized or Table 4. ,Mean CPUE, p e r i d of operdon and eslima~esof produc~ionolvarious municipal fishing gears in Lingayen Gulf. Fishing gear Motorirized bot~omgill net Nonmotorized bottom gill nel Drift gill net 'Hook and line I Danish seine Speargun ',Fish c o d Beach seine ..Liftn e ~ Drive-in net Shrimp trawl Beam trawl Crab pot Fish pot Long line Round haul seine Scoop n e ~ Squid jig Blasl fishing Total a Catchbattrip 0%) Boal[+/day Catchboat/ day OX) Fishing dayslmo. Fishing mo.fyr Catch/boat/ Yr (kg) No. of boats3 5.37 1.59 15.25 7.08 26.80 6.84 4.35 19.66 43.33 57.40 13.85 118.28 3.79 2.10 180.34 345.00 6.74 1.81 1 1 1 1 I 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5.37 1.59 15.25 7.08 26.80 6.84 4.35 39.32 43.33 57.40 13.85 1 18.28 3.79 2.10 180.34 315.00 6.74 1.81 21.32d 24 24 24 12 26 24 24 12 12 8 8 8 6 12 8 8 4 4 4 I2 12 4 4' 4 3 6 1,547 458 2,928 680 5,574 985 1.253 4,718 7,626 3,903 1,330 12,301 1,182 378 8,656 9,660 647 130 3,326 2,168 1,413 27 1 186 80b 303 39b 14b llbb 32b 621 36b 330 258 95 8b 31 31 317C 6,349e 14 22 17 24 26 26 15 12 7 24 24 26 Production (dyd 3,354 647 794 126 446 298 49 66 885 1 25 826 443 390 98 822 77 20 4 1,054 10.524f a ~ a s e don motorized and nonrnotorized boat distribution by gear trpe in the sir study sites, with e x c q ~ o n as s noted. b ~on actud ~ counlr; ~ d of existing mils in the coastal municipalilies of Ligayen Gulf,and observed gearunit-to-boat ratio. 6 % of total boat number used for fishing (i.e., 6,349). dFrom 13.0 kgblasl x 1.6.1blastsballday. CBased on 7,054 b a l s less 10%used for transport, lourism and &er ac~vities. fhplies extrac~onrate of 5.01km2 for the entire gdf (2,085 km2) and 10.1 *rn2 of municipal fishing ground, as well as yield LO total biomass (2,655 r) ralio of 3.97/yr. 10 nonmotorized banca, usually with a complement of two persons. The gears are sct in waters 4 m to 40 m deep. Nonmotorized units operate in nearshore, shallow waters while motorized units, farther offshore. Fishing usually last9 aboul 3 hours either at dawn (5 a.m.-8 a.m.) or at dusk (4 p.m.-7 p.m.) and, quite rarely, both dawn and dusk hours depending upon the season. Between 6 and 30 panels or units of neuing are used in a single operation, each panel measuring an aggrcgarc of 40-80 m in length by 1.5-2.5 rn depth. Mesh size is shifted depending upon the seasonality of preferred target species (e.g., scombroids in July-August, hairiails in November-December, etc.). May 1987 LO April 1988. Mackerels (Rastrelliger spp.) comprise 58.8% and Chirocentrus dorab and Selur crumenoprhalmus, 22.7% or the drift gill net catches in the area. Tuna Drift Gill Nets (Liling). Designed to catch tuna and tuna-like species, these gcars are operated by two fishermen lorn a 16 hp motorized boat in waters 15-20 km offshorc outsidc thc gulf. Sharks are also a considerable part of the catch. The gears are operatcd overnight, from 4 p.m.-6 a.m. The fishing season lasts from January lo May. Some fishermen who usc surface drift gill nefs shift to these gears and fish as far as the Ilocos coast. Mean CPUEs (kgboat-trip) for bottom gill nets wcrc 5.37 and 1.59 for motorized and nonmotorizcd units, respectively (Table 4). Thc catches of motorized units (operating I'arther offshore) have been noted to be less diverse comparcd to those of nonmotorized units (operating in shallower waters). Mean landings by motorized boats in Dulao, Aringay, were dominated (84.2%) by Megaluspis cordyla, Scomberomous commersonii and Euthymus affinis. These species made up 50.2% of landings by motorized unitq in Bani, Rosario. The catch composition data for nonmotorizcd units from the same localities showed more evcn distribution among the exploitcd species. The contribution of demersal species, such as slipmouths (Gazza minuta, Leiognarhus spp.), goatfish (TJpeneus sulphureus) and crabs was more significan~. SurfnceIMidwater Drift Gill Nets (Largarete). These gill nets arc designed lor catching pelagic spccies. Each operation involvcs a motorized banca (with 16 hp engine) usualIy with the complement of two persons. The gears are normally set about 3 km offshorc and a single setting involves 1530 panels/units. Each panel measures about 50 m in length by 3.2-4.0 rn dcplh when set in water. Pcak months are from March to September whcn he sea is calm. The gill ncts are used at night and operations ease around thc period of full moon. Mean catch rate is 15.2 kghoat-trip in Tobuan, Labrador, from Hooks and lines Thc hooks and lines used in the gulf arc single- or multiplc-hook types. There are two varieties of the former: one for use in suxfacc waters and the other for deepwater operations. Hooks and lines Involve either a motorized or nonmotorized hanca with a complement of two to three persons. Operations last from 5 a.m. to 4'p.m. at depths of 550 m. The gears are used during the entire year although the peak season is from Octobcr to December. Catches from the multiple hook and line are often used as bait in thc single-hook varieties which are designcd for catching larger specics/individuals. Mcan catch rate for these gears is 5.9 kg/boat-trip in Tobuan, Labrador, and 7.1 kg/l>oa~-uip for dl. the study sites. Thc hook and line gears catch mainly pelagic spccics. The landings in Tobuan, Labrador, are dominated by S. crumenopthalmus (43.3%); and including S . commersonii, R. kanugurta and S. barracuda, makc up 82% of the landrngs in ihe area. Lelhrinus lenrjan w d Leiognuthw equulus are usually caught by multiple hook and line in coralline areas. Long lines (Kitang) These are multiple-hook fishing gears for bottom operauons. They are usually set by 11 two fishermen from either a motorized or nonmotorized boat during daylime in deeper, offshore waters (>40 m). The process of bailing, setting and hauling the gears takes long hours of hard work. Thus, many long line fishermen have shifted to the use of Danish seines which involve lighter work. Mean CPUE for these gears is about 180 kgbat-trip, 85% of which are sharks. This catch rate, however, is based on a very low sample sizc (i.e., six observations) because of the previously cited shift in gcar preference. Danish seines (Buli-buli) Danish seines are trawl-like gears gcnerally opcrated by three fishermen from a motorized banca with 16 hp engine. Operations entail enclosure of a given area with the gcar at depths of 5-75 m and driving the fish through a funnd-like netting and hag. Operations are usually made from 6 a.m. to 4 p.m. Bctween six and nine hauls are made in a day's operation. +-. Mean catch rate for the gears for all areas covered by the study was 26.8 kg/boat-trip. The landings from Danish scines in Masamirey, Sual, in May 1987 to April 1988 wcre dominated by the red bull's eye (Priacanthus tayenus) and threadfin brcams (Nemiplerus spp.) which composc 76.5% of the mean CPUE for the area. Danish seine catches arc primarily demersal specicsl groups. The spear fishing unit usually consists of three fishermcn. Two divc and spear fish whilc one remains on board the 10-16 hp motorized hanca to attend to the compressor and plastic tubings. Spear fishermcn operate in depths 01up to 50 m for one to two hours during daylight. Some deaths have bccn reported from spear fishing operations apparently due to lack of dccompression. Some spear fishing activities also occur at night with the aid of light. Thesc operations are particularly attractivc during moonless nights. These do not requue divcrs, and fishermen simply fish from thcir boats. The hookah spear fishermen operatc in relativcly deeper watcrs for prolonged periods, thus catching bigger and highcr-priced spccies. The light-aidcd spear fishers usually opcrate in shallow waters and are thus limited lo small-sized siganids and other light-attracted fish. Mean catch ratc for spear fishermen in Lucap, Alaminos, was 6.8 kg/boat-trip. This includes catches of both night-time and daytime spcar fishers. Siganus canaliculatus and S. gullatus makc up 58% of the catch; and sqmds (Loligo spp.), cuttlefish (Sepia spp.) and octopi compose 35%. High-priced lobsters (Panulirus sp.) and groupcrs (Epinephelus spp.) arc also landed by spear fishers. It can be noted that most of the species are typical of coral/hard-bollom fishing grounds. Fish corrals (Pasabing) Spear fishing units (Hookah) Swar fishing operations involve homemade spearguns and spears. The former consist of a wooden handle fitted with a steel nozzle and rubber band. The spears are made of wood and are single- or multitipped; the latter are usually used for smaller fish. Homemade goggles cnable divers to see clearly underwater; and for longer periods undcrwater, plastic tubes (hookah) attached to a compressor on Ihc bunco: are used. The latter was adopted from aquarium fish collectors in the arm. Fish corrals are scmipcrmanent gears commonly round in the western sidc of the gulf (Sector I). They are noted for catching livc, juvenile fish suited for culture in brackishwater ponds. Harvesting of fish in thc bag or catching box is usually done oncc daily. The net in thc bag is set in the evcning and hauled the next day, depending on tidal fluctuation. Either a motorized or nonrnotorized banca is used in inspecting the g c a and hauling the calch. Mean catch rate of fish corrals in Lucap, Alaminos, from July 1987 to April 1988, was 4.4 kghoat-trip. The catch was dominated by siganids and shrimps, both 12 composing 66.3% of the t o ~ l .Allhough making up only a small portion of the lotal catch in weight, the siganid and grouper fries harvested using fish corrals were important in the overall economics of the operations. Beach seines (Kalokor) Beach scines are commonly used in Agoo (La Union), San Fabian (Pangasinan) and othcr soft-bottom areas in the inner coast (Scctor 11) of the gulf. The gcars are operated twice daily, during early morning and late aftcrnoon. One motorized and one nonmotorizcd hanca are used in selling the gear in nearshore waters (up to 15 m deep), and the operation usually involves 16 fishermen. The net is dragged to shorc by fisberrncn on the bcach. Mean catch rate for seincs in San Tsidro, Agoo, was 19.7 kdsetting during thc period May 1987 to April 1988. Five species (Atule mate, ~richiurus haumela, Leiagnathus bindus, M . cordyla and Selaroides leplnlepis) composed 71.2% of beach scine landings in the area. Juveniles of lhese spccics were abundant in the catches becausc the gear was operaled very close to shorc and the mesh size used at the cocl-cnd was only 1.5 crn stretched length. Thc catch/fishcman using thc beach scine was quite low (i.e., 1.2 kg/fisherman) bccause of the high labor input. ' Lift nets (Parigdig) Lift nets arc semipermanent, stationary fishing gears that employ light attraction to catch fish. Commonly found in h e western part (Sector I) of the gulf, they arc usually set near river mouths along h c migration path of fish and parallel to the current flow. Operations usually last from 6 p.m. to 5 a.m. involving 8-10 fishermen. Betwecn five and six hauls are made during an overnight operation. Thc platforms are set in sheltered areas as decp as 30 rn. A motorized boat and a larger nonrnotorizcd dugout arc usually used to ferry the fishermen and the catch lo and from thc lih net site. Operations usually ccase around the period 01the full moon. Mean catch r a t was 43.3 kg/day during thc period June 1987 lo March 1988 in Sual, Pangasinan. The catches consisted of stolephorid anchovies (69%) and Aceles (30%), which are impomnt to the fish pasle/sauce (bagoong) industry in thc area. Other spccics caught. were juveniles of commercial species/groups (e.g., hairtails, goatfish and slipmouths). Drive-in nets Drive-in nets used in the gulf include municipal vcrsions of the muro-mi and its modifications. The gear dcsigns are basically similar for drive-in ncu although modes of operalion are quilc different. Thc versions utilized in Agoo, for insuncc, employ fish aggregating dcviccs (FADS) and explosives, and are uscd in catching pelagic species. Mean catch rate for drivc-in nets in Agoo during the pxiod January to April 1.988 was 63 kg/boat-trip. Thc catches consistcd of pelagics dominated by roundscads (Decapterus sp.) which madc up over 90% of thc Lolal. Mean CPUE for all drive-in nets in the study silcs covered was 57.4 kg/boat-trip. Shrimp trawls Thcsc gcars are mini-otter trawls used in the coastal towns from Agoo to Lingayen during the shnrnp season. Mmn catch rate lor shrimp trawls in these arcas was 13.8 kgboat-trip. In Balawarlc, Agoo, thc catch consisled of shrimp (93.1 96); prtunid crabs (5.3%); and hairtails (T. haumla). Crab pots Crab pots are baskclhke traps made of bamboo set in ricarshore waters. A nonreturn entrancc crfccts capture of crabs lurcd by Ihe bait placed insidc Ihe maps. The traps arc sct in the early morning hours and retrieved before noon. Setting and hauling operalions usually last from 30 to 60 minutes. Mean catch rate for this gear in Lucap, Alaminos, was 3.8 kghoat-trip. The catch was 99% pottunid crabs (Portunus pelagicus and P . trituberculutus). Blast fishing There arc four Lypes of explosives used in blast fishing operations in Lingayen Gulf bascd on source of explosivc materials and extent of proccssing. These are dynamitc sticks, "lump type," "bogcy type" and oxidizing chemicals (i.e., potassium chlorate, potassium nitrate, sodium nitrate, ammonium sulfate). Dynamite sticks, generally used in mining operations, are procured from illcgal sources and uscd in blast fishing without additional proccssing. Lump lype explosives are processed from contcnts of dynamite sticks rewrapped into bigger charges, whilc bogey type chargcs are explosive materials extracted fiom unexploded bombs or high caliber munitions. Thc most commonly used explosive componcnt, however, is the oxidizing chemicals which arc mostly nilrogcnbased fertilizers and are quitc accessible to cvcrybody. The oxidizing chemicals are usually placcd in bottlcs before gasoline is addcd. Blasting caps are usually acquired from illcgal sources. Blast fishing operations usuallv follow a routine procedure of scouting for fish concentrations, blasting and collccting thc fish. Some operalions are conducted with the aid of FADS. Collection of blasted fish sometimes involves thc use of compressors to enable divers to stay longer underwalcr. Additional details pertaining to the blast fishing activities in the gulf are given in Galvez et al. (this vol.). The average catch ratc of blast fishermen from August 1987 to April 1988 (regardlcss of exploshe type used) was 13.0 kgblast. Minimum and maximum values were 1.2 kg/blast and 75.5 kghlast, respectively. Table 5 shows the fish families making up thc catch of blast fishermen from the areas monitored during the period. Carangids, mugilids and siganids made up 86.1% of the total Tablc. 5. Relative abundancc oC the 10 most important families 01fish caught by blast fishcnnen in thc study sites monitored. Pamilies Rclativc abundance (7'0) Carangidae Mugilidac Siganidae Engraulidac Lutjanidae Lcognathidae Sconlbridae Sphyraenidae Lclhrinidae Serranidac Total 97.9 calch. Thesc groups arc preferred larget species because or their high market value. Table 6 shows the 10 most abundant spccies in thc catch of blast fishermen. Except for Stolephorus indicus, all species in the table command high market prices. The high schooling densities of anchovies, howcver, compensate for their lower value. Table 6. Relativc abundance of 10 most important species caught by blast fishcrmcn in the study sitcs monitored. Relativc abundance (%) Selor crumenophalmus Mugil ccphalus Alepes djcdana Siganus canaliculatus Siganlcs gullalur Rastrelli~erknnagirrla Sphyraena barracuda Lales calcali/er Stolephorus indicu~ Leihrinus ormius 13.5 10.8 5.6 4.4 1.8 1.6 1.3 1.0 0.8 0.8 41.6 A total of 76 spccics groups in 24 families composed the catch. Thcse, howcver, did no1 include undersized and heavily damaged individuals which wcre not landed at all for cconomic and other practical rcasons. Thc high proportion of targct spccics in the landings compared to undersized/trash species indicates that blast fishing is rclatively selec~ivc.Considerable time is spcnl in scouting No. of blasts Fig. 4. Relative frequency of the number of blasts per fishing unit (defined as onc boat) per day in a study site monitored in Lingayen Gulf. for schools/concentrations of target species. Fig. 4 gives the relative frequency distribution of daily blast frequency per fishing unitboat engaged in blast fishing in a certain sampling station. An average of 1.62 blastslfishing unitlday was estimalcd for this area. Results of Initial Blast Fishing Experiment In cooperation with blast fishcrmcn with whom good rapport has been established, the study dealing with blast fishing intends to conduct in vivolin situ cxpcrimcnts to determine the lethal range or diffcrcnt Lypcs of explosives and the remote damage zones that they create. On 25 April 1988, the experimental setup was tested to determine thc fcasibility of such study. Thrce pairs of cages were placed at a distance of 5 m from each other (Fig. 5). Each pair was suspended on floats wilh onc cage at 1.5 m depth and the other at 3.5 m depth. Maximum dcpth in the experimental site was 5 rn. Between seven and cight fish with swimbladders (i.e., Chromis sp. and Epinephelus sp.) were placcd in each cage. A 537 g lump typc explosive in a bolllc container was exploded at 3.5 m depth at 2 m, 5 m and 10 m away from each pair of cages. Table 7 gwes a summary of xcsults lrom the initial experiment, indicating lhal the lethal range in thc horizontal direction is limited. Only thc spccimons nearest (2.0 m) to and midway (5.0 m) from the blast were found dead. Those farthest (10.0 m) from the explosion were able to survive for as long as an hour after the blast. The vertical lethal range could not bc determined conclusively because of the limited depth and numbers of cages involved. Examination of the dead fish showed that the effects of the blast included rupture of the swimbladder, compound hacture of the vertebrae and blood clots within the visceral region. The damage range observed in this experiment cannot be comparcd dircctly to results of other studies (c.g., Aplin 1947, CBL 1948) because they utilized extremely large charges (20-300 lb TNT) on caged fish, compared to the homemade bombs being uscd in Lingayen Gulf. Ncvcrthelcss, the results of these other studies are quite informative with rcspcct to diffcrcntial vulnerability of fish with differing shapes, sizes and swimbladders. In a series of experhen@, Aplin (1947) presented evidence that small fish are more vulnerable to explosions compared to larger ones. 'He also showed that under similar conditions (i.c., specimens about 15 rn away from a 20 lb TNT charge), fish without swimbladders were not harmed while those with swimbladders in the same cages were killcd by the blast. Fitch and Young (1948) noted that different spccies of fish had different reactions to shock pressures. Fish spxics with thick-walled swimbladders and cylindrical body shapes appeared to be more resistant to pressure changes compared to laterally comprcsscd fish with thin-walled swimbladders. Theoretically, we could infer that physostomous fish (i.e., with open swimbladders connected to the alimentary canal) are more capable of adapting to pressure changes than physoclistous fish (i.c., with closcd swimbladders). This difference in swimbladders, however, may not be significant given that pressurc changcs during explosions occur within microseconds. This pcriod may bc too short for normal gasexchange mechanisms to function. However, this hfference might play an important role at the outer limits of the lethal range. I Top vlew 0 Bamboo floats 0 PVC f loot5 Bamboo floats Side vlew Depth of blast = 3.5m from surface Fig. 5. U l x t fishing cxpcrimcnt~lsctup. Tablc 7. h h a l range of 537 g cxplosivc from h e results of an initial expcrlncnt. (See also Fig. 5). First obscrvation (immediately aftcr thc blast) Cage position Ncarcst (up) (down) Middlc (up) (down) Fanhcst (up) (down) Second obscrvation (1 hr d t c r h e blast) Ncnrcst (up) (down) Middlc (up) (down) Fanhcst (up) (down) Dcad 6 7 4 4 0 0 Stunncd 1 0 3 3 Alivc 0 0 0 8 0 0 0 8 16 Estimate of Municipal Fisheries Production A preliminary attempt to estimate thc magnitude of municipal fisheries production in Lingaycn Gulf was made using the catch rate information and operational periods observcd for the various gcars. Table 4 gives a summary of the data and procedure used for this purpose. Thc catchboat in a span of one year (Ci) was computed for each gcar type from the equation: Ci = CPUEi x Di x Mi where CPLEi is Lhe mean catchlday of a boat using i (and is computed from thc catchboattrip and number of boat-tripstday for boats using gear i); Di thc number of dayslmonth that a boat using gear i operates; and Mi the numbcr of months in a ycar that gear i is used by a given boat or fishing unit. The Ci value was subsequently mulliplicd by an eslimate of thc number of boats usmg gear i lo glve the fishcries produclion Ibr the specific gcar type uscd in the gulf. The distribution of the total number of boaLs in the gulf (7,054 as of 1385) into the different gear types involvcs the following steps: (1) 705 boats or 10% of thc total number of boats were assumcd to be used for transport, tourism and other activitics; (2) of he remaining 6,349 boats, 5% (317 boats) were assumed to be uscd for blast fishing; (3) 6,032 boats wcre distributed among the varous gears using actual counts for specific gcar types throughout the gulf, as well as the motorized and nonmotorized boat distribution by gear types in the six sitcs covered by the study. Thc assumptions involved in Ihc distribution of fishing boats emphasize the need for a census to accurately dckrtnine gear and boat distribution, number of fishermen ,and related information. The conduct of a census is currenlly being planned and requires coordination among all ongoing studics under CRMP for cost effectivencss. Thc procedure discussed above givcs an cstimate of 10,500 t from the mix of municipal rishing gearsl~cchniquesused in the gulf. This production implies extraction rates of about 5.0 t/lcm2 for thc cntire gulf area oi 2,085 km2 and 10.1 l/km2 of municipal i s h - ing ground (i.e., the area cnclosed by the 7km, 7-fathom ban). In addition, Ochavillo el al. (this vol.) gives an estimate of mcan trawlable biomass of 1,192 t for thc cntire gulf. Thc demersals comprising this estimate total 885 t. Assuming a demersal-to-pelagic biomass ratio of 1:2 (as reflected in BFAR catch statistic,$for the period 1980-l984), the total biomass of fisheries resources in the gulf on h e average is 2,650 1. These figures imply a municipal yield-to-total biomass ratio of 3.97. This level of cxlraction of fishcrics resourccs bccornes even highcr when the eslimated municipal production is combined with mean production of commercial uawlers of about: 3,350 t/yea~.Aggregate yield (Y)-tobiomass (B) ratio for the entire Lingayen Gulf fisheries adds up lo 5.23, with 1.26 coming from commercial trawl operations, 0.40 from blast fishing activitics, and 3.57 from thc rest of the gcars utilized by the municipal sector. Information Gaps and Management Recommendations Research necds to GJl up critical information gaps include a general ccrisus to detcrminc the number of fishing units (boats) and municipal fishermcn, typcs ol' fishing gcars and thc seasonality of their use, and numbcr of blast fishcrmcn in Ljngayen Gulf. The vulnerability of different typcs of fish to explosive charges and the Icthal ranges of thc varous typcs of explosives uscd in the gulf need further investigation. In addition, biomass estimation of fisheries resourccs in the gulf is highly dependent on the results of rhc ongoing commercial fisheries study which is highly de?endcnl on data collcctcd from medium trawlers in the gulf (Ochavillo et al., this vol.). These trawlers operate in shallow areas and places wherc fish density is cxpected to be highcr. In this contcxt, therefore, h e biomass estimates derived may bc biased towards higher figures. Emphasis is thus placed on the need for more represcntalivc sampling (via a trawl survey), which covers thc full range of deplhs in the gulf, to provide more rcliablc biomass estimates 17 essential to meeting thc objectives of the fisheries assessment subtask. The most pressing problcm confronting the capture fisheries of Lingayen Gulf is biological overfishing. Preliminary estimates of prevailing extraction rates presented in the previous section are quite high (i.e., F = Y/B = 5.23). The overfishing problem is symptomatic of the greater need for improved management of fisheries, which appears to be the general case for the capture fisheries of the country as a wholc. As an initial step to reduce the magnitude of extraction rates in the gulf, the strict enforcement of existing fisheries laws/regulations (i.e., thc 7-km, 7fathom ban on commcrcial .vessels, the ban on the use of explosives and poisons in fishing operations and the 3-cm mesh size regulation) is suggested. This will reduce efl'cctively the extraction rate from trawlers of 1.26, and totally eliminate those from blast fishing activities (0.40). The remaining municipal extraction (3.57), however, would still be considerable, cvcn without the fishing prcssure from trawlers and blast fishers. These figures indicate that even municipal fishing effort would have to be cut by about 50% to easc fishing pressure on the resources and assure their susminability. Over thc long-term, improved management of the fishcries would have to be effeclcd. Measures toward this cnd include the: (1) crcation of a fisheries rnanagemcnt council with reprcscntatives from he government, academe, and participants in the exploitation oC thc resources to oversee managcment of thc fisheries; (2) crwdon of alternative cmployment opportunities to draw effort away from capture fisheries; (3) clarificalion and identification of managemcnt goals/objectives; and (4) exploring supplemental stratcgics of viably enforcing laws and regulations aside from Lhc penal provisions of the laws. The latter can includc information disseminationleducation campaigns, extension activilies to form fisheries/ community organizations, and organization of resourcc-user participation in the formulation and enforcement of laws and regulations. References Aplin, J.A. 1947. 'lhe cffccts of explosives on marine lifc. Cali. Fish Ganlc 33(1): 23-30. Bailcn, J.B. 1978. Blast fishing in Lucap. Department or Arithropology, University of the Philippines. 36 p. BFAR (Rureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources). 19851. Municipal fisheries data. Burcau of Fishcrics and Aquatic Rcsourccs, Rcgion I, La Union. (Mhco). BFAR (Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources). 1985b. I'rovincial fishery data. A compilation of fishcry statistics for La Union. Rureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources, Provincial Fishery Officc, La Union. (Mimw). UFAR (Burcau of Pishcrics and Aquatic Resources). 198% Provincial fishery data. A compilation of fishery statislics for Pangasinan. Rureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources. Provincial Fishery OKice, nagupan, Pangasinan. (Mimeo). Cefre, I3.C. 1953. Some methods of fish capture in Bolinao, Pangasinan. Philippinc Institute of Fisheries Technology, Port Arca. Manila. 40 p. Undcrgraduatc thcsis, CBL (Llesapeakc Biological Laboratory). 1948. Effccts of underwater explosions on oysters, crabs. and fish. Chesapeake Biological Laboratory. I'ubl. No. 70. Fcrrer, LM,, M. Pagaduan and R. Rivera. 1983. Socioeconomic studies of the fishing communities bordering Lingayen Gulf. Philippinc Council for Agriculture and Resources Research and Development and University of the Philippines College of Social Work and Community develop men^, Diliman, Q u e m Cily. 78 p. Pitch, J.E. and P.H. Young. 1948. Use and effects of explosives in CalXumin coastal watcrs. Calif. Fish Gamc 34(2): 53- 73. Kitamado, 'I'. 1984. Kcport on the construction of an artificial rcef in 1.ingayen Gulf, I,umn Island, Philipphes. Fapan Overseas Cooperation Volunteers. Hyogu. Japan. 142 p. Lucas. K.M. 1952. Somc fishing mcthods of Lingayen Gulf. Philippine Instilute of Fisheries Technology, Port Area, Manila. 28 p. Undergraduate thcsis, McManus, L. and T.-E. Chua, editors. The coastal envirunmen~alprofdc of Lingaycn Gulf, Philippines. (In press). Mines, A. 1986. An assessment of the fisheries of Lingayen Gulf. PCARKDINSTA Proj. Rep. 26 p. Collcgc of Fishcrics, University of thc l'hilippincs in thc Visayas, Diliman, Quewn City. 18 NCSO (National Census and Statistics Officc). 1980. The 1980 census of fisheries. National summary. Vol. J. National Census and Statistics Office and National Ecmoniic Development Authority, Manila. Umali, A.F. 1950. Guide to the classification of fishing gears in the Philippines. Res. Rep. 17. 165 p. Fish and Wildlife Service, United States Department of the Interior, Washington. D.C. Warfel, H. and P. Manacop. 1950. Otter trawl explorations in I'hilippinc waters. Res. Rcp. 25. 49 p. Fish and Widlife Scrvicc, United States Deparunent of the Interior, Washington, D.C. LIBRARY I:ITEY?J4T:!lW,\!. CEILITEVFDR 11'5!7!5 EQUATIC i:S.SS':T!CX F,IAC:,~IL;E:.:~~I~ Appendix 1. Typical designs and specifications of artisanal fishing gears used in Lingayen Gulf. Bottom set gill net ) f loot - , floatline .,.:. ,inker : -.... ... , . . ., --. .v... .,..,....<.>? .,::,:. . / _ _ 71<:*.., . ... . .. .,.-., -..-.-. :.. .,..:... -..:. - .-. sinkerline Specifications : (per unit; 15-30units per setting) Hel Material Mesh size Twine diameter Stretched length Actual length Hanging ratio Strelched depth Acmal deplh Floalline Sinker line Floats : : : . : : . : : Polyamide {PA) monofilament 7-12 knots (2 8-5.1 cm) $320 100-200 m 40-80 rn 35.45% 2-3m 1.5-2 5 m #4PE #4 PE Sinkers a) Hard rubber -sausage'' Length Diameter Number : 5-7cm 1.5-2 0 c m 70-123 pcs b j Soft rubber -chinelas' Lengm Widlh Thickness Number Total buoyancy : : : : : 6-10 cm 2.0,2.5 cm 1.0-20cm 70-120 pcs Approx. 120-803 g Material Length Diameter Nurnher Total sinking force : : : : leld 1.2-4.0cm 0.6-1.2 cm 100-200 pis Approx. 600-2.000 g Midwater gill net Spsclflcallons : (per unit: 10-15 units por setting) Floats Material Mesh size Stretched length Actual length Stretched depth Actual depth Hanging ratio Hanging line : : : : : : : : PA multifilament#20 8.5-1 1 knots (3.0-4.0 cm) 125m 50m 3.5-5.0 m 3.2-4.0 m 40% PE#5 Material Length Diameter Number Floatline Sinkers : : : : balsa 40 cm 2 crn 40 pcs : PE #4 : None Tuna drift gill net 40 m sinkerline sinker Speclflcatlona : (per unit; 8-15 units per setting) Nelling Material Mesh size %etched length Actual length %etched depth Actual depth Hanging ratio Floats : PA multifilament #20 : : : : : : 15cm 100-160 m 40-1 00 m 3.C7.5 rn 1.5-3.75 m 40% Material Length Width Thickness Number Ftoaune Total bouyant force Sinkers : : : : : : : rubber 6.35cm 2.54crn 1.27crn 25-30 pcs PE #4 55-60 g Material Length Diameter Number Sinkerline Total sinking force Lead t .27 cm 0.85 50-55 pcs PE A4 195-XO g Hook ond line ( pelagic) Single hook (surface) Single hook (deep woters) I Hook types Multiple hook (5-7 hooks) swivel slnker 55-60 cm PA monotiloment eyed hook eyeless hook I/ #B-II eyed hooks # 569-570 By81835 hooks swivel PA monotiloment swivel ,f-60 cm wire Long line t bottom set - float - sinker tGok Specifications Buoy line Main line Floais Hooks Vessel : : : : 4 rnm diameter PA monofilament 3.5 mm diameter PA monofilament Balsa; 12 cm x 4.5 cm diameter #560-568 Outrigger banca, 10-16 hp ( stones) 0; Mesh size- - (cm) heodrope 3 3 . 6 m 0.5 em D PE groundrope 33.6cm I .Ocm our-seam Danish seine 7.5 cm X 2 crn D 207 pcs D PE 2.5 cm x 1.5 cm D Outrigger banco 16-25hp I Fish corral 5.. Source Urnall 1950 - Crab pots \ '\ \' \>\ >,' \ \'\ I Source: Urnall 1950 speargun and spear spear tip types compressor with a ~ hose r c a t c h ~ n gbox Beach seine Specificallons Float line Sinker line Pull rope Floats : : : : Mesh sizes 600 m # I 8 PE 600 m #I8 P E 700 m #22 PE 8 (78-22) Wing Shoulder Body Intermediate tail Cod-end : : : : 6.0 cm 4.0 cm 3.5 crn 2.5 crn 1.5 crn a b c d e - wing shoulder body intermediate tail cod-end 28 Appcndix 2. Mcan catch rate and composi~ionfor selected municipal fishing gears uscd in Lingaycn Gulf. Motorized bottom gill nets Dulao, Aringay; May 1987 to April 1988 Mwn CPUE: 6.8 kg/t,rip Spccics Nonrnotorized bottom gill nets Dulao Aringay; May 87 to March 1988 Mean CPUE: 1.7 kghrip Kdative abundance (%) Spccics Relative abundance (%) Megahspis cordyla Scomberomorur commersonii Euthynnus afinis Selar crumenoplhalrnus Saurida tumbil Gazza rninuta Rastrelliger brachysoma Alepes djedaba Alule male Leiognalhus splendenv Others RaslrelIiger k a ~ g w t a Fuzza minula Leiognalhuv .spIendem Trichiurus halunela CJpenew sulphurem Raslrelligcr brachysoma Alepes d j e d a h A f ule male Leiognathus breviroslri.~ Leiognalhus bind10 Bani, Rosario; June 1987 to March 1988 Mean CPUC: 4.2 kg/trip Bani, Rosano; June 1987 lo March 1988 Mean CPUE: 1.5 kgl~rip Megahspis cordyla Euthynnus afinis Anadontostom chacunda Alepes djedaba Scomberomorus cornmersonii Raslrelliger brachysoma Atule mate Nemiplerus Japonicw Selar boops Leiognathus splendens O~hcrs Alepes d j e d n h Raslrelliger brachysorm Anadontosrom chcunda Gerresjilamcnfosus Leiognurhru splendens Atule rmre Nemiplerur ~aponicus Crabs Leiognalhus breviro.rlrlr Chirocenlruv dorab Ohers Surface drift gill nets J Tobuan, Labrador; May 1987 to April 1988 Mean CPUE: 15.2 kgjtdp Hooks and lhcs 1' Tobuan, hbrador, May 1987 to April 19$8 Mean CPUE: 5.9 k&ip h'asfrelligsr brachysoma Chirocenlruv dorab Selar crumenophlmus Megalaspis cordyla Hasfrelligerfaughni Alepes djedaba Selar boops Rastrelliger bnagurfa Scomberomoru commersonii 'I'richiurus haurnla Othcrs SeIur crumenopfllaln~xs Scomberomorus commersonii Raslrrlliger kunagurla Sphyraena barracldn Rastrellig~rfuughni Atule male Carunr sp. Raslrelli~erbrachysoma Leiognathlcr e q u u ~ w Le~hrinuvlentjun Olhers Others Danish seines d Masamirey, Sual; May 1987 to April 1988 Mean CPUE: 28,3 kgltrip Species Relative abundance (%) Priacanlhus layenu Nemipterw nemarophorus N e m i p k r u japonicus tentaprion longimanus Nemipterus hexodon Nemipferlls m n r g i ~ t w Alule male Gerres filamen fosw Sauridn undosquamlr 1Jpeneur sulphureus Olhers Relative abundance (%) Lollgo spp* Panulirw sp. Alepes djednba Lelhrinur spp. Epinephelus lauvina Labridae Others Fish corrals Lucap, Alaminos; July 1987 to Apr'il 1988 Mean CPUE: 4.4 kghoat-trip Sfolephorus sp. Acetes sp. Trichiurur haumela Others Siganw camliculafus Shrimp Purlunus pelagicus Gobiidae Pelares quadrilineatw. Signnus gullalur Eerres oyena Loligo spp. Octopus L e i o g ~ l h usplendens Others Drive-in nets A g m ; January to April 1988 Mean CPUE: 62.6 kg/trip Decaplerus ssp. Rasfrelligerfaughni Megalaspis cordyla Selar boops Ohers Beach seines Sm Isidro, A g w ; May 1987 to April 1988 Mean CPUE: 19.7 kg/set Shrimo trawls Balawartc, Agm; January to April 1988 Mean CPUE: 14.6 kglrrip Shrimp Species Siganus camliculalur Sepia spp. Octopus Signnu guttaluv Lift nets / Sual; Junc 1987 to March 1988 Mean CPUE: 43.3 kghoat-trip Porlunus sanguinolenlur Trichiurus hnuntela Spearguns Lucap, Alarninos; July 1987 to April 1988 Mcan CPUE: 6.8 kghrip 93.1 5.3 1.6 Alule m t e Trichiurus haumela Leiojinalhus b i d u s Megalaspis cordyla Sehroides leplolepi Gazza minuta Selar boops Aleyes djedaba Chirocenfrusdorab Sfolephorur indicus Othcrs Preliminary Results of a Study of the Commercial Trawl Fisheries in Lingayen Gulf DOMINGO OCHAVILLO~, HOMERHERNANDEZB, SAMUEL RESMAa and GERONIMOSILVESTRE~ Ochavdlo, D., H. Hernandez, S.Resma and G. Silvestrc. 1989. Preliminary results of a study of the commercial trawl fisheries in Lmgayen Gulf,p. 31-42. h G. Silvestre, E. Miclat and T.-E. Chua (eds.) Towards sustainable development of the coastal rcsources of Lingayen Gulf,Philippines. ICLARM Conference Pmceedings 17, 200 p. Philippine Council for Aquatic and Marine Research and Development, Los Bafios. Laguna, and International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management, Makati. Metro Manila. Philippines. Abstract This paper presents preliminary results of an ongoing survey of the commercial trawl fisheries uf Lingayen Gulf covering thc period June 1987 to April 1988. A total of 102 hauls from 24 trawl-trips were sampled during the 11-month pcriod. Mean catch rate was 31.8 kghour for medium trawlen (10-20 GT) and the catch consisted of 158 specieslgroups distributed among 58 familieslgroups. Mean stock density @) and biomass (B) were estimated (via the swept area method) to be 0.570 tkm2 and 1.190 t. respectively. Landings (Y) by the trawl fleet averaged 280 flmonth. or an aggregate of 3,070 t for the 11-month period. These imply cunsiderable fishing pressure from the trawl, fleet comprising 24 medium and 2 large (20-40 GT') trawlen, representing fishing mortalities (F = Y/B) of 0.23 per month and 2.58 for thc 11-month period. The faunal composition of trawl catches indicates that the optimum mesh size for trawlers in the area is 3.5-4.0 cm, and that the current mesh size of 2.0 cm being used results into considerable losses in aggregate yield from the multispecies mix. The length cmposition data gcneratcd thus far indicate thal more accurate species-specific asscssrnents are plausible after the data collection phase is completed. Introduction The term "commercial fishcrics" refers to an arbitrary grouping of fishing operations utilizing vessels over 3 GT. In Lingayen Gulf, trawling represents the only form 01" commercial fishing aclivi1y.c Landings by commercial vessels using other gcars (c.g., pursc scinc) reported for the Lingayen Gulf statistical area are taken outside the geographical limits of the gulf. Trawling is considered onc of thc most efficient fishing methods used in the area and, together with a number of other factors (e.g., blast fishing), is blamed for the low catches of othcr gears. Assessment, therefore, of the trawl fishery is csscn~ialin clarifying oplions toward oplimum utilization of the gulfs fisheries resources. aCollege of Fisheries, University of thc Philippines in thc Visayas (UPV), Miagao, lloilo, Philippines. b~urrentaddress: ICLARM, MC P.0, Box 1501, Makati, Metro Manila, Philippincq. About three commercial vesscls using Danish seines, and bascd in D a g u p City, began operating in Lingayen GuK in April 1988. Initial interviews indicate that these vesscls rclocatcd opxations in the gulf from the Samar Scm arm, attracted by the more favorable fish priccs in the Pangasinan-La Union region. 31 Thc ongoing study of ~ h commcrcial c trawl fisheries of Lingayen Gulf, a coniponcnt of the Resource Assessment sub-[ask of the ASEAN-US CRMP is being undertaken to: estimate thc trawlablc biomass of ihc SUIT; quantily thc contribution of commercial trawlers to fish production from the gulf, and asscss the level of cxploitation and yield of Lhc lrawlablc fish rcsomces. Background information dealing wilh Lingaycn Gull fisheries, in gcncral, and trawl fisheries, in particular, is summarized in McManus and Chua (in press). These include dclailcd trmtmenls (utilizing extant information prior to commencement of CRMP) dcaling with, among othcrs, faunal composition 01the resources, catch and fishing effort records, and exploitation levels. This paper provides a summary of data collected during thc coursc oC thc study bctwccn June 1987 and April 1988, as well as prcliminary infercnccs rclcvant to ~ h chrce above-namcd objectives. Materials and Methods The data utilized and prcscntcd below wcrc collected from commercial medium trawlers (10-20 GT) on a monthly period, wherein lour mcmbcrs of the rcswch staff (divided into two teams) boarded a minimum of onc trawl-trip. Each trawl-trip consisted of two-day trawling operations, unless shortened by engine trouble or inclement weather. The vessel and gcar spccilications 01h e trawler were obtained by each team upon boarding whilc the following haul-spccific information were recorded during Ihe course of Ihe trawltrip: ( I ) weight of the catch; (2) towing time: (3) spccies composition; (4) lcnglh c,omposilion of the morc abundant spccics; and ( 5 ) approximate area of operation/lrawling. This information was utilized to estimatc catch rates, relative abundance of spccics/families comprising the m c h , range of operations, length composition of major species comprising the catch, and representative vessel and gear dimensions. As a prcliminary assessment of fishing pressure resulting from Lhc operations of the trawl flcct, cstirnates of aggregate trawl catches/landings (Y) and trawlable biomass (B) were used to calculate ovel-all fishing morlaliry (F = Y/B ). The valucs of Y Cor each month, Y;, and lor the entirc 11-month period, Yr, wcre computed from Yi=(Ci~nxdxh~hr)+(2xCix ... (1) NxDxHxHR) Y r = ( Y 1 + Y 2 + . . . . ..+Yl1)/11 ...(2) where Ci is the mcan CPUE (kg/hom) of ~nediunlmawlcrs for monlh i; n and N , the number of medium and largc lrawlcrs, rcspcctively; d and D, the mean number of days spent fishing each month by medium and large uawlcrs, respectively; h and H, the mean number of hauls cach day made by mcdium and large trawlers, respectively; and hr and HR, thc mean number of hours per haul spcnl. rawl ling by mediuni and largc trawlers, respectively. The mean .trawlable biomass for cach month, Bi, and for thc whole 11-month pcriod, B.r, wcrc estimated via lhc swcp area method (Pauly 1984; Gulland 1983), i t . , Di = CiI(X1 x X2 x L x E L ) ... ( 3 ) Dy = (Dl + Dz + . . . + D11)/11 ... (4) Bi = Di x A ... ( 5 ) BT = D.y x A ... (6) whcrc D; and DT are the mean stock densitics for month i and the 11-month pcriod, respeclively; X I , the escapement factor (0.5); X2, a ratio (0.5) expressing thc proportion of the headrope length (HL)comprising the effective width o l ~ h c area swept; L, the distance swcpl by the wawl in one hour; A, the area of the gulf (2,085 kmz); and the rest as previously defined. The mean monthly fishing mortality, F;, and the aggregate fishing mortality for the 11-month period, FT, were then subsequently estimated via the following cxprcssions: ... (7) Fvl.= YT/BT Fi = F r / l 1 ... (8) An aucmpl to cstima~cthc rnagni~udcof losses due to growth overfishing (resulting from the use of 2 cm cod-end mesh sizes by trawlers in the gulf) was made using thc method described by Silvestre and Soriano (1988). The basic equation is of the form: n Y" (Ms,F)= C Y / R ( M s , F ) ~ x R ~Wxi x P i i =1 ... (9) where YW(Ms,F) is the aggregate yield index at mesh size Ms and fishing mortality F; n, the number of specieslgroups; Y/R(Ms, mi, the yieldper-recruit for species i at Ms and F; Ri, an index of relative recruitment; Wi, the asymptotic weight of species i; and Pi, an index of relative socioeconomic desirability (i.e., prices obtained from Signey 1987) for species i. The procedure used here utilizes the mean bawl landings by specieslgroups for the 1980-1984period published by the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR), together with population parameters of "representative" species/groups obtained from the literature. Results and Discussion Table 1 provides a summary of the trawltrips monitored, number of day-hauls and mean CPUE, for the 11-month period from June 1987 to April 1988. The study moni- 33 tored an average of 2.2 trawl-trips per month during the period. A tdtal of 24 trawl-trips were monitored, and an aggregate of 102 hauls sampled during the entire 11-month period. Mean catch rate was 31.8 kg/hour, being highest in June 1987 (50.8 kg/hour) and lowest in January 1988 (22.0 kghour) (Fig. 1). The catch consisted of 158 spccieslgroups distributed among 58 familieslgroups during the period. Table 2 gives a summary of the relative abundance of the 30 most important familieslgroups which made up the catch of trawlers from June 1987 to April 1988. Leiognathids made up almost a third of trawl catches (is., 31.4%), and together with carangids, hairtails, scombrids, and lizardfish, made up two-thirds of the catch. Table 3 gives the relative abundance of the 30 most important specieslgroups which made up the trawl catch for the same period. The orangefin ponyfish, Leiognathus bindw, made up 18% of the catch, followed by Trichiurus haumela (9.0%), Gazza rninuta (7.1%), Saurida tumbil (5.6%), and Atule mute (5.5%). The top 10 species/groups made up over 60% of the trawl catch during the period. Fig. 2 illustrates graphically the rela- Table 1 . Summary of boathrawl-trips monitored, day-hauls sampled, day-hauls/trip and CPUE for the perio&Junc 1987 to April 1988. Month Boat-trips monitored Day-hauls sampled Day-haulsttrip CPUE @gh) Junc July August September October November December January February March April Total Mean SLandard deviati fin 24 2.2 102 9.3 46.0 4.2 31.8 1.0 5.3 1.8 8.3 Standard deviaticn "t 8 20 I J I J 1 A 1 S I O I N D I J I F _ M ~ A 19BB 1987 Month Fig. 1. Mcan CPUE (kglhr) of medium trawlers in Lingayen Gulf, Philippines, from June 1987 to April 1988. tive abundance data generated during the 11month period compared with those from other trawl surveys (i.e., Mines 1986, Warfel and Manacop 1950) and the trawler landing statistics published by BFAR. Leiognathids consistently made up the grcatcsl bulk of the catches, although such dominance was in varying degrees. The data from Warfcl and Manacop (1950) included larger, longer-lived species (e.g., Dasyatidae, Lactariidae) in greater abundance compared to the more recent data. The CRMP and BFAR data included morc pelagic species (e.g., scombrids, carangids) compared to the others. Thc low abundance of pclagics in Warfel and Manacop's (1950) data, may bc due to their survey employing a low opening trawl towed at lesser speed and, hcnce, making pelagics less vulnerable to their sampling gear. The 11-month monitoring of trawlers in the gulf also generated information on the composition and operational details of h e trawl fisheries. The trawl fleet in 1987 was composed of 24 medium and 2 large (20-30 GT) operational trawlers. There were 17 (i.e., 16 medium and 1 large) and 8 (i.e., 7 medium and 1 large) lrawlers based (and which landed their catches) in Darnortis and Dagupan City, respectively. One medium trawler was baqed in Sual, Pangasinan. Large trawlers made trips lasting 10 days and landed their catches with the help of carrier vessels. Medium trawlers, on the other hand, operated at sea for two days and were back in port for a day before thc next trip. Vessel and gear dimensions did not vary much. Figs. 3 and 4 illusuatc ~ypicalvessel and gear dimensions of medium trawlcrs operating in Lingayen Gulf. Medium trawlers, generally 13 m in length by 3 m width, used two-seam bottom tmwls with headrope and groundrope lengths of 40 m and 45 m, respectively. Cod-end mesh sizes varied between 1.5 cm and 2.5 cm with a cover of about 3 crn to 4 cm. The towing warps were operatcd down LO 50 m depth; their length was usually 275 m and adjusted with depth. Fig. 5 illustrates lhc range of operations of mawlers in Lingayen Gulf (i.e., bclwcen Lucap and San Fernando from about 0-50 m depth). Length composition data for the morc abundant species, were obtained during the ' Table 2. Relative abundance (%) of the 30 most irnpormnt familieslgroups in the catch of trawlers in Lingayen Gulf,wllllpplnes, from June 1987 to April 1988. NO. Family! gmup Leiognathidae Carangidae Trichiuridae Scombridae Synodontidae Mullidae Cephalopods Nernipteridae Engradidae Apogmidae Priacanthidae Gerreidae Sphyrae~dae Meneidae Scorpaenidae Dussumieriidae Mugilidae Chirocentridae Fistularidae Dorosomatidae Shrimp Uranosoopidae Theraponidae Tetraculontidae Shell Megalopidae Pmadasyidae Clupeidae Platycephalidae Bothidae Others CPUE (kghr) Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct NW Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr Mean Weighted mean Table 3. Relative abundance (%) of the 30 most important specieslgroups in the catch oftrawlers in Lingayen Gulf,Phhmines, f r m June 1987 to April 1988. No. Familylgroup Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr Mean Weighted mean Leiogmthus bindus Trichiurus haumela Gazza minuia Sawida iumbil A i d e mate Rasirelliger brachysonza Loligo spp. Upeneus sdphweus Apogon spp. Priacanlhus iayenm Gazza acclamys Selaroides leptolepis Surdinella gibbosa Nemipteru nemaiophorw Stolephorw sp. Leiognalhus equu1u.s M e w maculata Pen taprion longimanur Sphyraena obiusata Rastrelliger foughni Nerniplerw japonicur Seiar c r m n o p i h a l w Rasfrelliger kamgurlo Dlc~sumieriaacuia SeIar h o p s LeiogMthur splendens Megolaspis cordyla Chirocenlrus dorab Fistularia petimbo Decapierus mcrosomo Others CPUE (kghr) ! " .) A B C D E W F G H I J K L M L N O 20WFAR Stotlrtlaa "![rm117., ( A- Lelognothldoe 8- Coronqldaa 1980 - 1984 C- Trlcnlurldoa 0- Soombrldar v C - F- synodont~aor E MuUldam o 5 :! A m D F E C H N J G A M W P Q K O-Cmphalopodm n Nmlptuldaa -- I Enoraulldas J ApogonlW. tt- Prloconthldar L - Omrldos M- Sphyromnldm N Mrnrldom Minos c lees I - 10 .- - B c B J F P E n 70 50 K L a0P - Fwmlonldoe clupdam Swrpasnldor - R Pomodosyldrr S Lutjanldor T bttodldaa U - Dasptldae v Loctorlldor Fig. 2. Comparison of the relative abundance data by familylgroup generated in this study with those from BFAR statistics and othcr surveys in the literature. period from June 1987 to April 1988. They indicate that the catch of medium trawlers predominantly consisted of the smaller-sized individuals for each species. Incoming cohorts were clearly seen, yet the larger-sized individuals were quite rare. The older individuals may be in the deeper areas, and emphasize the need for more representative samples covering the full range of depths. This represents the most pressing information gap identified thus far, aside from that con- cerning both pelagic and demersal resources outside the gulf boundaries. Table 4 gives a summary of the estimated magnitude of landingslcatches by the trawl fleet in the Lingayen Gulf area, together with estimates af stock dcnsity and biomass, for the pexiod from June 1987 to April 1988. Mean monthly landings by the trawl fleet were 280 t/month, varying between 440 t in June 1987 and 190 E in January 1988. Total trawl landings for the 11-month period were o b - wheel house - sleeping quorters k I - starboard rollers - portside rollers m - T - frome c - fish lobby - broiling frame - anchor rollers p - engine r w m d - net platform n e - fish hold f - fish hold hatch g pantry o h - mess room r - main ongine s storage batteries i - fwward bitts j - aft t bitta Vessel : Medium trawler q - fuel oil tank LOA: 1 2 . 5 7 1 ~ 1 Breadth: 2.74 m Depth: 1.061~1 - towing warp Main engine ISUZU 2 2 0 hp Fig. 3. Diagram of a typical medium trawlcr operating in Ligaycn Gull,Philipph~cs. Complement 8 persons Mesh size (cm) 0; 120 120 120 22-26 ( 7 8 - 2 ) floats .- /-----@ 126 kg chain weights Gear Two-seam bottom vow1 -- Otterboards Vessel f lot 1.8x0.8m 200 - 2 5 0 hp Fig. 4. Typical design ofbottom trawl used by medium trawlers in Lingayen Gulf, Philippines. Fig. 5. Lmgaycn Gulf showing lhe 7-kmdistance from the shoreline and the 7-fathom depth isobath. 3,070 t. Mcan stock density and biomass for the period wcre 0.572 t/km2 and 1,192 t, respectively. These imply considerable fishing pressure, giving fishing mortality (F = Y/B) values of 0.23 per month and 2.58 for the 11month period. Fig. 6 gives the values of the aggregate yield index for the species/groups comprising the mean 1980-1984 trawl landings in Lingayen Gulf, between mesh siii~sof 2.0 cm and 7.0 cm at 0.5 cm mesh size intervals and F values between 0 4 . Aggregate yield increases with mesh size throughout the range of F up to 3.5 cm, but declines beyond this value. The figure emphasizes lhc inappropriateness of Lhe 2.0 cm mcsh sizc common among trawlers in the Lingayen Gulf area, and pomty to 3.5 cm as the morc appropriatc mesh size in maximizing gross value of the landings. The bffcrence between the maximum aggregate yield values obtained at 2.0 cm mesh size (5.25 x 107) and 3.5 cm mesh size (5.85 x lo7) indicates a loss of about 10% in harvestable gross value from the exploited rnultispecies mix. Apparently, the present levels of trawl effort (F = Table 4. Estimated catch of the trawl fleet and standing stock density and biomass in Ligayen Gulf, Philippines, from June 1987 to April 1988. Month Trawl catch (t) Mediuma I.argeb Total Stock density (t/km2) Biomass (t) June J ~ Y August September October November December January February March April Total Mean - .. . . .. - BBased on 24 medium trawlers operating 20 dayslmo.: 5 day-hauls each lasting 3 hr for every day out at sea. b13asd on 2 large trawlers operating 25 dayshno.: 5 day-hauls each lasting 3 hr for every day out at sea; catch rates double those given for medium trawlers. 'For an area of 2,085 km2. Fig. 6. Aggregate yield index (Y") for the Lingayen Gulf multispecies trawl fisheries as inferred from mean landings for 1980-1984 given in BFAR statistics. The Y values are given through the range of F between 0 and 4 and mesh sizes between 2.0 cm and 7.0 cm at 0.5 cm intervals. Note that Y" is maximized when mesh size is about 3.5 cm. 42 2.8llyear) and mesh sizc (2.0 cm) are inappropriate for the mix of species being exploited and lead to losses of about 20%. The results presented above are still in the process of refinement as the data collection and analysis phases are being completed. More reliable species-specific assessments will be made available as the data for the 12th month of sampling (i.e., May 1988) are obtained. These assessments will be used to increase the accuracy and check the credibility of the assumptions made above. Albeit preliminary, the 'results generated thus far indicate considerable fishing pressure on the trawlable biomass by the commercial fleet. Thus, it appears reasonable to stop licensing of new commercial lrawlers as well as other commercial boats (e.g., Danish seiners) that may put additional pressure on the same stocks. This measure assumes greater urgency given the high level of municipal fishing effort in the gulf (see Calud et al., this volume). Subsequent reduction of commercial trawlers by accretion of older vessels may be desirable. Other measures toward sustainable utilization of the fisheries resources that need immediate attention include: (1) better enforcement of the 7 fathom-7 krn ban on commercial trawlers; (2) increase of cod-end mesh sizes to 3.5 cm; and (3) establishment of a fisheries management council to be composed of representatives from both commercial and municipal sectors, to be placed under the regional development council, which can overseeladdress resources allocation and management. The rationale and elements for the establishment of such fisheries councils, in the context of the national fisheries situation, are discussed in Silvestre (1987). References Gulland, 1. 1983. Fish stock assessment: a manual of basic methods. Wilcy Intcrscience, New Yo&. and Food and Agriculture Organization,Rome, Italy. McManus. L. and T.-E. Chua, editors. The coastal environmental profile of Lingayen Gulf, Philippines. (Jn press). Mines, A. 1986. An assessment of the fisheries of Lingaym Gulf. PCARK13/NSTA Proj. Rep. 26 p. College of Fisheries, University of the Philippines in thc Visayas. Pauly, D. 1984. fish population dynamics in tropical waters: a manual for use with programmable calculators. ICLARM Studies and Reviews 8,325 p. International Center for Living Aquatic Reswrces Management, Manila. Signey. L. 1987. Philippines: price-weighted wtput index for marine fisheries, p. 93-108. Paper prcsented at the Symposium on the Exploitation and Management of M a d e F i s h y Resoumes in Southeast Asia, 16-19 February 1987. Darwin. Australia. RAPA Rep. 1987/10. 552 p. Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Food and Agriculture Organi~ation,Bangkok. Silvestre, G. 1987. Philippine marine capture fisheries: exploitation, potential and options for sustainable development. Paper prepared for the World BankIForestry, Fisheries and Agriculture Kesources Management (WARM) Mission. 77 p. Silvestre, G. and M. Soriano. 1988. Effect of incorporating sigmoid selection on optimum mesh size estimation for the Sarnar Sea multispecies trawl fisheries, p. 482-492. I n S. Venema, J. Mollcr-Christensen and D. Pauly (eds.) Cmtributions to tropical fisheries biology: papers by the participants of FAOPANKDA Follow-up Training Courses. FA0 Fish. Rep. 389. Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome. Warfel, B. and P. Manacop. 1950. Otter trawl explorations in Philippine waters. Res. Rep. 25. 49 p. Fish and Wildlife Service, United States Department of Ihe hterior, Washington, D.C. Sociocultural Dynamics of Blast Fishing and Sodium Cyanide Fishing in Two Fishing Villages in the Lingayen Gulf Area ROBERTOGALVEZ~, THERESE GLADYS HINGCOa, CAROL BAUTISTAa AND MA. THERESA TUNGPALAN~ Galvez, R., T.G. Hingco, C. Bautista and M.T. Tungpalan. 1989. Sociocultural dynamics of blast fishing and sodium cyanide fishing in two fishing villages in the Lingayen Gulf area. p. 43-62. I n G. Silvestre. B. Miclat and T.-E. Chua (eds.) Towards sustainable developnent d the coastal resources of Lingayen Gulf,Philippines, ICLARM Cmference Proceedings 17.200 p. Philippine Council for Aquatic and Marine Research and Development, Los Bafios, Laguna, and International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management, hhkati, Metro Manila, hilippines. Abstract lie use of explosives and poisons in fishing is illegal and punishable with stiff fines and prison terms. Nevertheless, the use persists in a number of coastal villages in the Lingayen Gulf area. This paper gives the results of ethnographic studies in two fishing villages in the gulf area based on data/mtewiews covering h e period May 1987 to April 1988. It describes: (1) how blast fishing and sodium cyanide fishing are practised in the villages; (2) the factors which affect thcir continued use; (3) the level of perception of village residents regarding these illegal practices; and (4) the need for education campaigns to increase awareness of the destructive effects of these illegal practices. Introduction One of the concerns of the Legal and Institutional Division of ASEAN-US CRMP is to investigate the sociocultural dynamics of blast fishing and sodium cyanide fishing in two selceted fishing villages in the Lingayen Gulf area. The project has the following specific objectives: to describe how blast fishing and cyanide fishing are practised in the communities; to identify major factors which affect their continued use; to assess the people's level of perception regarding illegal fishing practices; and Both blast fishing and sodium cyanidc fishing are illegal. Neverlheless, they are widely practised in the two comrnunitics studied. Community residents tolerate these practices despile the legal sanctions, thc danger they pose to people's health and the damage they inflict on thc coastal resources. For many of chose who resort to blast fishing and the use of sodium cyanide, it is one of their livelihood options amidst increasing poverty. For many scientists and conservationists. however, these practices need to be stopped to avert destruction of the environment. aCollege of Social Work and Community Development (CSWCD).University of the Philippines, Dilirnan, Quezon City. Philippines. 43 44 to suggest alternative measures to check its widespread use. Data gathering for cyanide fishing started in February 1988, thus, rendering current information on this preliminary and limited compared to the blast fishing study (which started in May 1987). Due to the sensitive and critical data involved, the real names of the study areas and pcople involved are not used. The criteria for selection of the study areas are as follows: 1. They are among eight pilot areas wherc baseline surveys were conducted; 2. Blast fishing and/or cyanide fishing are widely practised; 3. Key informants arc willing to provide the necessary information; and 4. Researchers have gained adequate rapport and trust among community residents. Based on earlier community studies, the two areas selected are both characterized by poverty and limited social services and facilities. Fishing is the main source of income, while farming comes as secondary. The study area for blast fishing is located in La Union at the northern part of Lingayen Gulf, and that for cyanide fishing in southwestern Pangasinan. Methodology One of the most effective methods for studying sociocultural systems is to directly observe, or be part of, a given community. Thus, the research methods used in this study combine tools used in sociology, anthropology and psychology, and elements associated with community organizing (i.e., contact building and integration methods). The field researchers lived in the fishing villages since April 1987--initially conducting the baseline survey, subsequently doing ethnographic studies on legal and cultural aspects, and gradually focusing on case studies of illegal fishing practices (particularly blast and cyanide fishing). The researchers inter- acted with the people in their daily activities. Mutual trust and rapport between the researchers and community residents were considered vital to the nature of the data required. To gather information for the case studies, the researchers interviewed key informants, observed and participated in various community aclivities and analyzed existing documents/records. They also utilized information gathered by co-resmchers who stayed in other coastal communities in Lingayen Gulf. The bulk of the data are qualitative in nature. Thus it is necessary that these be validated using several informants. Among those interviewed were fishermen, local govemment officials, members of civic/religious organizations, other community residents and representativcs of govemment agencies such as the Philippine Coast Guard ( K G ) , the Constabulary Offshore AntLCrime Unit (COSAC), the local policc and BFAR. The main research technique adopted was panunuluyan as described by San Juan and Soriaga (1985). This is an indigenous research mcthod which has many parallels with the participant observation techniques of anthropologists. Its main strength, however, is that it utilizes and observes aspects in Filipino human relations. The kind of information gathered in social research depends largely on the level of relationship forged between researcher and respondent (Santiago and Enriquez 1976). The rcscarchcrs had to reach the hind ibang tao (one of us) level of relationship in order to ensure the accuracy and validity of data gathered. At this level, the researchers are regarded as people with whom the respondents can be themselves as persons, or to whom hey can present both their bad as well as good points. The researchers had to go through the pakikipagpalagayang loob level, which is winning the trust and confidence of the respondents to enable them to disclose information about their illegal activities. The methodology adopted other indigenous methods of integration such as pakikilahok (participation in people's activities, e.g., fishing), pakkibagay (doing things the way they are done in the community), and pakikisama (fiendship and going along with what they want to do). But most important of all is the skill in pakikiramdam which roughly translates into "sensitivity". This includes perceptiveness to what the respondent wants to' express through actions, indirect remarks and metaphors (San Juan and Soriaga 1985). Along with the above-mentioned techniques, tha researchers also adopted other indigenous methods such as pagtatanongtamng (Pe-pua -1985) which is similar to the anthropologists' method of interviewing key informants. This entails directing the same question to several persons for purposes of crossvalidating information. Origins of blast fishing in San Roque Accdrding to some old fishermen in San Roque, blast fishing was introduced in the gulf after World War I. A pound of gunpowder at the time sold for W.10b and blasting caps for W.06 each. Its use intensified in the years before martial law was declared in 1972. The declaration of martial law strictly curtailed the sale of dynamite and gunpowder, and blast fishing was completely stopped. The use of beach seine (karukod) for catching anchovies returned in fashion. However, in 1975, enforcement of laws on possession of dynamite and its use in blast fishing became lax. Dynamite fishing reemerged and reached its peak in the 1980s. Results and Discussion Production of bumbong Blast Fishing: a Case Study Blast fishermen claim that the gunpowder they used in the past for production of bumbong (local tcrm for Lhe homemade explosive used in blast fishing) came from World War I1 bombs which were dug up by the fishermen. This has some degree of truth in it since the Japanese madc a stand in Lingayen Gulf against the Americans during World War 11. The bombs were recovered after the war and were opened using chiscls and hammers. Interviews reveal that the gunpowder used at present partly comes from Zambales (i.e., from inside the naval resenation in Subic), from the unexploded bombs used by pilots in their training exercises. Called "bogey" bombs by the fishermen, these are dug up by the Aetas (tribal people) and then sold to dealers. Through the use of telegram codcs, dealers are able to communicate with local suppliers who sell the gunpowder to blast fishers. As of July 1987, a kilogram cost P130c. By March 1988, however, ~ h cost c has Profile of the study area San Roque is one of the most depressed villages at Lhe northeastern side of Lingayen Gulf. Of the 200 families in the village, about 160 (80%) are directly dependent on fishing. Of the latter, about 60 own boats. During lean periods, the monthly net income is P200 for fishermen who do not own boats and F400 for those who do. These income levels are doubled (sometimes tripled) during the peak smson which is considerably short in span (i.e., from October to December, when shrimp are the primary catch). Only about 90% of Lhc fishermen attained elementary education. The options open to them are limited. Their views about their future are also constricted by available resources. As reflected in the way they handle and control their resources, they live on a day-to-day basis. They go out and fish on each calm day to feed their families. The little surplus they produce during peak seasons is absorbed by merrymaking practices that represent a form of coping with the harshness of life. b ~Ihe t time: 81.00 = US$~:OO C1987:t20.50= US$1.00 46 risen to B150d per kg. Thus, most of the blast Fishers havc resorted to mixing the gunpowder with potassium nitratc (KN03). Although thc chemical compound is generally used as fertilizer, it can also bc used as cxplosive, The blast fishermen claim that allhough it emits a louder explosion, the potassium nitrate compound has wcaker killing effect on the fish. In a later intcrview, ofl'icers of COSAC and PCC confirmed that some of the gunpowder indeed comes from Zambales, but did not elaborate as lo whether this is from within the military reservation or the mining companies opcrating in the province. The military officers also pointed to Bataan and Baguio as other sources of gunpowder. Thcy cxplained that mincrs use only half of the supply allotted to them by their permits, 'and scll the rest. Thc military officers said that even as procedural safeguards have bccn instituted, unscrupulous dealers still manage to obtain supplies illegally. There are two kinds of bumbong: onc is used for catching surface fish, and the other for bottom fish. The principle behind making both types, however, rcmains the same. The main components of a bumbong are the container, blasting cap, wick, newspaper strips, gunpowder, matchsticks, and sand if the bumbong is for bottom fish. The gunpowder, when newly bought, assumcs a solid form like crystal stones. The stones are powdcrd using an iron grill as pesrlc; then they arc filtered through a finemeshed screen. Although preparation is not done in the open, it is done opcnly enough for onc to conclude that the process is common knowlcdge among tl~cresidents. And as in any other fishing gear preparation and the entire fish production system, Lhc woman in the house is actively involved. The process of making bumbong is done inside the huts of fishermen. The Lwo huts wherein one researcher observed h e process on separate occasions are small. A 10-year old child did the pouring of sand and gun- powder inside bottlc containers. From this, it can bc concluded that knowlcdge about lhc use of bumbong is imparted to fishermen's children at a vcry early age. This also makes the "illcgal activity" a family affair. There is reason to believc lhat the pcrceptions, values and at~itudesol' the blast fishcrrnen towards blast fishing are shared by lhe rest of the members of their families. This is furlher substantiated by other dam presented below. The most dclicate steps in making bumbong, however, are done by the blast fishctmen themselves. Thcse include thc placing of the blasting cap, wick and matchstick. For surface fish, lishcrmen make burnbong using a sardine can, wilh one end completely open, as containcr. Small medicine bottles arc also sometimes used. For bottom fish, a smallcr container is nccdcd since sand is not utilized. A lulogram of gunpowder makes up to five sardine cans of bumbong. The fishermen simply place the gunpowder in the can and close the open side with a hammer. A small hole is made at the other side whcrc Ihe wick and blasling cap are placcd. A matchstick is ~ i c dto the end of the wick. The matchsuck uscd must be of superior quality to ensure that it immediately lights up when struck to the matchbox. The blasting cap which cosls F10 each, is held in place with newspaper strips. The blasl fishermen estimate each sardinc can typc of bumbong LO cost about F25. For bottom fish, fishermen makc bumbong using softdrink, beer and/or gin bottles as containers. Half of the bottle is first filled with sand and the othcr half with gunpowder. The sand is necessary lo rmke bumbong sink bcforc exploding. After making bumbong, thc bottles and cans arc placed in a big gasoline container (which is cut in two, one part of which is used as cover). Several bottles or cans are brought per fishing trip. Fishing schedule The blast fishermen go out to sea only when the weather is calm. Fish are belicvcd to be abundant after a storm since fishermen have not been able to fish for a time. During the lean season (March to May), there are many occasions when the blast fishermen come home empty-handed. During February and March, blast fishermen set up FADs (locally called rama or pulohan) which are made of bamboo poles, coconut leaves (bulong) or branches of a tree (garatiles). Each bamboo pole costs from B15 to F25, while each bulong costs M. A FAD uses up to 30 bulong. With the high cost of coconut leaves, tree branches are more popular among blast fishermen. The branches are commonly obtained for free from neighboring villages. It is the large-scale blast fishing operation involving large boats and dnve-in nets (tahayan) which commonly makes use of thc coconut leaves. A roll of rope used to tie bulong to the pole costs 8 3 5 each and is used to make 10 FADs. Rocks weighing about 50 kg are used as anchors for the bamboo poles. These rocks are bought at P5 each. Some blast fishers, however. use sacks filled with sand as sinkers. The cost of transporting these materials from a nearby town to San Roque must also be included in the computation of expenses. Thus, the overall cost of FAD is about 1100. Ordy those who have set up the FAD can utilize it for blast fishing. Blast fishermen go out to sea at about 5:30 a.m. If they make a good catch, they bring their catch to shore to be sold to the fish vendors. This has to be done immediately because dynamite-caught fish stale faster than those caught with other gears. If they have no catch, they return to shore at about 9:30 a.m.. and lhen go back to sea at about 12 noon. They come back at about 3 p.m. When the wind is suong, or if they have reasons to believe that there are no schools of fish (e.g., the catch was very p r in previous days), they wait for bettet sea conditions or other indications that schools are available (e.g., the sound of other fishermen blasting). Compared to fishermen using other kinds of fishing gear, the blast fishers have shorter working hours. At most, they spend only 47 eight hours at sea. Compare this to the bottom set gill net (sigay) fishermen who work from 6 a.m. to 6 p.m. Those who use dredge net (kadkad) work from 5 p.m. to 5:30 a.m., or for more than 12 hours, aside from being sleepless the whole night. Some fishermw comment that those who use explosives "want to earn money the easy way." Pulling the sigay or kadkad is more difficult than pulling the net used in blast fishing. The sigay and kadkad need to be in water for a longer time to catch fish, thus, straining the boat's motor. The net used in blast fishing is thrown only when the fish are already stunned and easy to catch. It is also pulled irnmcdiatcly. Nets like kadkad are used only seasonally. Thus, the fishermen need bigger capital to own other kinds of nets for use in other seasons. In comparison, the net in blast fishing can be used throughout the year, thus, requiring a lower capital input. Crew roles A fishing team consists of a pilot (timonero) who also acts as, the dynamite thrower (rirador), and a diver. Both perform specialized functions, and neither is considered less important than the other. The role of the thrower, however, can be seen as more dangerous. He has to be good at throwing the dynamite into the center of the school of fish at the right time. He has to ensure that when the matchstick strikes the matchbox, it lights immediately or else it will be of no use when thrown into the sea. Some of the blast fishers meet accidents because they check whether the wick was lighted or not prior to throwing the charge. Successful throwers merely listen to the sound of the burning wick to avoid accidents at this point of the operation. A blast fisherman was asked if he is not afraid that accidents might happen. He answered, "You should not think of accidents. You will meet accidents only if the Lord has forgotten you." The role of the diver (sometimes 10-year old children) is also strenuous. He dives in every FAD to see whether any fish school is 48 available. Many fishcrmen in the village say that those who appear to age faster are the divers. Thcy are more vulnerablc to the elements and their hair are mostly golden in color due to prolonged stay in the sea. The dynamite is sometimes thrown while the diver is still in the water. Although far from the area where the dynamite is thrown and explodes, the diver feels a thud on his body. Fishing operation Once a school of fish is spotted, the diver informs the thrower, who waits for the diver to swim away from the target arca or climb onboard the boat beforc throwing the bumbong. Thc target usually ranges f ~ o m10 to 30 m from the boat. After about 30 to 60 seconds, the dynamite explodes. There are times, however, when the dynamitc does not explode, during which another is thrown. The team members immediately set their net to catch the dead and half-dead fish. If there are many fish affected by the dynamite, the net is again thrown ovcrboard for the remaining fish to be caught. At timcs, other blast fishcrmcn who hcar thc explosion get to the sitc and start throwing their net and making a catch. This is not resented by the blast fishcrs bccausc a xcciprocal relationship exists. Participating in this "cleaning" operation arc about 10 boats of fishermen aside from some dwing for the stunnedldead fish. Thus, only a small number of fish are wasted. What is morc smking, however, is that other fishermen who do not use dynamite, but have a baby trawl nct (karkar), are also allowed to "trawl" the dynamited fish. Such is the high degree or sharing in the area studied, which is not practised in other fishing communities in Lingayen Gulf. In those areas, the blast fishers get half of the fish trawled by the other fishermen from the fish they dynamited. Seasonality in catch and income The summer months are generally considered lean season, although there are fish which abound that can be caught through blast fishing. Roundscads (mataan) frequently make up the catch. There are many instances during this season when blast fishermen go home empty-handed and incur debts. Net income, however, could be as much as El5 per day. It is noted that the catch of blast fishers during lcan season is still higher than [hose. of fishermen using other gears (like hook and line) with similar target species. During times of peak catches, the blast fishermen become instantly awash with cash. The catch can go up to four to seven baskets (kaing) a day, each basket containing about 40 kg of fish (mostly anchovies). Individual net incomes could be as much as P1,300 per day. Periods of such peak catches can last for four days at a time, depending on the h n d of fish. The peak season occurs at different timcs for the different target species. We note that the catch of artisanal fishermen using other gears does not reach the level of net profits that blast fishers get (see Afionuevo, this vol.). Thc catch is normally sold to fish vendors who come to the bmch. They bring the catch to the town market. When the catch is small (less than 15 kg), the wives or daughters of the blast Gshcrmen sell the catch themselves at the market. The catch of the blast fishermen is not usually purchased by the "big" fish dealers (compradors) because they stale more quickly. Blast fishers' perception of their resource According to blast fishers and nonblast fishers alike, the harmful effects of blast fishing are limited, compared to trawl fishing. They say that blast fishing affects only a very small area, confined to whcrc thc dynamite is thrown. Trawl fishing, on the other hand, "destroys the seabed and kills all the small fish that cross its path." The informants say that only a radius of 5 m is affected by the blast. Moreover, they believe that the small fish and fish eggs are not affcctcd, let alone killed, by the blast. When asked, howevcr, if thc cggs that are attached to the rama are killcd or not, informants gcncrally bccome more evasivc and unsure of their answers. Relationship with the community Why is blast fishing generally toleraled, if not encouraged, by the community? Some analysts opine that there has been a breakdown in community norms and values giving rise to a tolerant attitude to thc fishing technique. However, this is difficult to provc, considering lhai thc practice has existed cvcn before World War 11. Present blast fishermen have l m e d the skills from their parents or from elder members of the community. However, blast fishing was not as prevalent before as now, as confirmed by elder membcrs. We bclicvc that the main reason for thc tolcrance and acceptance of thc practice is that almost all members of the community bencfit from it. Whenever the blast fisherman comes home with his catch, othcr fishermen, men, womcn and children (who are cithcr friends or rcladvcs) ask for a handful of fish. Some of them even ask from two to three blast fishers. When the catch is rcally good, almost all membcrs of the community ask for a share, sometimes as much as half a kilogram from each blast fishcrman. The blast fisherman can givc away as much as 10 kg of fish to his villagers after a trip. There are also times whcn ncighboring villagers come to San Roque during peak catchcs to ask for fish. Since there are only aboul 10 clans in San Roque, (five of which compose the biggest clans whose members have intermarried), almost anyone can ask from a blast fishcrman somc sham in thc catch. Although this praclicc OK rishing exlcnds to all kinds of fishing operations, it is in blast fishing in which the amount shared is the biggest. This extensive "benefit" to the community members is furlher illus~ratedby the fact that whcncver the catch reaches a peak, a fiesta atmosphere immediately pervades. The fiesta celcbradon is attended by mcmbers of the town police, the constabulary, and the 49 coast guard, as well as other visitors of the community. According to the barangay caplain, dynamile fishing not only bcncfits the immediate community but also ensurcs thc steady supply of low-priced fish bccause of the low capiial inputs involvcd. Extent qf Comrnunio Participation. Estimates of the number of fishermen in San Roque who resort to blast fishing vary. According to Lhc blast fishermen, almost every fishcrman in San Roque engagcs in blasl fishing at one time or anolher within the period of a ycar. A nonblast fisher said that thcre are 10 boats in San Roque which regularly blast fish. Thcsc figures were validated by cross intcrviews with other blast and nonblast fishermen and by thc rcscarch team's observalions. Of the 200 families in San Roque, 170 arc dircclly dcpcndcnt on fishing. Of the latter, about 60, or more than one-hird of h e number of families, own boa&. Thus, those who regularly depend on blast fishing arc a minority, i.e., only about one-sixth of the boat owncrs. Howcvcr, this percentage creates an importan1 impact in thc livcs and minds of the community members. The seasonality in thc number of blast fishermen should be emphasized. Whcn thc catch from blast fishing reaches its pcak, othcr boats also resort LO h i s illcgal activity or at least participate in gathering the fish. During these times, baby trawl ncts are attachcd to some boats which normally use other methods and tail thc blasl fishing boats. In March-April 1988, the research team's count of blast fishers reached 20, or twicc thc previous number. This increase was due to the very poor catchcs by fishcrmen of San Roque who use other gears. The number of fishermen who regularly use blast fishing techniques does not include San Roque residents employed by the largescale blast fishers. The fuksay employs at lcasl 30 San Roque fishermen in their operations. They use up to 40 dynamite sticks a day in their fishing opcralions to catch roundscad (galunggong). Onc ol' h e informants 50 said that thcrc was a time, about two year's ago, when a scarcity of nonboat-owning fishermen who join fishing trips occurred as many of them were employed on board the taksayan. Thus, the number of blast fishers can easily reach up to half the number of fishermen during peak times. In March-April 1988, many fishermen of San Roque joined the crew of the several taksayan near the barangay due to thcir very low individual catches. Blast fishing sccms to employ all types of small fishermen which include: 1. The crewmen who serve in the faksayan; 2. The nonboat owners who join the blast fishing opcrations of those who have boats; 3. Thosc who own boats but only have the karkar type of net; 4. Those who own mulLiplc fishing gears (e.g., kadkad and even the expensive sigay); and 5. Those who have other means of livelihood aside from Cishing (c.g., variety store and piggery). Almost all of hese types of fishermen engage in blast fishing apparcnlly bccause evcn lhose who own gears and vessels still live at subsistence level. But it is equally true that other fishermen in the same cconomic condition do not rcsort to blast fishing. The trade also cuts across family clans. Thcre are blast fishers as well as nonblast fishers in thc five main clans of San Roque. Somc of those who do not engage in blast fishing regard those who engage in it as "wanting to earn money the easy way." This view is undcrstandable considering that these fishermen stay at sea for about twelve hours but e m less than h e blast fishermen who work for lass hours. Nonblast fishers fear the thrcat of being arrested more than thc possibility oC accidents. To a certain degrcc, wc can say that those who engagc in blast fishing have bolder personalities. San Roque fishermen who resort to blast fishing do so for various reasons. For one, San Roque is a depressed villagc and a fifth class municipality. Fishermen's income is very low. About 90% of the fishermen attaincd only elementary school education. The options open to them are thus very limited. Aside from their limited options, their view of their future and their lives is also limitcd. They cxist on a daily basis, with hardly the capability to chart a meaningful future. The primc nccd and dcsire is to exist for that day. This is translated into the way they handle and control their resources. The very litllc surplus m,my fishermen get is spent in ohcr "get-richquick" schemes similar to blast fishing, such as hueteng (an illegal form of small-town lottery), ending (a form of lottcry whcre the winning combination depends on the results of the national basketball games), and other kinds of gambling activities. The surplus during peak seasons is absorbed by the merrymakinbr \:p TCES necessary for them to cope with the harshness of life. All the blast fishermen queried replied that it is because of povcrty h a t they resort to blast fishing. 11 prcscnts a relatively faster and cheaper way of earning money. A Philippine Conslabulary (PC) officer related that a fisherman asked him these during one of their information drives, "If we ever stop blast fishing, what would bc our sourcc of livclihood? We have not finished (any course). How would our children live?" Thc ofricer further said, "The number one problem is unemployment. If wc arc ablc to solvc it, I think that blast fishing will stop." The municipality's Chiel' of Police claims that thc pcople of San Roque are not poor. They will become poor only iC blast fishing is fully stopped. Thc fishermen also believe that there is no ol.hcr effective way of catching certain types of fish, such as anchovics (monamnn). Thus, it is accepted in San Roque that all anchovies are caught through blast fishing. Blast fishermen also justify their action by saying that blast fishing is better than staling or other kinds of crimes, claiming that they are not committing crimcs against other persons or private property. Relationship with authorities Based on a Memorandum of Agreement among national agencies (dated 13 October 1975), live government entities were taskcd to coordinate in the implementation of laws and policies regarding illegal fishing mcthods. Thesc arc the K G undcr the Philippine Navy; COSAC which is attached to the Philippine Constabulary-Integrated National Police forccs; BFAR through its Conservation and Law Enforcement Section (CLES); and thc Department of Local Government (DLG) through the provincial, municipal and barangay adminislrations. The PCG maintains five dclachments in lhc Lingayen Gulf area (i.e., at Darnortis, Dagupan, Sual, Lucap and Bolinao, all in Pangasinan). It maintains its regional headquarters at Poro Point, San Fernando, La Union. COSAC, on the other hand, has thrcc detachments in Pangasinan (i.e., at Bolinao, Lingayen and San Fabian) and two more in La Union (i.e., at Agoo and Bauang). BFAR also has some suboffices along Lingayen Gulf. The relationship of the blast fishers with the civilian and military authoriues must be sccn in the context that while blast fishing is considered an illcgal activity, it is at the same time widely practised and tolerated undcr ccrtain conditions. This sccdon will discuss why this phenomenon occurs and specifically, what stepsJprecautions thc blast fisher takes in ordcr to continue this illegal activity. Avoidance. In order not to get caught, he most common precaution cilcd is to avoid the law enforcement authorities. Whenevcr blast fishers lcarn from fellow fishermen that thcrc are PCGJCOSAC authorities near the area, they immedialcly speed away. It must be pointed out that the fishermen know where PCG/COSAC personnel usually pass in thcir patrols. According to the K G and COSAC comrnandcrs interviewed, blaqt fishermen maintain a syslcm of look-outs who inform the rest about Lhc presence of authorities. The PCG motorized banca is readily noticeable becausc of its black and grey color. If the fishermen bclicve that law enforcement personnel are going to catch up with them, they drop their dredge net into the wakr. The net is eswcially designed for catching blastcd fish and has an iron pole as sinker. The fishermen will rather lose the nct than suffer the "fine" whcn caught. Aside from the nci, the fishermen also dispose of all the remaining burnbong. If thc risk of gelling caught is high, he also drops thc fish he caught from blast fishing. Blasted fish havc softer flesh and broken backs which bleed. They are passed off as having been caught through multiple pole and linc, and yet h e lips of thc fish have no hook marks. Thc different law enforcement agencies, however, arc inadequately equipped to apprehend the blast fishermen. Both COSAC and PCG havc only one motorized banca for use in each of their five delachmcnis, thus prcvcnting them from maximizing their seabornc patrols. BFAR-CLES, on the other hand, does not have a singlc seacraft of its own. This is ironic considering that BFAR is primarily tasked with oversccing the implcmcntation of fisheries laws. Fur~hcrmorc,BFAR gives only a monthly B500 allowance pcr fisheries officer who conducts scaborne shore patrols, as well as inspection of markets, landing sites and bus terminals. The officer draws from the P500 allowance his per diem of P60 per day in the field; the amount for hiring a boa1 (usually about W O O per operation); his transportation to and from the field; his farc when hc attends hearings; expenses for photocopying courl records; and others. Fishcries officcrs estimate that the allowance is immediately deplctcd after three days of field operations. Thus, law enforcement is heavily affected. Thc authorities usc a type of motorized banca (with a 16 hp engine) similar to those used by blast fishcrs. Their boat, howcver, is sometimes heavier because of the design. The blast fisher's motorized bunca is usually lighter and swifter. Thus, it can easily outrun and outmaneuver the banca of military authorities. Most of thc blast fishers' engines 52 arc also well conhtioned, if not of later make/model. Thc problem is aggravated during joint operations of BFAR and military authorities. Five pcople usually ride the boat in pursuing the blast fishermen, thus, making the boat hcavier and slower. The point, however, is that blast fishermen immediately speed away bcfore they are sighted by the military authorities. If thcy try to cscape, then the authoritics might shoot at them. When sighted, they gcncrally give themselves up. In one instance, the blast fishermen were ordered to dive for the bumbong they have thrown overboard. A blast fisherman was fired upon (allcgcdly for resisting arrest) and hit in the knce. The K G personnel, however, were not able lo find any evidence in the banca. This illustrates the difficulty of law enforcemcnt. Bribery. Although the fishermen have the constant fear of being caught, it is not primarily from being imprisoned. Thcir fear stems from the fact that thcy would have to shell out a considemble amount of moncy to bribe law enforcers to release them. Even if they are released, they are already branded by the law enforccrs as blast fishermcn. From time to time, these law enforccrs would return and visit thcir homes to ask for morc bribes. Bribcry is claimed to be the most detested action that the blast fishermcn would be forccd to do. The fact that officers can bc bribed makes the severe penalties provided by law an incffective mechanism to stop blast fishing. It is instead reinforced since the bencrit from blast fishing is more immediatc and regular than the punishmcnr (which is intermittent and can be minimized through bribery). Under PD 704, as amended by PD 1058, mcre possession of explosives intended for blast fishing is punishable by 12 to 25 years of imprisonment, and if such explosive is actually used and results in injury, the penalty is from 20 years to life imprisonment. When caught, the usual amount to bail them out ranges from f1,000 to P5,000. For this amount, the blast fisher still cannot get back his boat. Additional fines have to bc paid for this. However, the sum involved is delinilely easier for him to bear than imprisonment. The law, not being widcly implemented, tends LO encourage bribcry. Bcsidcs, law enforcemcnt authorities lhcmselves find the punishment too harsh for fishermcn. There is, thus, an ambivalence in enforcing the law to its h11 cxtcnt. The research Leam bclicves that in spite of whatever cognitive dissonance might dcvclop from thc corrupt activitics or law enforcement ofiiccrs, they even think that ~hcyare doing thc fishermen a favor, instcad of vicwing it as extortion. Military officers intcrvicwcd dcnicd the alleged cases of bribery. According to one, their conscience cannot bear the thought that the money with which they feed their families comc from bribcs. Anothcr argucd thal the blast fishermen live at subsistence levels, and thus could not afford to bribc Ihc aulhoritics. He raised h e possibility of explosives dealers being thc oncs altcmpling to bribe the law enforcers. Pcrhaps, the law enforcers arc right in claiming that corruplion does not happen that much. In 1987, PCG filed 32 cases in court against illegal fishing methods. COSAC, on the other hand, filcd somc 33 cases. Bribery is not limitcd to the m~litaryauthorilics. Thc temptation to becomc corrupt is also high among BFAR agcnts bccausc of their low salaries. Bascd on interviews with blast fishermcn, howcvcr, BFAR agents comc OUL generally "clean" cornparcd Lo certain mililary units. Based on observation, thc law enforcers generally toleratc Ihc blast fish~ngactivitics, provided these are done far from thcir headquarters. In return, they "expcct" minimal favors. This shall be discussed in the section "friendly relations" (pakikisumu) below. The PCG personncl are generally seen as more "rcprcssive" because thcy seem to be less lenient in making arrests. The small blast I'ishermcn complain that while the authoritics "put the heat on them", the "big time" blas~ fishers or taksayan- owners are not "touched". Taksayan operations earn a gross profit of %30,000 a week, half of which go to the owner. According to the blast fishermen interviewed, the dynamite used in taksayan operations come from soldiers. The military men reportedly ask F1,000 every month frorn each taksayan in the municipality. Since there are about 36 of these in the municipality, the military men collect considerable sums from the municipality alone. During an interview, a lieutenant admittcd that their investigations revealed that some military men indeed supply the taksayan with dynamite. They have reported this to the superiors of the said military men acd passed it for proper action. Pakikisama. Anothcr way in which the blast fishermen create a "better atmosphere" for blast fishing is by establishing "friendly relations" with the law enforcers. This is mainly done through free dnnking sessions and dinners for these authorities whenever they are in the barangay. This is an established pattern borne not out of the natural generosity of the fishermen, but for the primary purpose of keeping the law enforcers in a bind. This "game" is generally understood and accepted by the wives of the blast fishermen. The fishermen also sympathize, however, with the situation of the soldiers who earn very low salaries. Until November 1987, noncommissioned officers received a monthly salary of only about =,000. This was raised by 60% in December 1987. Sociul Godparents. Another way of circumventing the legal entanglements is by maintaining social links with the higher military and civilian authorities. If worse comes to worst, the blast fishers turn to these social godparents (padrino) in order to be released from prison. Next to poverty, the intervention of politicians in the cases filed against blast fishermen is perhaps the most decisive among the factors that perpetuate blast fishing in the area. Under the previous administration, it is claimed that the most powerful of these padrino was a politician from the region. The blast fishermen of San Roque served as his ward leaders and personal bodyguards. Thus, if the common political term "warlord" is used to describe this politician, the blast fishermen of San Roque served as his "goons". Many of the previously caught blast fishermen interviewed said that they were released through the intercession of the said official or his immcdiatc relatives. Field rcports frorn other sites also mention his role in interceding lor the blast fishermen. The following illustratcs this point. The municipal Chief of Policc strictly implemented the law against blast fishing in 1984. He posted foot patrols at the shorc as early as 2 a.m. to check the boats and paraphernalia of the fishermen before they wcrc allowed to fish. However, hc was told by his superiors to loosen his grip in the area. So hc stopped the foot patrols and madc only occasional arrests. When the researcher relatcd this to the blast fishers, a smile appeared on their faces. They claimed that one of the higher military officers received a car to protect the blast fishers. I1 is apparent that the intervention occurred at the level of high civilian officials. The intervention of politicians was also aired by thc law enforcement and BFAR officials. Because of the above-mentioned factors, the 1975 Memorandum of Agreement between thc different government entities had been largely ineffective. Recent successes in minimizing blast fishing in two coastal municipalities have been largely duc to the dclermined efforts of the newly elected municipal officials of the said towns. Pleas of their own kins were set aside in the interest of implementing the laws. Legal Loopholes. According to a BFAR personnel, one of the bureau's problems in - the drive against blast fishing are the loopholes in existing laws, especially PD 704, in which Sec. 33 stales thus: "It shall likewise be unlawful for any person knowingly to possess, deal or sell or in any manner dispose of, for profit, any fish or fisherylaquatic products 54 which have been illegally caught, taken or grantcd." (Italics supplied). The BFAR personnel bclieved that by mounting a campaign against those who buy and sell illegally caught fish, they would be able to deprive blast fishcrs of a market for thcir producls. In their recent court cases, however, BFAR personnel lamented thc dismissal of charges against the said fish dealcrs because of their claim of not knowing that the fish they bought were caught through illegal fishing methods. The BFAR personnel also complained about thc court accepting at face valuc thc statements of the suspected dealers that the fish were bought for personal consumption, and not for disposal to gain profit. Lack of Legal Assistance. BFAR personnel complained that they lack a full-time lcgal officcr who could follow-up their cases and advise their fisheries officers. It has been years since the regional office has had a fulltime legal officer. The personnel explained that they could not rely solely on government fiscals to prosecute their cases. Slow Grind of Justice. Both B F A R and law enforcement personnel cite the slow resolution of cases as one of thc rcasons for the ineffectivity of laws against illcgal fishing. An cxarnination of the status of cases againsl various offenses under illegal fishing (dealing in illegally caught fish, dynamite fishing, trawl fishing below 7 fathoms, illegal possession of explosives, possession of sodium cyanide, etc.) as of December 1987 shows that most of the cascs have k e n pendmg for three to five years. One case (dealing in illegally caught fish) has been pending for nine years. Because of the slow rcsolulion of cascs, some of them were dismissed due to lack of witnesses. This is because many law enforcement personnel are reassigned after a few years, thus making it difficult for the court subpoena to reach them, and for them to attend court hearings. Nonimplementation of [he 7-km Ban Against Trawl Fishing. As mentioned, the perceived nonirnplementation of h e laws against trawl fishing contributes to a sense of injustice among thc blast fishermen. Thus, they have more reasons to rationalize theu resorting to illegal fishing methods. Trawl fishing is generally seen as a competitor for thc l~mitedresources nearshore. Blast fishermen kc1 that law enforcement ofriccrs look at commercial trawlcrs with favor. According to one officcr, "The 7-krn (ban) was meant particularly for some areas like Manila Bay and Laguna dc Bay. But in Lingayen Gulf, it is different. We are not practising the 7-km ban. It is only by dcpth that we implcmcnt." He said that what they are observing is thc original PD 704 prohibition against trawling less than 7 fathoms. He added, "I have very good coordination with owncrs of thcsc fishing boats, including the ship captains, (instructing them) not to go beyond 7 fathoms." He admitted, however, "Somctimcs, the trawl fishers operate near the shoreline. But we are not filing in court thcsc violations because they cannot even be considered illegal smce as they say it IS an error in navigallon on thc part of the quartermaster cspccially ai night time." The officer also maintained that they follow "normally the 7 fathoms" limitation of PD 704, ~nsteadof the 7-krn ban. "That distancc (thc former) is already far from the shore, you cannot see it anymore," he explained. "Personally, I think the law should go more by depth rather than dislance." Regarding thc lack of cascs filed ag-ainsl trawl fishing, thc officer explained, "That is not ncccssarily the truth. We don't spare anybody. It just so happened they are the ones at sea whcn wc wcrc patrolling, which is why they (the blast fishers) are the ones being caught." The BFAR personncl dispulcd thc officers' statements that the 7-km ban does not cover Lingaycn Gulf. BFAR itself has filed four cases agains~illegal trawling about two years ago. They, howcvcr, admitted their limitations in the implementation of the ban. First of all, thcy said that thc commercial trawls used to be owned by influential people, especially politicians. Second, the ban could not be implemented due to BFARR's lack of equipment to determine whether the trawls have indeed violated the 7-km ban. Thcir estimates could not stand in court. Third, the trawl owners would file countercharges of financial damages against the fisheries officers for having impounded their vessels. Earning only a measly salary, wilh no full-time legal officer to consult with, the fisheries officers are intimidated into not implementing the prohibition. Past and present attempts to solve blast fUhing Perhaps, before embarking on another attempt to formulate solutions, it is k s t to look at past and prcscnt attempts to confront the problem of blast fishing. In this regard, lessons would. be learncd and energies prevented from being wasted. Most of these attempts were efforts of BFAR-CLES. One such attempt was the 1975 Memorandum of Agrccmcnt which was largely ineffective. Another attempt is the deployment of detachments in areas where illegal fishing is rampant. Both PCGJCOSAC and BFAR stated that they have chosen to establish thcir dctachments in their present areas because these are supposcdly whcre illegal fishing is rampant. Despite the prescncc of these detachments, however, blast fishing still prevails in these areas. To solicit the cooperation of community members in the campaign against illegal fishing, BFAR decided to train barangay captains on the laws on illegal fishing. Under Lctter of Instructions (LOI) 550, barangay captains were deputized as fish wardens. Training programs were conducted in Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur and some towns of Pangasinan. After the training, they were asked to monitor blast fishing and other illegal fishing practices in their areas. The BFAR fisheries officers, in turn, were asked to monitor the reports of Lhc barangay captains. No report, however, came in. The plan turned out to be a failure in all three provinces. Apparently the barangay captains were under very strong pressure to tolerate the acts 55 or thc villagers. Thcre wcrc also cases in which they themselves were blast fishermen or distributors of explosives. A PC officer sucssed that if only the cooperation of these local officials at the grass roots level could be obtained, the campaign against blast fishing could succeed. The barangay captains arc very much aware of who among the villagcrs engagc in blast fishing. What must bc stressed, however, is that in interviews, authorities, by employing plainclothesmen and other intelligence personnel, have identified the areas where blast fishing is rampant. Gathering evidence to prosecute violators, however, is another matter. Thc BFAR personnel also related that thcy have trained military men in the examination of fish caught by illegal fishing methods. This, too, did not havc any positivc cffcct in thcir campaign against blast fishing. Anccdotes have been told that military men who used to carry small fish baskets (hayong) now carry bigger ones after the training. Thus, BFAR has evaded and discouraged requcsts for training in fish examination. Learning from their experience of choosing barangay captains as fish wardens, BFAR now plans to conduct a ncw sct of irainings for fish wardcns. This timc, those to be named fish wardens will come from civic organi~ationsin thc communiiy. Thc nominees will be screened by BFAR for lhcir lcadcrship capabilitics, character and standing in the community. A background invcstigation will also be conducted. The nominees are to bc rccommcndcd by thc mayor for him to be accountable for the performance of thc fish wardens. In this way, the local government officials would be discouraged from intervening in behalf of their constituents who engage in blast fishing. A BFAR personnel explained h a t the blast fishing activity is perpetrated by a Lriad: the financier who supplies the dynamite, blasting caps and capital to the blast fishcrmcn; thc blast fishermen who catch fish; and the fish dealers who buy fish from the blast fishermen. 56 He described the law enforcement authorities as almost helpless against the financiers who are usually influential people and are able to evade prosecution. Thus, BFAR personnel are now conccnlrating their campaign against fish dealers to discourage them from disposing the catches of blast fishermen. BFAR-CLES now conducts market inspections and spot checks in fish landings and bus terminals. Thus, the blast fishermen would bc deprived of a market and would be discouraged from continuing thcir illegal activity. Howcvcr, this campaign is affected by loopholes in PD 704. But regular confiscation of illegally caught fish would make the fish dealers incur losscs. The Use of Sodium Cyanide in Fishing: a Case Study History of the use of fish poison in the study area The use of poisons to catch fish has been a practice in San Jose even before the introduction and use of sodium cyanide. The common fish polsons used thcn werc the bawot and hayating, both derived from plants. The bawot is a shrub with ~ L Sroot sap used to poison the sea catfish (hitong dagat). Thc buyuting are rasin-like nuts brought to lhe arca by other fishermen from Zambales or La Union. Thcsc nuts are roasted and mixed with fish or squid flesh that are fed to the fish. Both wcrc effcclive Iish poisons and facililatcd thc catching of various types of fish. Eventually, thc use of sodium cyanide replaced lhcsc traditional fish poisonir~gactivities. Aquarium fish collcction as well as the usc of commercial poisons for the purpose were introduced in San Jose by two migrant Gshcrs from thc Visayas but who both learned these in Mauban, Quezon. Initially, thcy did not have the necessary capital lo buy a motorized banca and air compressor. Fish gathcring was done by hand, diving without Lhc aid of a compressor and air line (mano-mano). De- spite the absencc of these equipment, aquarium fish collcction was relatively easy. Aquarium fish werc thcn abundant in shallow reef areas and collection was further facilitated by the use of sodium cyanide. The aquarium collcclion venture of the two migrants was successful. A numbcr of local fishermen from San Jose and neighboring barrios joined the two in their trade, and their efforts were rcwardcd with largc profits. Soon, other groups ventured inlo thc activity. The large profits they earned enabled them to buy their own compressors and motonzed banca. Thus, aquarium fishcrmcn could stay submerged for as long as two hours and could venture to depth levels of 40 m. This facilitated the job of aquarium fish gathering and so increased the numbcr of fish gathered as well as the fishermcn's income. The use of these equipment bccame so widely accepted in the area that evcn othcr fishermen have adopted the use of thc comprcssor and poison in other fishing activities. By 1975, all aquarium fish collectors in San Jose were using sodium cyanide. In 1983, an expatrialc conservationist carnc lo San Josc advocating marine conservation and discontinuatton of sodium cyanide use. He was able to invite six cyanidc users to join a project which trained aquarium fish collectors on the use of fine-meshed nets instead of cyanide. The project also taught better fish handling mcthods and safe diving courses. The use of sodium cyanide At prcscnt, two groups of aquarium fish gatherers still dcpcnd on the use of cyanide. One group is composed of gatherers operating in deeper waters utilizing the aid of air compressors lo fish at dcpths of no less than 10 m. Thc othcr group is composed of gatherers operating in shallow watcr. Membcrs of this latter group are notoriously known as "sodium cyanide boys". They fish at depths of no more than 10 m and dive and collect fish by hand. About 8-12 collectors comprise a work group, majority of whom are boys between 12 and 18 years old. The use of sodium cyanide is widespread among aquarium fish collectors and other fishermen who use compressor machines. Sodium cyanide is often locally referred to as gamot or tableta. It comes in small cubes or marble-sized balls made of fine, white grains. It is readily available at farm supply or drug stores. A special pennit form, however, is required to purchase them. Fish suppliers claim that the use of sodium cyanidc for gathering fish is encouraged by exporters. Thus, they supply their collectors with lhc poison. A number of aquarium fish gatherers using sodium cyanide seem unaware of the detrimenial cffmts of thc chemical compound on the fish and 1hc marine environment. Thcy claim innocence regarding the toxic effects of cyanide on human beings and ignorance of laws against thc use of the compound. A kilogram of sodium cyanide, which presently costs f100-120,is consumed within a maximum of four days of aquarium fish collection by a work group of two divers. A plastic squeeze bottle made from recycled onc-litcr motor oil plastic conlaincr is used to squirt sodium cyanide. Between one to two cubcs of cyanide are dwolved in one litcr of scawalcr. Thc following equipment are brought along by each deepsea or shallow water work group: an improvised basket (sambirga) attached to a float (pataw) where fish arc placed while at sea; plastic bags (about 35 crn diameter); oxygen tanks; and a scoop net (singapong). Most aquarium fish collcctors usc a motorizcd banca (8 m long by 0.7 m wide) equipped with a 10-16 hp engine. The deepsea collcctors use a compressor motor attached to the boat's enginc. The motor is connected to an air tank which supplies air through two air lines measuring 50 rn each. Aquarium fish gathering is not a scasonal fishing activity. Except on Sundays and stormy days, the gatherers work from 8 a.m. to 4 p.m. Crew composition and crew roles The deepsea work group consists of three members, one lineman and two divers. One of the latter is usually the owner of the fishing boat. In cases when the boat owner is not a crcw membcr, he appoinb a diver who acts as captain (timonero) of the vessel and who dccidcs where they would gather aquarium fish. In one fishing trip, they may gather diffcrcnt types of fish at different depthsflocations. The captain sclccts areas where he believes there are abundant aquarium fish. Upon reaching the fishing area, the vessel is anchored. Thc lineman attaches one end of the compressor belt to the banca motor and the other end to the compressor motor. He then fills up the compressor machine's cmling system with water. He is responsible for prcvcnting compressor overheating and sees to it that the two air lines properly cxtcnd to the two divers and do not get entanglcd. The lineman is paid on a daily wage basis of B2030Jday. In rare cases where the lineman is a qualified diver, thc three crew mcmbers alternate to act as lineman. Whilc the lineman performs his task, the two divcrs prepare to dive. Each wears a belt with weights, and slips in the belt a scoop nct on onc sidc and ties the cyanide squeeze bottle on the other. Each also carries a plastic bag tucked into lhe bclt. Each diver then takes one air line, winds it around the waist three times and loosely around the neck once and then bites thc end of the air line. Each onc wears improvised wooden flippers and a diving mask before diving. In the absence of a compressor, fish gathering by the shallow water work group is basically an individual activity. Fishing operations Aquarium fish gatherers have a cognitive map of the habitats of various aquarium fish. The fishing ground and depth lcvel for a specific day would often be determined by the type of fish they wish to collect. 58 Most aquarium fish collcclors (either deepsea or shallow water) use sodium cyanide. They squirt cyanide directly on thc fish or into crevices in corals where fish arc hidmg. Once afeclcd by thc poison, the fish arc scooped and put inside Lhe plastic bag. Some cyanide users claim that they primarily use nets whcn gathering aquarium fish. They say that they only use sodium cyanide on rare and expensive species to prevent such from acquiring scratches. Fish with scratch marks are often rejected by the exporters. They explain that there are fish species which cannot be caught without the use of sodium cyanide. As one fisherman related, "We are no1 actually killing the fish. Would we allow oursclvcs not to be able to sell anything to exporters and not to earn for our family's meal?" Also, they claim lo usc only very small quantities of the chemical compound on the fish, enough to make these fish fccl dizzy. Once thcy transfer the fish to uncontaminalcd water, the fish regain their balancc. From such experience, the fishermen havc deduced that the effect of sodium cyanidc is only temwrw. Apart horn using cyanide on fish, aquarium fish collectors do not practise proper decompression of fish which lesscns the possibility of their damage or death. Nondecompressed cyanide-caught fish havc eilher bloated or raptured abdomens. Others have poppcd-out eyes. As a remedy for fish with raptured abdomens, the fishermen pierce the exposed intestine and push it back into the abdomen. At the end of the fishing trip, fish are packed into plastic bags. The fish which excrcte toxins are packed in separate plastic bags. The fish are later transferred to thc vessel owner's aquarium or fishpens. Less expensive aquarium fish are stored in fishpens until they are packcd for shipment to Manila. The more expensive species are individually packed in oxygenated bags and stored in sheds. Sharing and marketing arrangements In the casc of shallow water aquarium collectors, Lhc manager or vessel owner buys the aquarium fish from his gatherers at a much lower price than in Manila. He claims that his relatively low buying price is justifiable due lo oiher capital inputs hc sho~~lders before the fish are shipped to Manila and sold to exporters. Beside lhc wcckly, monthly and ycarly fccs hc pays as aquarium supplier, he shoulders he cos~sof matcrials (e.g., plastic bags, oxygen, etc.) as well as of opcrating and maintaining the vcsscls. The deepsea aquanum collcctors havc a totally different sharing arrangement. Thc operating costs and the daily wagc of thc lineman are subtracted from thc gross income. The net incomc is thcn dividcd among the owner of the vessel and compressor and the two divcrs. Relationship with exporters Amo is the term used by supplicrs Lo address exporters to whom ~hcyrcgularly supply ornamental fish. These amo extend assistance in many ways to their regular fish suppliers. They extend loans used to buy gear, equipment and ncw Sishing boats. They also shouldcr part of the transportation expenscs of fish brought to Manila. The exporters also givc incentives to their regular suppliers (i.e., 10% commission for every shipment) for referring olher suppliers to them. Perception of cyanide users of their resource The blast fishers and othcr fishcrmcn in the community bclicvc that thc main causc for the declining fish catch and deteriorating status of other marine rcsources is thc rampant use of sodium cyanide by the aquarium fish gatherers. They claim that the effccls oC cyanide could last up to 30-35 years. They think that all corals exposed to sodium cyanide acquire certain foul odors which 59 kecp fish away and that these corals also eventually die. Related one fisherman, "I myself would not want to live in a place with a surrounding that smells, so would the fish. The fish that smell sodium in the stone would not go nearby." According to fishermen who were interviewed, the shallow reef areas are blasted or are dead duc to exposure to sodium cyanide. Hence these areas are said to be unsuitable habitats for the fish, and that as a consequence they have migrated to deeper waters. Thus, fishermen also have to venture to deeper waters. It is also belicved that the effects of sodium cyanide are more permanent compared to the effects of dynamite fishing. Most fishcrmcn claim that arorocep (an edible seaweed) can grow in blasted areas and provide sources of income for gleaners. For corals exposed to cyanide, however, no scawced would grow, nor would any fish dare go near these dead corals. A fisherman related that corals used to be the habitats of baby cuttlefish and lobsters. Cyanide users believe lhat sodium cyanide has no harmful effect on corals in San Jose becausc it mixes with seawater and goes with thc currcnt. They maintain that they only use minimal quantities of sodium cyanide for the fish just to lose balance. Whcn fish are transfcrred to clean seawater, they regain their balance. Dcaths of aquarium fish during storage and shipment are attributed to overexposure to sunlight, improper packaging, too much heat and other causes, but never to exposure to sodium cyanide. Major Management Issues and Recommendations Preliminary assessment of information on how blast fishing and cyanide fishing are practised and sustained at the community level, as well as consultations with key fishermen-leaders, point to four major issues, namely, Lhc: 1. Level of community perception; 2. 3. Law enforcement measures; Need for alternative livelihood sources; and 4. Possible role of local organizations to check illegal fishing practices. A community-based approach to CRM entails not only assessing specific area conditions, but most importantly, building local organizations which would play a decisive role in such management. Necessarily, policy and program recommendations must be generated through continuing consultations with fishermen's organizations and community residents, as well as development agencies working in their behalf. Level of Community Perception As discussed above, it is perceived that thc economic gains derived from blast fishing and cyanide fishing outweigh their negative consequences to people's health, coastal resources and law enforcement. In this regard, it is recommended that a massive educational program be conducted focusing on the short- and long-term effects of both typcs of fishing. The program should be primarily addressed to all fishermen, fishing communities and other beneficiaries of coastal resources. It is further recommended that thc program incorporate the following: A multimedia approach to reach as many people as possible and create a strong impact on them. The program can include short radio dramas in the vernacular, jinglcs, comics and short seminars at the village level. Emphasis on the dwindling resources of Lingayen Gulf; the ill effects of trawling, cyanide fishing, pollution, mangrove destruction, fine-meshed nets and blast fishing; and the factors which put stress on coastal resources (e.g., fishing methods, population). Fishermen's organizations and the local government involved in disseminating relevant information. 60 4. Coordination among different government and nongovernmental agcncies. Law Enforcement Measures The cnforccment of existing laws on illegal fishing practiccs is incffccdvc. Law enforcement agencies lack patrol boats and logistics to police the fishermen. Through bribery, thc apprehcndcd blast fishcrmen often evadc prosecution. According to the fishermen and law enforcers, the bribes are easier to shell out whereas the punishments are quite harsh. Although Ihe sale of dynamite and sodium cyanide is regulated, supplies are readily available, givcn the right connections. Then there are the uawls which continuc to opcrate near the shore in spite of the 7-km ban. Politicians, acting as padrino, often intcrvcne in behalf of their constituents in exchange for political support. Thus, it is recommended that law enforcement be improvcd. The following deserve immediate attention: Thc capability of law enforcement 1. agencies, such as BFAR-CLES, must bc upgradcd through lhe provision of adequate motorcrafts to increase the number of patrols and enhance the coastal mobility of its agents. 2. Stiff penaltics arc intcndcd to servc as deterrent to illcgal fishing practices. However, exccssive harshness may render them i~npracticaland, to some extent, less cnforccable. It is recommended that these stiff penalties bc reviewed. Fines should approximale lhc amount of the bribes usually offered/demanded. Since small fishermen are usually thc ones involved in blast fishing and cyanide fishing, fincs must be "affordablc" for them not to rcsort lo bribery. Stiffer fincs/penaldcs, however, must bc given to suppliers of dyna- mite and sodium cyanide. Laws should encourage enforcement equally and constantly, lcsscning the probability of pilying poor families if they arc subjected to such penalties. (It should be notcd, however, that graft and corruption pervades all aspccLs of law enforcement in lhc country. The problem of illcgal lishing is but a small part of this system breakdown.) Enforcement of laws must apply equally to trawlers. The 7-km ban must be striclly enforced. Law enforcement must be consistent and coordinated. This requires mechanisms for continuing cwperation among law enforcement agencies and thc local government. Special awareness programs must be instituted for government officials and law enforcers conccrning he deteriorating ecological conditions of Lingayen Gulf. Need for Alternative Livelihood Sources Many fishermen households live in marginal subsistcncc levels. Thcrc arc minimal employmcnl opportunities due lo limilcd education and skills, and inadequate livelihood sources. There is an urgenl need, thcrcfore, for alternaiivc socioeconomic programs which will allow fishcrrncn lo live above the subsislcnce level. These programs must havc complementxy basic charac,lcristics; maximizc gains from coastal resources exploitation; and draw fishcrmen away from fishing. Thus, these programs should: 1. Introduce socioeconomic projccts which allow he fishurnen to maximizc lhcir gains from coastal resources exploitation. It has bccn documcntcd in many cases (Smith 1979; Acheson 1981; Szanton 1971) that thc prcscnce of several levels of middlcmcn depresses the prices of 2. fish, enabling them to reap the profits which are due the small fishermen. Using lessons from past efforts in establishing cooperatives, these programs can help alleviate the conditions of the fishermen. It is also necessary to look into the high prices of capital inputs (e.g., engines, fuel, gears). Attract fishermen to jobs outsidc the fisheries domain. Although programs which provide additional sources of livelihood based on cwrent projects (e.g., pig and cattle dispcrsal, variety store) are not discouraged, attempts to alleviate the conditions of the fishermen (and totally stop blast fishing) will be futile if they rest principally on these kinds of government socioeconomic programs, as shown by past research. It is believed that national industrialization (dispersed through the countryside) has more capability in attracting the surplus labor in fisheries, and provides more stable sources of employment. These types of programs also prevent further stress on the coastal resources. The Role of Local Organizations Although the ill effects of illegal fishing practices concern the communities' livelihood and future, CRM and conservation are often left to thc hands and "expertise" of outside agencies. As a result, sustained action at the community level seems inadequate and scattered. There is a need, therefore, to build/support [ishermen's organizations for thcm to actively take part in coastal management, in general, and exert peer pressure against illegal practices, in particular. The capability of community organizations to exert strong pressure among their members has been noted in many experiences (see White, this vol.). These organizations are in 61 the best position to monitor the actions of their members and identify the best forms and degree of sanctions against erring members. They can become a forum for fishermen to discuss conservation, among other sectoral interests. They can become conduits for the educational (aimed toward the development of ecological consciousness) and technoeconomic programs (aimed toward the improvement of their members' economic conditions). Critical Information Gaps ", Rescarch on cyanide fishing is well in its middle phase, thus the following data are still to be gathered: Level of community perception. The 1. perceptions of both sodtum users and nonusers have already been obtained. However, the perceptions of other community members, such as the religious groups, local leaders (both formal and informal) and other work groups, should also be taken. Role of the community. Members of 2. the community either play an active or passive role in the regulation of cyanide fishing. Research has yet to come up with findings on the roles of community institutions, e.g., family, church, local government, in Lhe regulation of cyanide fishing. Also, the study has yet to delve into the possible conflicts between those who accept and practise, against those who oppose and do not practise, cyanide fishing. 3. Law enforcement practices. Laws pertaining to cyanide fishing are yet to be gathered and analyzed. Are such laws really implemented? What are some of the suengthslweaknesses and capabilitiesllimitations of law enforcement agencies? How do the cyanide users evade arrest and punishment? What is the level of awareness of the whole fishing community with respect to these laws and sanctions? References Rcheson, J. 1981. Anthropology of fishinp. A~mu.Rev. Anthropol. 10: 275-316. Pe-Pua, R. 1985. Pagtatanong-fanong: katufubony tnerodo ng panawlik~ik. Paper prewntcd at the 22nd Annual ., Cmvcntion of the Psychological Association of the l'h'hilippines, 6-8 August 1985. Philamlifc Auditorium, Manila. San Juan, J. and K.Soriaga. 1985. Panunuluyan: mula paninhbung hanggang malalimang pakikipagpalagayang looh. In A. Aganon and S. Ma. Assumpa David. RVM (eds.) Sikolohiyang Pilipino; isyu, pananaw a1 kaalamnn. National Rook Store, Metro Manila. Santiago, C. and V. Enriquez. 1976. Tungo sa maka-Pilipinong pananaliksik f n Sikolohiyng Pilipino: mga ulaf a f salita l(4): 3-10. Smith, I.R. 1979. A research framework for traditional Iishcrics, TCLARM Studics and Reviews 2. 45 p. International Centcr for Livjng Aquatic Resources Management, Mclro Manila, Philippines. Szanton, D L . 1971. Estancia in transition: economic growlh in a rural Philippine community. IM:Pap. 9. Institute of Philippine Culture-Atenco de Manila University, Quezon City. Status of Coralline Resources in Lingayen Gulf LIANA MCIVLWIUS~AND LAMBERT ANTHONYMEmEZa McManus, L. and L A . Meiiez. 1989. Status of coralline resources in Lingayen Gulf, p. 63-70. In G. Silvestre, E:. Miclat and T.-E. Chua (eds.) Towards sustainable development of the coastal resources of kingayen Gulf, Philippitics. ICLAKM Conference Proceedings 17, WO p. Philippine Council for Aquatic and Marine Research and Dcvclopment, h s Bafios, Laguna, and International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management, Makati, Metro Manila, Philippincs. Abstract NUK sitcs wcrc snwcycd along the western coast of Lingayen Gulf lo assess h e status of coral rccfs in thc arca. Thc srudy showcd thc rccfs to bc in relatively poor to lair condition, having 18%-47% living cmal covcr. Rccfs arc dcgradcd by bolh naturally occumng factors and man-induced strcsscs (such as poor land managemenl, which brings ahoul siltation, and dcstructivc fishing tcchniques). Blast fishing and h e use of sodium cyanidc for catching aquarium fish arc rampan1 in the area. The dcstmction of the,reefs could cause n breakdown 01heir community structure, as wcll as thosc of associated coral-don~inatcdcommunities. Various management schemes designed to forestall thc dcstmction of thc reds and ease the fishing pressurc on thc resources are presented. Critical inlormation gaps are identified. Introduction Measures to help curb deierioration and Lo prcvcni irreparable depletion of reel resources are clearly necessary lo ensure ihcir long-term productivity. This study has as its major objcctivc thc biological assessment of Lhc coralline habitats of ~ h gulf, c Lo serve as input for the formulation of a community-based management scheme for Seclor I, in particular, and the gulf, in general. Along with the economic and cultural studies of the coral reef fisheries or the gulf, it is hoped that an inicgratcd and holistic management of coral habitats can bc ultimately achievcd by, and for, the people OF the gulf. Thc coral rccfs of Lingayen Gulf are yearround sources of food and income not only for about 6,000 fishermen (Ferrer et al. 1985) from Scctor I (Fig. 1 in Calud et,al., this vol.), but for the rest of the 13,OWJ artisanal [ishermcn in the gulf as well. The reefs represent a heavily exploited coastal habiiat that typifies the rocky shorelines of most islands in thc Philippincs today. Bccause of the reefs' proximity to land, where a burgeoning population continucs lo proliferate and whose dcmand for food and basic needs remains high and unsatisfied, degradation and unsustainablc harvest of resources are imminent. aMarinc Scicnce Institutc. Univcrsity of thc Philippincs, Dilirnan, Quezon City, Philippines. 63 Methods Detailed habita~survcys in sclcctcd sites located in Sandago and Cabarruyan Islands (Fig. 1) were made to determine the abundance of coral rccf fish and pcrccrilage cover of hard and soft corals, algae, seagrasses and macroinverlebratcs associated with thc rccf. Essentially, lhe surveys were conducted based on the ecological concept that habitats inhabi~edby a large number or living organisms are in good condilion, and vice-versa. The underwater survey method used was the lifc-form transect technique adapted from the ASEAN-Auslralian Manual of Habitat Assessment (AIMS 1986). In each site, three or morc 100-m fiberglass uansccl lincs (calihratcd in ccntimctcrs) wcrc laid along the same deplh using scuba. One line was placed on tic rccF flat at 2-3 m dcpth of watcr, whilc two othcrs wcrc scl up on thc Sorc rccf slopc a1 6 and 9 m A (cam of two divcrs procecdcd along thc tranw3 and rccorded the abundance of finiish within a 5 x 10 x 100 m3 corridor. Size eslimalcs o l commercially Fig. 1. Wcstcm scction 01- Lingaycn Gulf sliowu~g study sitcs for cornllinc rcsource asscssmenl. imporlant fish, hcrc rcfcrrcd to as target species, and heir numbers were obtained. Fish which indicate the relalive health of the recfs, called indicator species (eg., bulterflyfish), wcrc also counted. Olher fish species were groupcd according to families and ~hcir numbers were estimated. Thc fish monitoring team was followed by a second set of thrcc LO four divcrs (spaccd 20 m apart along the transect) who recorded the lengths oT each lifc-form and subsma~ctypc (e.g., sand, rubble, rock, etc.) found dong thc linc. Organisms recorded were live hard corals o i the Acropnru and non-Acropora types, dead corals, macroalgae and othcr livc invcrtcbratcs (including soft corals, sponges, etc.). The reefs were then cl~~ssil'ied (Gorncz and Alcala 1984) into excellent (75-100% live coral cover), good (50-74.9%), fair (2549.9%) and poor (less lhan 25% cover) condilion. Results and Discussion The cordline resources of Lingayen Gull' arc concentrated on the western section (Scctor I). Thcsc arc located fringing Lhc northwest coast or Bolinao, and ~ h islands c of Santiago, Cabarruym, and the Hundred Islands. Cordline communities are also found in certain islands off Sual. The more cxlcnsivc rccfs, howcvcr, arc found mainly around the Santiago and Cabarruyan Islands. Niric sites (Fig. 1) wcrc survcycd for reef condilion (i .e., ~hreealong Santiago Island and six ad-lacen1lo Cabarruyan Island). Santiago Island, tfic northernmost of thc group, has an extensive reef plalform rcaching up to 2.5 km along ~ h norlhcrn c and northeas~erncoast. A luxul-ianl growh of scagrasses dominatcs the relatively shallower reef flat From its shoreward margin to depths of about 3.5 m. The recf flat is cut in ccr~ainscc~ions,particularly in thc north by rclativcly dcep (3-5 rn) lagoons/channels with an abundance or dcad branching Acropora and massive Poriles and F'avona. Rock mounds cmct-genl.at low water arc likcwisc dispcrscd along lhc norlh and northeaslesn sections of the rwr. Towards thc oulcr reef margin is a rocky rim consisting of consolidated rock and/or massive ccral mounds, usually followed by a gentle slope to a sandy bottom at 12-15 m. Vertical dropoffs are prcscnt in the northeastern section of the reef. In thc cast, the reef slopcs gradually from a rocky-coralline zone (covered by brown algac) to about 9-12 m with coral communities occurring on rock mounds in generally sandy substrate. The CabLarruyanIsland reefs are widest on the northern portions adjacent to Cangaluyan Island and in the south bordcring the coast of Batiarao. As in Santiago, the shallowcr scctions (particularly on the north) are fringed by s m p s s beds with rock mounds and large banks of coral rubble. The outer reef has an irregular rim. Large mounds of coral and rock 65 predominate the northern section which gradually slopes to 5-9 m. Alhough not vcry distinct, the southern reefs have shallow crcsts (0.1-1 m deep) gently sloping to a sandy bottom at 3-4 m (wilh large rock/coral mounds and table corals present). The wcstcm reefs, on the other hand, slope gradually from a narrow (500-800 m) grass flat to sandlsand-rubble bottoms with coral patches existing on rock mounds. Percentage covcr of the benthic components of the reels survcycd is given in Tables 1 and 2. Scvcn of the nine reefs studied are in relatively fair condition. The reefs adjacent to Cabarruyan Island have relatively higher coral cover. Macalccng has 47% cover (for both hard and soft corals) followed by Sablig, Table 1 . Percentage covcr of bcnthic component of reefs in the nine survey sites Live coral Hard coral Soft coral Sitc Dead coral Algae Others Living Nonliving Malinap Dewey N. Silaqui Cabungan Tanduyong Caniogan Sablig Macaleeng Batiarao Table 2. Live coral cover, reef cmdition and fish density in the nine survey sites. Sire Malinap Dewey N. Silaqui Cabungan Tanduyong Caniogan Sablig Macaleeng Batiarao Live coral cover (%) Reef condition fair P' poor fair fair fair fair fair fair Fish density (individuals11,000rn2) 66 Cabungan and Baliarao with 46%, 43% and 42%, respectively. Of the northern reefs, Malinap had 46% cover, while the other two arcas showed relatively poor coral cover (25% and 18%). The survcys showed a dominance of encrusting forms throughout the area, with a number of sites having dcad corals of the massivc, branching and foliate growth forms. The few branching spccics arc mostly small and frequently found in deeper waters. In areas where large sections of the reef have been destroyed or damaged, there appears to be a shift in the type of growth form (particularly from the branching to the encrusting and submassivc species). Scveral natural factors (ranging from wavc action accompanying tropical storms and monsoons, predators and borers, exposure due to tides, etc.) are responsible for the dcslnrction of large portions or lhc rccfs. These natural stresses are further aggravated by human activities, such as land clearance (which exacerbate siltation), and destructive fishing techniques. The silty condition of the reefs south of Cabarruyan Island and thc Hundred Islands is mainly the result of land clearance or deforestation along the coastal region of Western Pangasinan. This includcs Lhc convcrsion of mangrove areas into fishponds, most of which are located in thc Tambac Bay arca. A number of rivers with heavy silt load (having tributaries from the deforested areas of the Cordilleras) cmpty into Tambac Bay, which then flows towards the gulf through this area. Batiarao, the southernmost of the sites, is most turbid with silt covering the substrate includmg turl algae. Similar conditions were observed on the northeastern passage (Cangaluyan) connecting Tambac Bay to the gulf. Among the destxucljve fishing methods, the use of dynamite and sodium cyanide is the most rampant. Observations madc (recording blasts while doing underwater transects) indicate an average of four to five explosions per hour during good weather. Other destructive fishing mcthods includc the karokod (a drag seine opcratcd in shallow coral reef areas) and karkar (a dredge used to gather shells on seagrass beds). The recovery ratc of devastated coral reds varics according lo the degree of desmuction. Periods of 10 to 20 years have been recorded for reefs damaged by cyclones in Australia (Endean 1976) given that a sizable population of adulVrnatre hard corals is still present. For rccfs which havc bcen affected by human aclivilics, studics havc shown (Endean 1976) that recovery ~&CS the longcst, if it recovers at all, considering that thc general condilion has alrcady bccn altcred. For instance, increased silt load in the watcr column rcduccs ~ h camount of light reaching the corals, and smothers the respiratory and kcding mcchanism of polyps. The degradation of coral rccfs results in the decline in abundance of fish populations associated with this ecosystem. Preliminary observauons indicatc that rccrs with high fish diversity coincides with those having relativcly bcucr coral covcr (c.g., Macaleeng and Sablig) and vice-versa. This appars to hold for all sites, except for Dewey which apparently has relalivcly high fish divcrsity despite poor coral cover (25%). Final analysis of these observations, however, await complction of thc data collccdon phase. Fish density, on the other hand, could not be clearly correlated with coral covcr (Tablc 2). One reason could be that the reefs are excessively I'ishcd and this overrides what possible correlation exists. It is likcwisc probable that the degree of correlation among sites with relatively the same amount of coral covcr would depend on thc gencrJ growth forms of the species. For instance, brrlnching types which havc rnorc surface area compared to the massive/submassive and encrusting spccics would display higher correlation with fish abundance. A conscyucnce of the deterioration of rcef habitats is the breakdown of its community structure and associated coral-dominated communities. The resulting shift in community structure is characterized by a proliferation of lcss prcfcrrcd spccies, both cconomically and ecologically. Management Proposals The management of coral reefs, especially those which arc heavily cxploilcd, involves a thorough understanding of the fisheries from the biological, economic and cultural perspectives. The following proposals are tentative in hat integration of recommendations from other studies has yet to be achieved. Biological findings largely form the basis for the recommendations below. Policies and Management Strategies Management is guided by policies which define the rationale and targets of interventions. For the proper utilization of reef resources, the following policies are proposed: 1. Resources management should aim to sustain and enhance the productivity of coralline habitats. 2. Resources management should accrue to the artisanal fishermen the optimal and sustainable benefits that can be derived from coral reefs. Panayotou (1982) stated that the rejuvenation of traditional community righis over coastal resources may be the best possible management option for small-scale fisheries. Such options can be conceptualized within the existing socioeconomic and biological framework of the fisheries in the gulf. Panayatou suggested the following steps: (1) the explicit allocation of the resources to artisanal fisheries; (2) the division of these resources among fishing communities; (3) the regulation of entry into the fishery; and (4) the gradual encouragement of exit from the artisanal fisheries by creating more attractive alternative employment opportunities. With respect to resource allocation, PD 704 (1975) provides for the jurisdiction of municipalities over marine waters "... included between two lines drawn perpendicular from the point where the boundary line of the municipality touches the sea at low-tide and a third line parallel with the general coastline and three nautical miles." Municipal councils can therefore pass resolutions and ordinances affecting their defined territories, and which become effective upon approval by the duly designated department (currently, the Department of Agriculture to which BFAR is attached). Although PD 704 does not explicitly allocate resources found within municipal waters to artisanal fisheries, this may be adopted as a policy by municipal councils upon democratic consultation with their constituents. PD 704 grants such political bodies thc legal rights to do so. In this regard, the municipalities of Bolinao and Anda can pass such resolutions to achieve two things: first, lo definc the reef areas under their jurisdiction; and second, to allocate such resources to their sustenancc fishermen. With respect to the division of reef resources among the fishing communities, PD 704 helps define the territories of Bolinao and Anda. However. within each are barrios governed by barrio cbuncils, and further division of reef areas at the barrio level seems too limiting and socially counterproductive. Along with the division of resources between municipalities should be the formulation of mechanisms through which territories and resources contained therein are legally recognized, and ownership thereof is enforced. Establishing community territorial use rights may be best achieved within the bigger context of strengthening and sustaining alternative livelihood. Currently, income-generating activities in the area (aside from fishing) include shellcraft, collection of sea urchin gonads, processing of &he-de-mer and mat-making. To date, &he-de-mer processing is vcry much limited by the severely depleted sea cucumber resources. The activity may not be sustained for long unless mariculture provides for an economically feasible sourcc of raw materials. A major problem which besets these cottage-scale industries is the absence of a good marketing scheme that affords reasonable incomes for labor expended in lieu of fishing, and that ensures a stable market for the goods. These indusmes are at present dominated by middlemen who pay minimal prices for the goods which they in turn sell at high prices. Perhaps, cooperatives based on co-ownership of capital and equitable sharing of profit, can take the place of middlemen. Initially, aid in community organization and socioeconomic infastructurc will have to be made available 68 before viable cooperatives can be established. Errors which abound from many failures in the cstablishmcnl of cooperalives nccd not be rcpcalcd. Management of the Siganid Fisheries A major reel-based industry in Bolinao is the fishery for siganids. Siganids or rabbiLCish arc heavily exploited year-round. Mature individuals, known locally as barangin arc caught mainly by fish corrals (baklad). Juvenilcs or padas are harvested using mobile lift ncls (sularnbaw), bag nets (basnig) and seines (kurokod). The small siganids are processed into fish sauce (blzgoong). Thc biology and socioeconomics of the fishery are crucial to the formulation of fcasible and realistic management measures. The harvest of berried females- during their spawning run (from seagrass beds to deeper areas) poses a major biological limit to thc long-tcm viability of both the burangin and padas industries. Such practice is exacerbated by the deployment of buklad cnd to cnd along the route of the spawning migradon, c s p cially along thc easlcrn fringes of Santiago Island. Although fishermen intuitively understand the repercussions of catching gravid females on rhe overall abundance o l siganids, the lack of h m a l and informal sanctions casily override an innate sense of ecological propriely. Social and economic conflicts plague the siganid fishery. Currently, fishcrics lo~q whcrc buklad arc placcd are leased out by public bidding. The highcsl biddcrs, naturally, are the prominent and affluent citizens lo pay for who can raisc as much as ~0,000b a ycar's l e a e . Fish corrals built on the lots are prolected by policemen. Fishermen who scoop burangin f ~ o mthese baklad pay 50% of the cash generaled to thc lcsscc. During spawner runs (which occur for six cL2ys during each new moon from Fcbruary ~hrough Junc, and from September hrough December), fishermen are not allowed to catch barangin within a certain arbittary distance Crom the fish corrals. Although this tacit rule of powcr play is tolcrarcd, fishermen rcsenl thc lirni~ationof thcir fishing ground and are quick to point out that such rule is not inslituted lo protect the spawncrs but to further the interesls of the lessee. Fwlhcrmore, lhcy note that buklad owners arc c u l p r i ~in~ h e declinc or thc I'ishcry bccausc their corrals indiscriminately capture spawners and nonspawners alike. The following rccommcndalions lor lhc sustainability of Lhc siganid fishery is in linc with the concepl of lerritorial use rights as envisioned to be exercised by a community: The municipality o l Bolinao should limit the area where baklud can be set up in ordcr to allow a biologically significant number of spawners to rcach Lhcir brccding grounds arid ensure sustcnancc of thc lishcry. Fishcries lots should be leased to coastal barrios ra~hcrthan to individuals. If there are more barrios than lots, the lease can be rotatcd yearly. Rotation of leaseholds among barrios will promote protcxtion of spawncrs, as fishcrmcn would like to ensure abundance of catch whcn their lurn comcs. Those who own leascs can exact a fraction o l thc catch from Gshcrfolk o l olher b'arrios, the aclual sharing schcme for which can bc formulated by thc appropriale councils. The dimensions of the fish corrals, especially the lengih of (and angle bctwecn) leaders, should bc rcgulatcd to cnsul-e a certain brccding stock size that can repopulale the area. Thc rncc,hanisms of profit sharing, law enforcenien~,and overall managcmcnt should bc thoroughly worked out at the level of thc barrio councils (with strong supporl from the municipal and provincial governments). No-access Zones The reef flat and slope arcas of thc gulf from Bolinao to the Hundred Islands, and beyond, to the patch coral communities of Telbang and Victoria, are heavily fished. Apart from the Hundred Islands Marine Park, a proposal to eslablish marine parks in these heavily exploited grounds should embody the desire of coastal communities for self-delermination. In formulating the proposal for no-access zones below, two things were considered. First, the proximity of coastal villages to the no-access zone areas was considered. Without people who can effect management, a marine park cannot be realized. Second, areas which are less fishcd were identified. In the gulf, such areas include lagoons of the back reef, somc of which feature dead corals and very low fish densities. Protection fox these areas is thcrcfore rehabilitative rather than preventive in nature. With these considerations, the lagoonal waters off Barrio Binabalian, Labas and Luccro, encompassing roughly 1 km2, are proposed as a no-access area, except for research under the supervision of the UP Marine Science Institute (UP-MSI). Research can include rehabilitative experiments such as coral uansplanlation and enhancement of fish recruitment. Prior to closure of these areas to all forms of harvest, appropriate social preparation and environmental education campaigns should be conducted. These would enable the barrio councils of Lucero and Binabalian to subsequently formulate appropriate management strategies (e.g., police power, punitivc measures, fines, clc.). Legal sanction of these management measures by both thc municipal and provincial government bodies should be made explicitly. Long-term Measures The management of coral rcefs should incorporate long-term components. In this regard, thc following proposals are worth considering: 1. A nonformal environmental education program (e.g., slide prcsentations, films, Iccturcs, and on-site underwater nature trails) should be conducted. This will allow for 69 internalization of the desire to safeguard renewable resources, the productivity of which can be short-lived if improperly utilized. Transfer of alternative incomcgenerating skills (such as those taught in vocational schools) can help in thc long run in the regulation of total fishing pressure. Acceleration of capital influx to the area to facilitate step 2 through assistance programs. Data Gaps The quantitative dclcrmination of sustainable yield for somc commercial species is at being undcrraken by the field componcnt of the USAID-fundcd Collaborauve Research Support Program (CRSP). However, there remains a need to obtain estimates of sustainable production for the other species of finfish, molluscs and seaweeds. A major constraint is the absence of large individuals which are bclieved to have been selectively overfished. Large-scalc experiments on rehabilitation of damaged reefs nced to be undertaken. These should includc research on recruitment of hard coral planulae and fish, as well as methods to enhance recruilrncnt rates. Information on income derivcd from coral reefs by fishermen and others involved in the marketing of reef-derived resources (e.g., middlcmcn, wholesalers, retailers, exporters, etc.) is lacking. These data are essential in assessing the significance of coralline habitats as a source of livelihood. However, it must be emphasized that pure economic valuation neglccb the ecological value of reefs. Their contribution to ecological balance throughout their entirc life span should be taken into account. Currently, UP-MSI is gathering data on catch from various gears uscd Ibr harvesting finfish and invertebrates from which estimates of catch rate, income and total harvest can be obtained. There is a need lo ascertain and understand pervading perceptions and attitudcs pertaining to reef resources (c.g., their finite nature 70 and value) for the proposed programs (educational, socioeconomic, etc.) to be accepted by the target audience. Ths information is also crucial in drafting a managemcnt plan for Sector I. Ultimately, coastal villages (through their councils) should bc able to make their own recommendations for a fcasible resource management scheme. This presupposes that the desire for self-determination has been internalized and that the peaple's environmental consciousness has achieved a level that can effectively mobilize their political bodies towards effective coastal zone management. References AIMS (Australian Institute of Marine Science). 1986. A manual of survey methods for living resources in coastal areas. Australian Institute of Marine Science, Queenkland, Australia. Endean, R. 1976. Destruction and recovery of coral reef communities, p. 215-253. I n O.A. James and R. Endcan (eds.) Biology and geology of coral reefs. Vol. 3. Biology 2. Academic Press, New Yo*. Ferrer, E.M., M.C. Pagaduan and R.A. Rivera. 1985. Socioeconomic studies of the fishing canmunities bordering Lingayen Gulf. Tambuyog Stud. Ser. I. Tambuyog Develapnent Center, D h a n , Quemn City. Gomez, E.D. and A.C. Alcala. 1984. Sulvey of Philippine cord reefs using transen and quadrat techniques. UNESCO Rep. Mar. Sci.(2l): 57-69. Panayotou, T. 1982. Management concepts for smal-scale fisheries: ectmomic and social aspects. FA0 Fish. Tech. Pap. 288.53 p. F d and Agriculture Organization. Rome. Italy. Patterns and Levels of Aquaculture Practices in the Coastal Municipalities Adjoining Lingayen Gulf Palnla, A. 1989. Patterns and lcvels of aquaculture practices in the coastal municipalities adjoining Lingayen Gulf, p. 7182. In G. Silvestre, E. Miclat and T.-E. Chua (eds.) Towards sustainable development of the coaslal resources of Lingayen Gulf, Philippines. ICLARM Conference Proceedings 17, 200 p. Philippine Council Tor Aquatic and Marinc Research and Dcvclopment, Los Baiios. Laguna, and International Ccntcr for Living Aquatic Resources Management, Makati. Metro Manila, Philippines. Abstract A survcy of the aquaculture practices in eight coastal municipali~iesof Pangasinan was conductcd from luly 1987 to March 1988, covering 499 brackishwater fishponds. The survcy rcvcalcd that most fish farmers in the eight coastal municipalities in Pangasinan practise milkfish rnonoculturc. Aquaculture practices remain traditional, and management is extensive with heavy input of pesticides. Average production is 900 kghdyear. 'his study focuses on the pattcrns and levels of the aquafarming practices towards developing managmcnf strategies for aquaculture development in thc gulf arca. Introduction enhancement through appropriate farm management. Before this could bc achicvcd, it is essential to know the current status on the paltcms and levels of aquacullure practices as wcll as better knowledge of coastal land usc and development trends. A series of farm survcys was conductcd in eight coastal municipalities extending from San Fabian to Bani (Fig. 1). The surveys covered 499 farms with an aggrcgatc arca of 1,628 ha, representing 12% of thc told fishpond area in the province (Table 1). Pangwinan is onc of the provinces in the country endowed with abundant brackishwater resowccs. In the past years, most of these have been converted to milkfish ponds. Chong et al. (1984) reported that milkfish ponds in the region were underutilizcd with an average yield of only 800 kg/ha/year. BFAR (1985), on the other hand, noted that the yield increased to exceed 1,000 kglhalyear. Despite the reported increase in pond yield, there is obvious need for yield aBureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Reuources, Marcclo Bldg.. Quczon Avenue, Q u e m City, Philippines. 71 0 5 10 15 20 urn H u b d UImds Lingoyen Gulf 1 6"m'- Pig. 1. Lingayen Gulf, showing the eight coastal municipalities covcrcd by the survey. Table 1. Distribution of privately owmd brackishwatcr fishponds in thc coastal municipalities of Pangasinan (fronting Pigayen Gulf) and thc area of farms surveyed during the course of the smdy. Municipality Sw Fabian Mangaldan Dagupw Rinmaley Lingayen labrador Sual Alaminos Bani Anda Bolinao Total a1 la112= 100 ha. Total area (km2)a Total no. of fishponds Area (ha) NI Farms fishponds surveyed Materials and Methods Reconnaissance Survey and Site Identification An ocular survey of the coastal municipalities was conducted to obtain initial information on h c general condition of the coastal area and existing fishfarms. The results of the ocular survey together with aerial photographs and the latest provincial land-use maps wcre used to identify the distribution of fishfarms in the gulf area. The study area was thus dclimitcd to include eight coastal towns, namely: San Fabian, Mangaldan, Dagupan, Binmaley, Lingayen, Labrador, Alaminos and Bani. The maps of these municipalities were rcproduced to a uniform scale of 1:20,000. The northeasternmost point in San Fabian and h e northwesternmost point in Bolinao wcre joined by a straight line. Straight lines perpenhcular to this were subsequently drawn at 10 km intervals which were used as rcfcrcncc lines in selccting the sample farmslstations. Sample size pcr municipality was set at 5% of the total number or fishfarms. Selection of farm samplcs was made such that 25% were along the road, 25% along the river, 25% remotest from the river and 25% midway between the river and the remotest farms. Farm Survey A survey questionnaire was prepared to include data pertaining to farm size, tenure, operalor's profile, culture system used, man- 73 agement and operation, and socioecono~nics (Appendix 1). These were administered together with personal interviews of the farmers by the research assistants of the ASEANUS CRMP from July 1987 to March 1988. Results and Discussion Farm Size and Ownership Farm holdings are generally small; 10.6% are below 0.5 ha. The average size range is 1.0 to 2.0 ha. Most of the big farms exceeding 5.0 ha arc locatcd in Alaminos and Bani (Table 2). Aquaculture is basically a family merprisc with 88.6% of the farms privately owned. The remaining are leased either from the government or private individuals. Fishpond operators are predornirlantly full-time fishfarmers (Fig. 2). Few fishermen, agriculture workers and professionals (i.e., doctors, lawyers, etc.) are cngaged in farm operations. Caretakers are employcd in most cases. Fishfarming Practices A summary of the aquaculture practices in Lingayen Gulf is given in Table 3. Brackishwater aquaculture consists mainly of the monoculturc of milkfish (8 1.6%) using lumutb, lablabc, or lumul-lablab as natural b~ilamentousgreen algac. CMicroknthic complex of algac,zooplanktun, detritus, ctc. Table 2.Percentage distribution of the farm samples by size range (ha). - - Municipality San Fabian Mangaldan Dagupan Binmaley Ligayen Labrador Naminos Bani ~0.2 0.2-0.5 r0.5-1.0 >1.0-2.0 >2.0-5.0 >5.0 Total Agricultural worker Fisherman Fig. 2. Distribution of farm operators by principal occupa~ion. Table 3. Percentage of fishfarms ulilizing various aquaculture practices in Lingayen Gulf based on data collected covering the period July 1987 10 March 1988. hlunicipali~y San Fabian hlangaldan Dagupan Binmaley Lingayen Labrador Alaminos 3 ani Cul~uresystem Monocul~urePolycul~ure W.0 100.0 95.1 70.4 98.5 97.4 100.0 98.2 10.0 0 4.9 29.6 1.5 2.6 0 1.8 Fedlizer User Non-user 90.0 95.2 90.1 73.5 93.2 92.1 100.0 98.2 10.0 4.8 9.9 26.5 6.8 7.9 0 1.8 Aquaculture pracbces Pesucide Supplemental feed User Non-user User Non-user 100.0 100.0 99.0 96.9 100.0 89.5 100.0 100.0 0 0 1.O 3.1 0 10.5 0 0 20.0 19.0 23.8 56.1 48.3 60.5 75.9 80.0 80.0 81.0 76.2 43.9 51.7 39.5 24.1 20.0 Artificial feed User Nm-user 0 0 0 9.2 1.4 2.6 3.4 1.8 100.0 100.0 100.0 90.8 98.6 97.4 96.6 98.2 Average yield @&a/yr) 744 488 9 47 1,090 888 725 1,122 1,266 75 food base. Polycul~ureof spccies combimations such as milkfish-shrimp, milkfishsiganid, shrimp-siganid and milkfish-shrimpsiganid is practised by few farmers in Binmaley. Management of most of the farms is extensive. Thcrc is no standard stocking dcnsily. The number of stocks is dctermincd by the immediate availability of fingerlings and the financial capability of the farmer, rather ihan Ihe optimum carrying capacity or the pond. Liming is never practised. Farmers bclicvc that limc hardens the pond soil. Since most of the farms are old, here are no problems of soil acidity. However, apart from reclaiming acid-sulfate soils, lime also serves to sanitize the pond. Besidcs, continuing use of organic manure tends to make ponds acidic. The use of lime should bc encouraged especially in shrimp ponds. Fertilizers and pesticides are arnong the most common farm inputs. The most common types arc chicken manure, and chemical fertilizers such as urea and 16-20-0 (N-P-K ralios) while Brestan, Aquatin and Gusathion are the more frcqucntly uscd pesticides (with isolated cases of endrine use). Howcver, there is a higher rate of pesticide (98%) than fertilizer use. In the siudy conducted by Chong el al. (1984), intensive fertilizer application was round to be directly proportional to increased yield. Comparatively, thc role of pesticide in increasing production is rather indirect. It eliminates potential predators and grazers, thereby allowing the natural food to bloom. Ogano-chlorine pesticides are pcrsistent, nonbiodegradablc and fat-soluble. Organophosphates, on the other hand, are biodegradable hut take time to hydrolize and rcquirc alkaline pH (Brown 1978). Alkaline pH levcls arc least expectcd from the brackishwater ponds since liming is an alien practice. Eventually, persistent and undissolved peslicidc rcsidues sink down to thc gulf. Apart from their rolc in production, the impact of pesticidcs in the environment and the potential danger thcy pose to the consuming public and the fishfarmer cannot be overlooked. Supplemental fccding wilh rice bran and lurnul is practised by the big farms from Binmalcy to Bani (Table 3). Artificial feeds are seldom uscd. Average production for the cigh~municipalities is 900 kg/hdyear and falls within the low-lcvel intensity (Chong 1984). Fig. 3 gives a comparison of the production levels of the eight municipalities. Averagc production is highest in Bani (where high input lcvels were also observed) and lowest in Mangaldan. The highest production is attained in Dagupan and Binmaley, but low-yielding farms in these two areas wcre also among the lowest observed. This shows thc disparity of management practices among farmers in the same area. Management Recommendations Aquaculture development should be gcarcd towards input intensification rather than area expansion. Rather than converting what little is lcft of the estuarine area into ponds to expand pond aquaculture, mariculture should be developed in order to sustain aquaculture expansion and to prescrve the natural statc of Lingaycn Gulf. Appropriate aquaculture technology should be field-tested to increasc the production or existing fishpond units. Among the identified viable technologies for testing are the modular system of milkhsh monoculturc and shrimp-milkfish polyculture. Mariculture should be developed as a supplcmcntal livelihood for fishermen. Oyster culture has a big potential for development. The availability of rcsources and cullure techniqucs makes cage culturc of siganids in the area viable. Development should be approached at the grass roots level. Inasmuch ac the target beneficiarics are the traditional, small-scale fishfarmcrs and/or low-incomc fishermen, field tesqng of the identified technology should be conducted within their own farmstarcas where they can be trained more effectively on the technology, while increasing thcir incomes. This should initially includc operators identified during the survey and fishermencooperators endorsed by the local government as members of a duly recognized fishcrmen's association. Highest yield @ @ Average yield Lowest yield obrodor Municipalities Fig. 3. Comparison of the farm yields of the eight coastal municipali~iescovered during the survey Data Gaps 2. Intensification of aquaculhlre calls for levels of higher inputs. The following research needs, among others, must be given priority to bridge the gap between existing technology and increased production rates: 1. Identification of fry grounds and quantification of their potential lo meet the demands of the industry; 3. 4. Studies of more efficient techniques in the collection, handling and transportation of fry; Quantification of the extent and effects of pesticide pollution in Ihc gulf; and Formulation of a viable credit scheme for intensified aquaculture production. References BFAR (Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resouras). 1985. Fisheries statistics of the Philippines. Bureau d Fisheries and Aquatic Resources, Q u e m City. BFAR (Bureau of fisheries and Aquatic Resourms). 1985. Provincial fisheries data. Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources, Dagupan City. Brown, A.W.A. 1978. Ecology of pesticides. Wiley Intersciena, New Ywk. Chwg. K.C.. M.S. Lizamdo. Z.S. dcla Cruz, C.V. Guerrero and LR. Srnih 1984. Milldish production dualism in the Philippines: a multidisciplinary perspective m omtinuour low yields and mnstraints to aquaculture development. ICLARM Technical Reports 15, 70 p. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. R m e . Ihly: Bureau of Agricultural Economics. Q u e m City, Philippines; Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources, Quemn City, Philippines; and International Center for Living Aqunic Resources Managemcnt, Manila, I'hihppines. Appendix 1. SUN^^ form used in the evaluation of patterns and levels of aquaculture practices in the Lingayen Gulf area. I. Gcncral Information Tvm .. of fishfarm -Pishpmd O y s t e r farm S i k of farm (spccify silw, bamo and municipality) Silio S c a w c c d farm Others Barrio Municipality Accessibility of farm (by road, trail, etc.) Tenure rutus P r i v a t e l y owned Govemment-leased Form of organization S i n g l e proprietorship Parmcrship Corporation Cmperative Name of owner (if different from opfraror) O l h c r s (spccily) G o v e r n r n c n r instirurion P r i v a t e institution O t h e r s (specify) Name of gcrator Addrcss Occupation prior to fishfarming A g r i c u l t u r a l farrncr P r o f c s s i m a l (cnginccr, lawyer, donor, etc.) Fishennan A l w a y s been a fisherman O t h e r s (specify) TI. l~ishfarmCumplcx A. Fishpond 1. Agc uf fishpmd yean 2. Toml area of fishpond ha ha a. Dcvdopcd b. Undeveloped ha c. Abandoned ha d. Have the ponds bee11 idle before? Yesho. Why? 3. D. Ill. Farm layout (attach farm layout showing number and prition of ponds, wakr control galcs. water supply canal, Yourccs of walcr, roads, etc.) Olhcr types offishfarm (fish cage, seaweed, oyster, etc.) 1. Age of farm ycars 2. Total area ha 3. Farm layout (attach farm layout) Fishfarming Practice 1. Mono/plyculture Ycslno (Encirdc). 2. Spcies cultured 3 Total years of experience in: Milkfish cuburc ycars Shrimp culture Sigan~dculture years Others (specify) 4. Ate you familiar wirh any ol rhc following fishfarming ~cchniquclopcrarion7 Yes No a. Acc1irnati;sation h. Smck rnanipuli~~ion c. Stock transfer d. Watcr txchungc e. Water analysis b Naturul ftcding g. Supplemental fecding h. Artificial lccding i. Pond design j. Soil analyrir k. Pond prcfararicm I. Pond liming m. Pond fertilization n. Pest and predator control 5. Ilpracticing the following fiahfarming techniques, give particu1a~~a. Pond fcrtilizurim K i d of fertilkr Source Unit used cost 1) Organic years Quanrityha Since when - Mcdc of epplicaliun . 2) Inorg~nic 3) - u ,p --- Is the quantity of each fertilizr applied ta the maxhurn? If yes, arc you alrcady optimizing your operation7 Yedno. Ilno, why'! b. Pond liming Kind uscd Sourcc - If norusing lime, why? c. Pest and predator control Pestlpredator d. Supplemental fccding Kind of feed Unit cost Conlml rncasuresl picides Source Quanlilyha Unit cost Mode of application - Quamily npplicd Unit - Source - --- Unil cost Quantity uscd Mcdc of application Unit cosl Quantily used M d c of application - c. Anificial Iccrling K i d of fced Sourcc - f. Water cxchangJfrcshcning Sourcc of water Frequency M a l e of c x c h a n ~ c -. - g. Soil analysis Kcsull Whcn - - - - Result h. Wslcr annlysiu By whom - - - - - Whcn By whom Cusl - -" - - - - Cost Arc YOU mmito~ingyour p n d water regularly? Yesho. Do you have problems with your pond watcrl If ye.;, explain .- Yeslno. What were the conditions of water in your pond in 19867 Paramctrr llifhllow Cowlhad Salinity PI1 Others (spcciIy) i.Na~urnlfeeding 1) What naluml Iccds du y w grow in the ponds'! Period (tnmth to month) -- We lumul lubluh plnnklon whcrs - - 2) In ~ h xbsa~cclshonage e of natural fwd, which of the fallowing do you rcsort to? Purchase natural food Tw: P / k U s e of supplcmcntal feeds Tp: - 6. Others (specify) Fry/fiingcrling pmcurcmcnt Source Modc of transpon p---" ' r y of ~ conuinor -- g "AE Yricd~housand ". 7. Stmk management and production (1986) d pond fishfarm Transition Rearing b. Siganid Nursery Transition Rearing c. Shrimp Nursery Transition Rearing lluw do you harvest your products? Ry castncr By use of bag net with gradual draining of pmdwalcr By seining By gill nerring Orhers (spccSy) How often do you harvesr wilhin one cropping season? Once (wal harvcsl) Every 45 day$ Others (cpecifi) \Kh~ipsthawesttechniques do you mploy? Washing Washing and icing Otherr (rpccily) Xlavc you changed your technique ovcrthc ycars of fish farmiw? Ycslno. Xl ycs, when? Whur son 01changcl Have you cncoun~crcdany losses/darnage ro ywr fishfarms over the last Live ycars? Ycshlo. 1l yes, spcclfy -- What measures have you takcn ro rninimizc losscsldamage? - Spciry Apan from fishfarn~ing,do you urc rhc ponds for otherpurposcr? Ycsho. If yes, specify Do you contemplate shifting u)~ul~uring olhcr spccies. or othcr hsincss ventures? If yes, spcify Spzcies Reason nunincss vcnturc Reason Production i n p w a. Operating cost for fishpond (1986) Ttcm Salaricslwngcs Insurancr Ohcr hcnefirs Maintenance and rcpair Frylfingenling horgnnic fcrtilker Pesticides Limc Fccds Rentals Fucl Other expcnrcv - -- b. 1V. Quanlity Input Swklsccd Cul~urcplot cage Feed Fuel Olhcr supplics Sdancslwages Socioeconomir:hlormn~ion(for p n d fishfarming or olhcrwise) I . Tom1 numbcr of persons in the family M~mbcrs Age 13ducalional attainnlmr Husband Wik lhidrcn above 10 ycars of agc; helping in thc lann - Occup~ion - P Wwld y w consider yourself: a. Full-timc lishpond operator h- I'm-time fishpond operator 3. If you are a pan-rime qpemlor: Average numbcr ol hwrslday Average number of daydrnonth 4. J r you arc a pan-lime operator, what alrcmndvc work are you doing? 2. Rcason I'm such work Ycrinu. Cost - hU-timelpart-timci scasonul in lhc Tam I:or rhc past rhrcc ycan, what havc bccn your t a m yicldhalycnr'! a. Fishpond culturn Milklish Year Prdudion a ~ a 1985 1986 Shrimp Year b. 1986 Siganid Ycar c. No. stockcd PCYkg No. - No. stocked No. hawcsrcd Pcsikg - Production area No. s~vckod G d b d and y w r reasm - - - - Pdunion area KgRa harvcstcd - No. harvested Pcskg Kgha Goodmad and ycur reasm - Kgha Goodmad and your Icasm 1984 -- 1985 - 1986 d. To obtpin higher yield, do you think you should devote more time to fishfaming? Yeslno. c. What are the ~ h c constraints/rc~~tiniuns r for k i n g unahle to achieve higher yicld.;? Othcr culturc systcms a. Fish cage Sizc and no. Species No. s~ockcd Quantity Ycar of cagelplot 19114 1985 1986 b. Oyster culture - - Pcskg - -- 1984 1985 1986 What is your lowest yield since you stafied fishfaming? - -. - - - ,u.--L"2L --.-k&Wlycar Rcnron for suCh low yiclrl Do you know of any yield dlffcrcnces in o u t p t in your locality? Range kgha Ycs No Whal do you think arc thc facrors that contribute to such yields? llrrw do you compare yrrur yicld with orhcrponds wilhin Pangasinan? - What a h u t in olhcrpwvinncs'? (specify thc province) 10. Whul arc Ihc implnant factors that dctcrrninc yourpmduclion dccisionl a. Pricc signal and trends b. Gvvcmmcnr subsidics F- K I S ~ S d. Nonpccuniaw Iwmn ( m ~ ~ c a ~ i o n ) e. WraIhcr wndition f. Othcrs (specify) Who makes the major decisim regarding farm operations? -- 11. 12. 13. 14. In 1986, what pcwmtage of your i n c m c Was derived ftom your fishfarm? Orher incane murcca? %Main crop % Sccmdary crop % Nonfishfsrrn sources What do you do wilh p n of your incomc Jerivcd frurn fishfaming? .Impmvc production opcralion Deposit in the bank to earn interest Others (xpcify) What is the rangc of prims you have received in 19867 Milkfish /kg Avcragc !' Luwcsr P /kg llighesr? kg Kcason frlr such pricc variationl~ ~ IS. Is harvest drnc to coincidc with cxpectcd higher *ex'! Ycsho. If no, why? 16. V. Do you think there is compclilicn with other species? Ytrho. Instimtionul Parameten 1. Are you u m m b c r of any of the following? Sincc when Org~nizaum Namc ~ishcries Associarim Cooperative What do you rhink about your present fisheries organizationls? Benefit derived -- Arc you willing to borrow moncy for my of the following: Farm prducrim purposes? Consumption purposes? Children's educational nccds? Ohers (specify)? What are your attimdeslfeelings toward crcdil or borrowing to purchasc inputs or make necessary farm rcnovations? What son of minimum grrarunteclassurancedo you look for before investing m improving productim or iocreasirlg inpu? Have you ever borrowcd money for farm pmducuon? Yesho. Year SOUKC Amount Collatcd - - Amortiation - Have you ever hircd h c services of conultanrs or tcchnicims? Yeslno. Purpose - K YFY,what benefits have yotl gaincd? - I-luw did you come to hire xuch cmsi~lrant/technicianl How much did ir cost you and for how long? What problems have you maoun~crcd? - Have you ever attended any training counJseminar m fishfarming7 Ycsho. If yes: Training cwrdscrninar Sponsor When Remarlts -- - Have you ever dircuvscd your production operation with M o w fhhfarmen? Yerlno. XT ycs, daborate How do you obtain technical infom~atimfor improving your production? What casts are, involvcd in draining tcchnical informatiml Item P t h v e yuu cvcr obuincd copies of any fiahf.rming phlicarim? If yes, what are theae? - Costs Ycsho. How did y w ohrain rhcm'l If no, why? How do you market your p d u c c ? What problems have you encwetercd in markaing your produce? Rdemnce Date In~wicwcr Preliminary Results of a Water Quality Baseline Study of Lingayen Gulf MARYANN LEAHbfAALIWa, NANCYBERM AS^, RAFAELM&CAW~ and F~DRDELIZ G u A ~ ~ Maaliw, M,A.L., N. Bermas, R. Mercado and F. Guarin. 1989. Preliminary results of a water quality baseline study of Lingayen Gulf, p. 83-91. I n G. Silvestre, E. Miclat and T.-E.Chua (eds.) Towards sustainable development of the coastal resources of Lingayen Gulf. Philippines. ICLARM Conference Proceedings 17,200 p. Philippine Council for Aquatic and Marine Research and Development, Los Bafios, Laguna, and International Center fur Living Aquatic Resources Management, Makati, Metro Manila, Philippines. Abstract A watcr quality baseline study was cmducted in hngaycn Gulf to serve as a basis in formulating a general water quality management plan for the area. This paper presents initial results of the study based on data collected from 21 o f shore, estuarine and river stations between March 1987 and March 1988. General water quality parameten were determined, namely, hydrogen ion concentration (pH), temperature. salinity, transparency, suspended solids and dissolved oxygen. Nutrients (nitrite-nitrogen, nitrate-nitrogen and total phosphorus) and heavy metals (lead, zinc, cadmium and mercury) were also analyzed. The results indicate possible issues/pmblems related to siltation, domestic pollution and eutrophication from increased populatioIJurbanimization and various economic activities. Three riven draining into the gulf (Patalan, Dagupan and Agno) are deemed important in the formulation of a management scheme. Recornmendations peninent to the issues identified are briefly discussed. Introduction area will serve as onc of the inputs in the formulation of a general watcr quality management plan. The study includes examination from selectcd sites of the following parameters: General water quality characteristics such as pH, temperature, salinity, transparency, dissolved oxygen (DO) and suspendcd solids (ss); Nutricnt levels in watcr (i.e., nitritenitrogen, NO-N, nitrate-nitrogen, N03-N; and total phosphorus, P O 4 This bascline study of Lingayen Gulf was igitiatcd in responsc to conccrn expressed by several sectors on h e deterioration of water quality in Lhc gulf area. Particular attention has been drawn to polcnlial stresses generated by land- and water-based economic activitics such as mining, agriculture, logging, aquaculture and industrial operations and increased population densily and urbanization in the coastal zonc (especially the Agno-Bucd Delta). Thc water quality profile of thc gulf 3); ahlarule Science Institute. University of the Philippines, Dilirnan, Quczon City, Philippines. ~ICLARM,MC P.O. Box 1501. Makati, Mctro Manila, Philippines. 83 84 Concentration of hcavy melals (i.e., zinc, Zn; lead, Pb; cadmium, Cd; and mcrcury, Hg); and Biological oxygcn demand (BOD), colirorm and pestlcidc levels. This paper presents initial results based on data collccted from 2 1 offshore, estuarine and river stations between March 1987 and March 1988, covering general water quality par~amctcrs,heavy metals and nutricnt levcls (Fig. 1). Materials and Methods Therc were 15 stations for offshorc aspecls (located 1,000-1,500 m from thc shore or rivermouth) and six for river characterization. Of thc latter, thrcc were located at lhc mouth (i.e., estuarine) and three, 1,000-2,500 m upstream (i.e., river) of the Palalan-Bued, Dagupan and Agno Rivers. Inhrmation on the stations regarding exisling land-use, veg- etation and marine/estuxine comrnuni~iesin the vicinity were compiled from previous studies and cornplcmented by ocular surveys during the sccond quarter of 1987. Quxrtcrly collection of watcr samplcs from thc 21 stations started in the lhird quartcr of 1987. Watcr samples were collected at sea surface (1 m below surface) and mid-depth levels. These wcre storcd in wcll-stoppered polyethylene b o t h and packed in dry ice. Samples for DO determination wcre placed in BOD bottles wrapped in aluminum foil. Sediment samplcs werc also collccted in selectcd stations, stored in glass bot~lcsand immediately frozen. All samples were collecled during high tide which was estimated using the tide and water currcnt table of the Bureau oT Coast and Gcocletic Survey. Watcr quality parameters such as pH, [emperature, salinity and Lransparency were mcasured in situ. Methods used to determine the other parameters werc as follows: & l4 Siloqui Island Binabaliar Point 6 Dewey Island goyen Gulf Fig. I. Location of he 15 watcr quality sampling slations in Lingaycn Gu1.l. Suspended solids werc determined using APHA (1976) filtration methods; N03-N and NO2-N levcls were analyzed based on methods in Strickland and Parsons (1972); Total phosphorous (PO4PO3) was detcrmincd by digestion and read via a UV-Vis spectrophotometer (EPA 1976); DO was determined by the Winkler method (Strickland and Parsons 1972); Heavy mctals were prctrcatcd following EPA (1979) methods and read via atomic absorption specuophotometer. Results and Discussion Tablc 1 gives a summary of existing land- usc and vegetation features, as well as the marinelcstuarine communities in the vicinity of the watcr quality stations. Previous studics and ocular surveys of thc area confirm the high dcnsity of human settlements along thc coast and rivers. Rcfuse and sewage disposal into lhc rivers and coastal waters is a problem, and is cspccially acutc in the Patalan, Dagupan and Agno River areas. Accumulalion of solids ranging from biodcgtadable wastes (e.g., paper, vegctablc/meat/fish scraps, plants) Lo persistent solids ( c g , glass bolLlcs, cans, plastic, rubber) is evidcnt in thcse places. Heavy deposition of silt in the mouth and certain sections of river systcms is apparcnt . Table 2 givcs a summary of gcneral water quality parameters in the Lingayen Gulf area rind the water quality slLandardsof the National Pollution Control Commission (NPCC 1978) for fresh, marine and estuarinc waters suitable for contact recreation and fishlshellfish growth and propagation. For the wct season, data collected were during the third quarter of 1987, while for the dry season, both during Lhc fourth quarter of 1987 and first quarter of 1988. The pH, salinily and tempcraturc valucs are generally within normal limits for marine, estuarine and river walcrs, and variations arc apparcnlly due to natural causes. Typically, 85 marine waters have pH ranging from 8.1 to 8.3, while estuarine and river pH values range from 7.5 to 8.1 (Rcid and Wood '1970;). This is because marine waters are relatively strongly buffered and lightly basic. The upper rangc of pH=9.9 (for lncrangan during the first quarter of 1988) is the only valuc outsidc the expec~cdrangcs. All othcr pH valucs arc within NPCC (1978) standards. Salinity valucs are typical, being higher during the dry scason and increasing from river to offshore stations. Temperature trends indicate an increase from offshore to river stations during thc dry season, and vice-versa during the wet scason. During thc dry scason, 85% of the offshore stations had DO levels below lhc NPCC standard of 1 5 rng~l.This improved during the wet scason with 50% of the offshore stations meeting thc minimum permissible level resulting in a higher mcan of 5.27 mfl. All estuarine and river stations had DO levels below the NPCC standard during thc WCL season. During the dry season, estuarine stations in Patalan-Bucd (3b) and Agno (5b) exceeded 5 rng/l, while Dagupan (4b) consistently showed DO levcls bclow this standard. This led to a mean -levelof 5.09 m d l for estuarine slations during the dry season. For river stations (3c, 4c and %), only 40% of the dry swson samples for two quarters had DO levels above the NPCC standard. The Agno upstream station consistently showed values bclow 5 mgll. Average DO lcvcl for river/upstream stations during the dry season was 4.0 mgll. Shallow rivers normally exhibit high DO duc to turbulence and mixing, and in uncontaminated condidons, should be near saturation levels. The low levcls of DO observed apparently indicate organic pollution where the oxygen dcmand of oxidizable organic matter is high. Most of thc stations sampled have relalively low transparency values. The highest values were 4.8 m (Binabalian Point) and 3.0 m (Cangduyan) during the dry and wet seasons, respectively. All river and estuarine stations exhibited transparency readings bclow thc NPCC standard of 21.0 m during both wct and dry seasons. For offshore stations, 60% had rcadings below the NPCC Table 1. Characteristics of water quality sampling slations in Lingayen Gulf. Stations J+%m Damortis Patdan River, including oIfshore Dagupan River, including ofrshore Agno River including offshore Sual Bay, including Portugese Point Lucap Bay I-IundrcdIslands Culiat CangaIu y an Island Sta. R i b Dewzy Island S ilaqui Island Binabalian Point Land use Residential, agricultural Residential, agricultural, fishpond Residential, agricultural fishpond Residential, agricultural, industrial, fishpond, commercial center Residential, agricultural, fishpond Residenlial, agricdtural Residential, fishpond Rcsidcnlial Rcsidcntial, agricul~ural, Iishpond Kcsidcntial, agricultural, fishpond Residential Agricultural, fishpond Residen~ial,fishpond Residential Residential Vegetation Marinetes tuarine communities Cocmul grove, grass Coconul grove, grass Other physical SLNCLUT~ Resort None Coconut grove, grass, sparse mangrove, n i p Coconul grove, mangrove, nipa Mangrove Bridge, railroad Mangrove Port, dock Coconut grove, grass, mangrove, nipa Comnut grove, grass Coconul grove, grass Coconut grove, grass Coconul grove, mangrove Mangrove Bridge Coral reef Mangrove Coral reef Mangrove Coconul grove, mangrove Mangrove Coconul grove, grass Coconut grove, mangrove Coconut grove, grass Coconut grove, grass Coconut grove, grass Coral reef, seagrass Mangrove Seagrass Coral reef, seagrass Coral reef, seagrass Port, dock, tower Port, dock, tower Resort, pofl None Resort Oyster r a m , sal~beds Pofi, dock, tow'er None Port, dock, tower Table 2. Summary of general water quality parameters in the Lingayen Gulf area as compared to selected water quality standards for fresh, marine and estuarine waters suitable for "contact recreation" and "fishJsheW~shgrowth". Parameter Wet seasona Station Range Mean Dry seasonb Range Mean Water quality s~andardc Offshore Estuarine River off shored Estuarinee River Salinity (*100) Offshore Estuarine River Temperature Off shore Estuarine River (OC) 28.7 28.8 29.5 Not to exceed 3 W from nalural temperature Offshore Estuarine River Suspended solid (rngfl) Offshore Estuarine River Transparency Offshore Estuarine River (d a Third quarter 1987. b Fourth quafier 1987 and 1st quaner 1988. c From NPCC (1978). d 1,000-1,500 m off the c o a s h e . e Mouth of rivers. f 1,000-2,500 m upstream horn river mouth. 5566 2993 1733 4.8 0.5 0.5 1714 1701 1009 1.0 0.3 0.3 Total solid < 2,000 t 1.0 rn measured by Secchi disk standard during thc two quartcrly samples for the dry season. Transparency values can be correlated with the amount of suspcndcd load carricd by thc watcr column, and gcncrally incrcase from riverlestuarine areas to thc open sea. Rivers with relatively high current velocity havc rclativcly high turbidity due to scouring and resuspension of hottom sediments. Strong tidal currents have the same effect for coastal areas, especially where substantial inputs of silt and fine-grained pai-ticles from erosion-pronc areas exist. The level of suspcndcd solids is relatively high throughout lhc gulf. Offshore stations near lhe vicinity of river discharges (e.g., Patalan-Bued, Dagupan, Agno, Sud, Inerangan, Coliat and Sta. Rita) generally exhibited highcr suspended solid levels although maximum values were observed in Ccwcy which supposedly is remote from such discharge point. Possible sources of these solids include particles from crosion-prone areas, chemical and mechanical wcathering of rocks and scouring of the substratum during periods of high tidal currcnt velocities. Other possible sources are discharges of domestic scwagc as well as cmucnts from commercial and industrial establishments. The presence of large amounts ol' suspended solids, as in lhc case of mosl of the stations examincd, dccrcascs water transparency and reduces DO levels due to decomposition of organic mattcr. Table 3 gives thc average nutticnl lcvcls (NO2-N, N03-N, P04-3) in thc 21 stations during ~ h clhrcc quartcrly sampling pcriods. The rangcs in mean values were 0.18-34 pgtl for nilritc, 0.92-26 pg/l for nitratc and 3.27118 pg/l for phosphate. Thcsc lcvcls arc relativcly high although NPCC has no1 sct dcfinite limits/standards lor thcsc nutrients, stating only that these should "not be present In amounts as to causc dclctcrious or abnormal biotic growth" (NPCC 1978). We note, however, that EPA (1979) slandards prescribe a maximum allowable concentration of 0.1 pg/l for total P in coastal watcrs. Possiblc sources of high nutrient levels include domcstic cfflucnts and leaching from ~ h csoil and organic/inorganic fertilizers from farms and fishponds. For most of Ihe stations, nutr- en1 levels wcrc highcst during the third quarter which was thc rainy or wet season. Concentration of heavy metals (i.e., Zn, Pb and Cd) in water for selcctcd stations is givcn in Table 4. The maximum permissible levels bascd on NPCC (1978) standards are 2.0 mg/l for Zn, 0.05 mg/l Tor Pb and 0.01 mg/l for Cd. All stations samplcd gave zinc levels way below the NPCC limit. For Icad, Silaqui (thc control station) consistcntly gavc thc highcsl levels which exceeded the NPCC standard. Lead levels also cxcccdcd thc standard in lhc Patalan and Dagupan mouth stations in July 1987 and in thc Agno station in April 1987. In the casc of cadmium, only the Agno and Dagupan upslrcarn slations in July 1987 showed values below the NPCC limits. Examination results of mercury concenlrations in scdimcnts at selected stations in the Lingayen Gull' area arc given in Table 5. At prcscnt, mercury is detected in the sediments in Patalan, Dagupan, Agno and even in Silaqui, the control station supposed to bc far from river mouths which polcnlially carry the metal. Since NPCC has no1 dctcrmincd pcrmissible limits Sor mercury in sedirnenfi, thc dam oblaincti arc presented solely for documentation purposcs. The analysis of heavy mctals was made bccause of historical cpisodic cascs of contamination hom the mining activities in the upslrcarn areas. Hcalth risks involved in the presencc of mercury in living systcms arc due to the mcthylation process it undergoes in thc marine ecosystcrn and i ~ spotential for biomagnification. Many cases of contamination have bcen documenled whcre thc original source of mcrcury has ceased [or scvcral years and thc mctal is no longer detected in the water column. However, sediments being good sinks of pollutants may still contain mercury showing its pcrsis~cnceover a long period. In some cases, bioturbation contributes to the rcsuspcnsion of mercury in water from time to timc. Conclusion and Recommendations The signikance oT maiming good water quality in the arca cannot bc overcrnphasized Table 3. Average nulrient levels @g/l) at selected slations in Lingayen Gulf (1987-1988). Sla~ion A. Offshore Agm Damorris Patalan Offshore Dagupan Offshore Agno Offshore Sual Bay Lucap Bay Hundred Island Colia~ Inerang an Cangaluyan Island S b . Rita Dewey Island Silaqui Island Binabalian Point B. Estuarine Patalan Mouth Dagupan Mouth Agno M o u ~ h C. River Paldan Upslream Dagupan Upstream Agno Upstream Station no. Nitrite (N@-N) 1987 3rd Q 4th Q 1988 lstQ Niva~e(N03-N) 1987 3rd Q 4th Q 1988 1st Q 3rd Q Phosphate (Pod-3) 1987 1988 41h Q 1stQ' Tablc 4. llcavy mctal concentrations in water (m@) at selected stalions in the Lingayen Gulf area." Sampling data/ heavy metal Patalan River Mouth Upstrcam (3b) (3c) Agno Rivcr Dayupan River Mouth Upstream (4b) (4~) Mouth -3.010 2.71 0.040 0.036 <1.00 4.010 (5'3) Upstrcanl (54 Silaqui Island (14) April 1987 Zn Pb Cd July 1987 Zn Pb Cd <0.010 1.77 0.052 <0.010 2.08 0.040 <0.010 <1.00 c0.010 0.010 <1.00 <0.010 c0.010 5.21 0.070 ahlaximum pcrmissiblc lcvcls for wntcrs suitable for "fish/shelllish growth and propagationu hased (1978) standards are 2.0 mg/l Lor %n, 0.05 mg/l for Pb and 0.01 mg/l for Cd. rm NPCC Tablc 5. Mcrcury concentrations (mgll) in scdincrlts at sckctcd stations in thc Lingaycn Gulf arca. SLalion Mercury levels (ppm) (3a) Palalan Kiver oHshort: (3c) Patalmi-Bucd Rivcr fork (4a) Uagupan Kiver offshore (4c) Uagupan River-Market area (5a) Agno River offshore (14) Silaqui Island given that Lingayen Gulf is a major source of rish and other aquatic produc~sin the region. The assurance of safe and uncontaminated food cannot be overlooked from the point of view of both economics and human safety. The initial rcsults of h i s s~udygencrally indicated low watcr DO lcvels and transparency and high suspended solids and nutrient load. Lcad and cadmium concentrations in watcr for ccrlain seclions 01 rivers are above the NPCC limits. These results indicated the need for consideration and resolulion of issues on siltation from mining activities and denuded upland areas, pollution f ~ o m domcslic refuse and sewage and pollu~ion/eutrophication from agricullurc and aquaculture runoff and effluents from cornmercial operation. Siltation requires massive efforls lo rcforest denuded upland areas. Thus, there is a need to: identify priority areas for rchabilitation; conduct infomationlcducation cam- paigns 10 raise awareness of the problem; mobilize support for reforestation programs; reforest and sustain secondary growth in critically eroded areas; and devisc a systcrn for monitoring upland resource uses. For mining activities, thcrc musL be continuous and total containment of rninc tailings in dams which needs frequcnl monitoring lo prcvcnt spillage or breakdown. Some ~nining companies have initialed convcrsion of tailings inlo hollow blocks which has reduced the amount of tailings and incrcascd livelihood opportunilics in h e uplands. Encouragement of similar cfforls is in order. Mines must also consider increasing the quanlily of solids recyclcd as sandl'ills and developing/ designing chemical treatment p r w ~ l u r c sTor their pondwater tailings. Pollution from domestic sources emphasizes ~ h cneed to develop integrated solid waste and sewage disposal syslcms, parlicuIaly for the highly populated areas in the 5) 1 Agno-Bued Delta. Morcover, the following appear to be in order: Informationleducation campaigns to highlight Ihc necessity of propcr waste disposal; Creation of buffer zones along rivers and coastal areas where dumping of wastes is prohibitcd; and Formulation and implementation of proper land use, delineating residential and other onshore activities. The propcr use of fertilizers by farmers and fishpond operators nceds to be improvcd further via effective extension services. Ways to rcduce direct dischargc into waterways of "enriched" effluents need particular attention. Overall, there is the neccssily for intensive and extensive monitoring of potcntially hazardous chemicals and environmentally significant physico-chemical parameicrs on a rcgular basis. Devcloprnent of the capabilities of agencics or academic institutions in the region to enable them to conduct these studies deserves proper considcmtion. References APHA (American Public Bealrh Association). 1976. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater. American Public IIcalth Association, Washington, D.C. BPA (Environmental Protection Agency). 1979. Methods for chemical analyses of water and wastes. Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinatti, Ohio. NPCC (National Pollution Control Commission). 1978. Rides and regulations of h e National Pollution Control Commission. Off. Gaz. 74(23): 4453-4486. Reid, G.K. and R.D. Wood. 1976. Ecology of inland watcrs and estuaries. Van Nostrand Co.. New York. Strickland, J.D.H. and T.R. Parsons. 1972. A practical handbwk of seawater analysis. Fisheries Research Board of Canada. Ottawa, Canada. Land Use Patterns and Physical Characteristics of the Provinces and Municipalities Bordering Lingayen Gulf Alabanza, J., E. Quitos and A. Cargamento. 1989. Land usc patterns and physical characteristics of the provinces and municipalities bordering Lingayen Gulf, p. 93-105.In G. Silvestre, E. Miclat and T.-E. Chua (eds.) Towards sustainable development of the coastal resources of Lingayen Gulf, Philippines. ICLARM Conference Procccdiigs 17, 200 p. Philippine Council for Aquatic and Marine Research and Development, h s Rafios, Laguna, and Intcrnational Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management, Makati. Metro Manila, Philippincs. Abstract l h i s paper presents background information on land use patterns in the coastal provinces and municipalities adjoining Lingayen Gulf. Geographic, climatic, hydrogeologic and related information are also presented, based on unpublished data and studies available in the files of the Iloms Regional Development Council-National Economic Development Authority (IRDC-NEDA Region I), as collated from the various local units and regional offices of government agencies in the area. Develupment concerns and relevant recanmendations identified center around water quality, conflicling resource use, socioeconomic and cultural and institutimflegal issues. La Union and Pangasinan and fishing are important economic activities. They arc considcrcd rclativcly advanced compared to other provinces in the region bccausc of facilities or activities like food processing, cold storage, mine warehousing, oil depot, conagc indusuics and tourism. San Fernando, the provincial capital of La Union, is thc adminislrativc ccntcr of thc rcgion. The coastal provinces, La Union and Pangasinan, bordering Lingayen Gulf are situated on the northwestern coast of Luzon or on thc southcrn portion of Region I (Fig. 1). They are bounded by the province of Ilocos Sur in the north; the provinces of Benguet and Nueva Vizcaya in the east; the province of Nueva Ecija in the southeast; the provinces of Tarlac and Zambalcs in the south; and the South China Sea in the west. These provinces fall within latitudcs 15040' to 16055' north and longitudes 119045' to 120055' east, and are approximately 200 km north of Manila. Pangasinan and La Union are basically agricultural provinces where rice production Physical Characteristics Land area La Union hw an area of 1,493 km2. Of this area, 68% (1,020 km2) is classified as alienable and disposable, whilc the remaining "~ationalEconomic Development Authority (NEDA) (Region I), Don Pedro Bldg., Pagdaraoan, San Pcrnando, La Union, Philippincs. 93 Sooth Chino ' Sea Roglonal boundary Provlnclal boundary Munlclpal boundary Reglonal center Provlnclal capltol Cliy Municlpallty Fig. 1. Region I and the coastal municipalities bordering Lingayen Gulf. 32% (473 km2) are public forest lands. On the other hand, Pangasinan has an area of 5,368 km2, with 3,721 km2 (69%)considered as alienable and disposable and 1,647 km2 (31%) as public forest lands. The total area of the coastal provinces of Lingayen Gulf is 6,861 km2 mabng up 53% of the total area of Region I. 95 Topography Rainfall The topography of Pangasinan is generally flat with some hilly/mountainous areas at the eastern (Cordillera mountain rangcs) and westcm (Zambalcs mountain) portions with slopes ranging from 18% to more than 30%. An area of 3,998 km2 or 74% of the arca of Pangasinan is covered by 0-18% slope. The remaining 1,370 krn2 have slopes of more than 18%. The province of La Union consists of lands generally level to undulating and/or rolling with the hilly/mountainous portions concenhated in the intcrmcdiate hillsides of the Cordillera mountain ranges. About 51% (763 km2) of thc arca has 0-18% slope. The westem border is a coastal plain of raised coral and alluvium (sand/clay) deposited by flowing water and overlaying older sedirnenls. This irregular coastal plain is narrowest south of Damortis, Sto. Tomas, and widcst in thc north at Balaoan, where it extends almost 15 km inland from thc South China Sea. The eastcm portion is predominantly mountainous (but lower in contour than the Cordillera mountain ranges of Benguet and Mountain Province) with a linear north and south arrangement. The highcst peak in the province is in the municipality of Bagulin with an elevation of 366 m abovc sea level. Other areas with an elevation of more than 240 m are found in San Gabriel and Burgos. The remaining 730 krn2 have slopes ranging from 18% to more than 30% The Lola1 annual rainfall in Pangasinan is 2,409 rnm with a monthly average of 201 mm. Maximum rainrall is obscrved during August with a rainfall mean of 582 mm, while minimum rainfall occurs in January and February with a mean of 8 mm and 13 mm, respectively. In La Union, h e total annual rainfall is 2,335 mm, with a monthly average of' 195 mm. Maximum rainfall is observed in August with a rainfall mcan of' 643 mm, while minimum rainfall with a mcan of 4 mrn is observed in January. Climate The Hernandez climate type classification of the Philippine Astronomical, Geophysical and Atmospheric Sciences Administration defines the climate of the two coastal provinces as arid (type E) and dry (type D). The western portion of La Union is arid, while its eastern portion and the wholc province of Pangasinan is dry. The arid climate is best described by the range of the Q values from 1.00to 1.67, where Q is the ratio of the numher of dry months to the number of wet monlhs. Dry climate is characterized by insufficient distribution of rainfall, with Q values ranging from 0.60 to less than 1.00. Temperature The mean annual air temperature in Pangasinan is 27.3uC. April and May are the hottes~months with mcan temperature of' 2X.9oC. La Union has a mean annual air kmperature of 25.80C. The average maximum temperature is 23oC while the average minimum is 190C. The coolest months are from August to February. May and April arc the hottest months with 29. l W and 28.6W, rcspcctivcly . Typhoon The coastal provinces oC Lingayen Gulf are shielded from the northeasterly winds by the Cordillera mountain ranges, and to some extent, from the Pacific trade winds by the Sierra Madre mountains. Typhoons or tropical cyclones frequently pass thc area during the southwest monsoon period. Water resources Precipitation is thc saurcc of all surface and subsurface water of the coastal provinces of Lingaycn Gulf. These are distributed mainly by the rivcrs found in the area. Tablc I givcs the location, origin and drainage location of the rivers in La Union and Pangasinan. Regarding ground walcr, La Union can be divided into two categories, narncly: (I) the shallow wcll areas, where the recornmendcd depths are not greater than 20 m and the static 96 water levels are generally within 6 m b l o w ground surface; and (2) the deep wcll areas, whcrc thc rccommended depths are greater than 20 m and the static water levcls usually exceed 6 m bclow ground surface. On the othcr hand, Pangasinan can be divided into three ground water categories: the two types of wcll arcas above and the difficult areas, where ground water depths vary considerably and about 25% yield nonproductive boreholes. Shallow wcll arcas generally consist of rccent geologic formations with slopcs ranging from 0 to 3%. Most of these areas (such as alluvial and coastal plains and river valleys) are located at elevations within 50 m above mean sea level. Compared lo decp wells w i h the samc discharge and location, shallow wclls are less susceptible to saltwater intrusion and can easily be safeguarded from bactcrial pollution. However, they may no1 be r c s i s ~ n lo t thc effects of fertilizer and pesticidcs, pcvlicularly when constructed near ricericlds. Dccp wcll arcas are generally sedimentary formations, 90% of which arc water carriers. These are usually located in slopcs rcaching up to 10% and at elevations of morc than 50 m above mean sea level. The waters from deep wells are gencrally good. Howevcr, care must be exercised in limestone formations where calcium carbonates are the major constituents. The aquifers are susceptible to pollution caused by activities of human beings, animals and others because the geologic formation normally has solution channels/caves whcrc water flows as underground creekslrivexs. Such formation, therefore, has no considerable filtration and/or purilying properties. Difficult areas have varying slopcs, clcvations and water depths. The walcr supply sourccs arc mainly replenished by way of sheared rocks (i.e., through lissurcs, cracks and crcviccs). The basic grains of geologic formations in this category arc so arrangcd and sizcd that only a negligible amount of walcr caq move (i.e., their primary permeabilities are near zero). Springs arc gcncrally found in these difkult arcas. Although springs may have a minimal yicld, thcy may be the only viable source in such areas. Shallow well areas are found along the coastal towns of La Union, while the deep well areas are found in the hilly/mountainous towns of thc province. Thc static water level in La Union ranges from 0.3 to 20.7 m below ground surfacc, whilc thc avcrage provincial static water level is 5.6 m below ground surface. The average discharge of the wells in La Union is 0.58 llsecond and the average well dcplh is 21.2 m. About 500 km2 or 33% of thc provincial area is shallow well areas. Deep well areas occupy 993 km2 or 67%. Thc static water level for deep well areas in La Union is greater than 6 m. Shallow well areas occupy the central portion of Pangasinan, while deep well areas are found in the eastern and western tips of the province. The difficult areas are found in the southwcstcm portion (Zambalcs mounlain). The static water level ranges from 0.3 to 26 rn below ground surface, while the provincial static water lcvcl avcragc is 6.6 m bclow ground surracc. Thc avcragc wcll discharge in Pangasinan IS 1.41 l/sccond. About 48% (2,580 km2) of lhc provincial area are shallow wcll arcas while 39% (2,100 km2) are dee well areas. The remaining 13% (688 km ) are difficult areas. Natural drainage, which rei'crs to the frequency and duration when the soil is free of saturation, is a required factor in evaluating soil suitability for both agricultural and urban dcvclopmcnl. Table 1 grves the 11 rivcrs which drain Into the coastal provinces oT Lingayen Gull. Internal drainage is moderate (due to good sccpagc) in arcm of sandy soils. However, in clayey areas, drainagc is poor causing the soil to have poor permeab~lity and infilwation. Occasionally, bccause of flat topography in somc parts of the area, external drainage problems occur such as surfacc runoff accumulation, rivcr flooding and seasonal/ tidal flooding during hcavy rains and typhoons. 1 Land Capability Classilicatinn Land capability classification for crop production, human settlements, forestry and wildlik conservation, and fishfarming is an Table 1. Rivers in La Union and Pangasinan. Name of river Maragayap Raroro NaguilianlBauang Aringay Bued Mitura Agno Maminos Balingasay Balincaguin Dasol Location Bacnotan, La Union Bacnotan, La Union Bauang, Ia Union Aringay, La Union San Fabian, Pangasinan Dagupan City Lingayen, Pangasinan Alarninos, Pangasinan Bolinao, Pangasinan Agno, Pangasinan Dasol, Pangasinan important guide for development planners and farmers in the area. The land capability classes are as follows: 1. Classes A, B and C - areas suitable for intensive crop production and human scttlcmcnts with 0-15% slope; 2. Class D - areas suitable for limitcd cultivation and human settlements with slopes ranging from 0-8% and 15-25%; Classes L and M - areas suitable for forest production and limited grazing with slopcs 0-3% and 25-40%; 4. Classes N and Y - areas suitable for forestcylwatershed and wildlife conservation with slopes of 20% and above; and 5. Class X - areas suitable for fishfarming, salt production and wildlife conservation with 0- 1% slope. In Pangasinan, classes L and M occupy thc largest area with 3,082 km2; followed by classes A, B and C, 2,059 km2; class D, 154 km2; and class X, 74 h 2 . In La Union, classes L and M occupy the largest area with 1.,152 km2; followed by classes A, B and C, 308 km2; class D, 21 ~ r n; 2 classes N and Y, 9 km2; and class X, 3 km2. 3. Environmentally Critical Areas The area of severely erodable portions in Pangasinan consists of 958 km2 or 18% of Origin Santol, La Unian San Gabriel, La Unicn Bcnguet Province Tuba, Benguet Province Bcnguet Province Benguet Province Bcnguet Province Sual, Pangasinan Bani, Pangasinan Mabini, Pangasinan Burgos, Pangasinan Drainagc location South China Sea Swth China Sea Lingaycn Gulf Lingayen Gulf Lingayen Gulf Lingayen Gulf Llngayen Gulf Tambac Bay South China Sea South China Sea Dasol Ray the arm of the province; in La Union, 392 km2 or 26% of the province's area. On the other hand, scvcrcly floodablc areas in Pangasinan cover 297 km2 or 6% oi the total area of the province and in La Union, 103 krn2 or 7% of the area of the province (Fig. 2). The watcr quality in the coasral provinces of Lingaycn Gulf, specifically in thc coastal part of Pangasinan (Fig. 3), is affected by siltation from the mining operations within the upper reachcs of the Agno and Bued Rivcrs (Fig. 4). The river bottoms are made shallow due to silt depositq. This ultimately causes banks to ovcrflow resulting in destructive floods. Siltation in the paddies has caused cementing action on the soil layers within the root zone of plants. The complete cessation of soil aeration enhances thc formation and accumulation of toxic compounds. This causes thc death of sod rnicrmrganisms that are beneficial to plant lifc and the stunted growth and eventual death of paddy rice in arcas with thick scdimcnts. Another factor which creates siltation in the area is soil erosion. Soil erosion does not only occur within the two coastal provinces, but also within the province of Benguet whcre the upper reaches of the river basins of Agno, Bued, Aringay and NayiliarVBauang arc located. It is commonly caused by forest denudation and land-use abuses like illcgal forest occupancy, illegal and legal logging and fuel wood production. Risk of highly dsuostuHnp flwding with grove conssqusnces. Extreme risks on National Parks. Risk of sever6 flmding Risk of moderate flood~ng Risk of sligM flmding Tidal flood~ng -..@ 0 - Fig. 2. Flooding map for Pangasinan and La Union. Rqlona l bandory Provincial bcondarj Prov~nciolcapital Munic~pollly N Very high pollui~on, nallonal extremes wlth a r w e impode Hlah pollution wlth nagliglble impacts Lingoyen Gulf Zarnbalss Fig. 3. Surface quality map for Pangasinan. The Coastal Municipalities Adjoining Lingayen Gulf tal land area of 503 km2 or 34% of the total land area of the province. Within Pangasinan and La Union, 17 municipalities and one city are located along the coastal area bordering Lingayen Gulf (Fig. Land Classification and Use 3. In Pangasinan, the ten municipalities are Bolinao, Anda, Bani, Alaminos, Sual, Labrador, Lingayen, Binrnaley, Mangaldan and San Fabian; and the only city bordering the gulf is Dagupan. These units cover a total land area of 1,252 km2 which is 23% of the total land area of Pangasinan. The seven municipalities in La Union arc Rosario, Sto. Tomas, Agoo, Aringay, Caba, Bauang and San Fernando. Thcse cover a to- As of June 1987, the certified alienable and disposable lands (A and D) made up most of the land in the coastal municipalities of Pangasinan and La Union. Tables 2 and 3 show the status of land classification in the coastal municipalities of both provinces. Based on the existing general land use criteria of the Bureau of Forest Devcloprnent (now the Forest Management Sector), the coastal municipalities have six different land uses, namely: Fig. 5. Land m a of the coastal municipalities adjoining Lingayen Gult Table 2. Status of land classification in the coastal municipalities of Pangasinan bordering Lingnyen Gulf as ol 30 June 1987. Coastal municipality Bolinao Anda Bani Alaminos Sual Labrador Lingayen Binmaley Dagupan City Mangaldan San Fabian Total % to total Land arca &m2) (A and D) Ccnificd alicnablc and disposable land (km2) (A and D) Classified lands wm2) Total TLrlbcrland Fishpond dcvclopmcnt 235.8 90.8 152.7 166.8 159.0 183.0 47.3 50.3 43.6 41.0 81.3 184.3 83.8 114.8 164.8 96.8 34.8 47.3 50.3 43.6 41.0 81.3 51.5 7.0 37.8 1.9 62.2 148.2 48.0 7.0 37.8 0.6 62.2 148.2 3.5 1.251.6 100.0 942.8 75.3 308.6 24.7 303.824.3 4.9 0.4 1.4 Sources: Region I OIIiices of h e National Census and Statistics Office and h e Bureau of Forest Development. Table 3. Status of land classification in the coastal municipalilies of La Union bordering Lingayen Gull as 01 March 1988. Coastal municipality Land area &m2) (A and D) Ceflilied alienable and disposable land &rn2) (A and D) Aringay Caba Bauang San Fernando 70.0 32.4 51.4 122.1 48.6 71.6 106.9 Total % to total Rosario Sto. Tomas hP Tdal Classified lands &m2) Timberland 66.0 29.5 37.2 39.2 43.9 65.6 97.9 4.0 2.9 14.2 82.9 4.7 6.0 9.0 4.0 2.9 12.0 82.9 4.7 6.0 9.0 503.0 379.3 123.7 121.5 2.1 100.0 75.4 24.6 24.2 0.4 National park 2.1 Source: Burcau of Forcst Dcvclopment (Region I). 1. 2. 3. 4. Built-up area - residential, commercial, institutional, industrial and utility areas; Cropland - land planted to seasonal and annuaVperennia1crops; Gmssland - pasturelands; Shrubland - lands planted to barnboos and shrubs; 5. Woodland - shrublands and forest lands; and 6. Wetland - swampy areas, saltbeds, fishponds, mangroves and rivers/ riverbeds. Tables 4 and 5 show the existing land uses in the coastal municipalities of Pangasinan and La Union. Cropland accounts for the largest areas in both provinces. 102 Table 4. Exisling land use (km2) in thc coastal municipali~iesof Pangasinan hordcring Lingaycn GulC. Coastal municipality Built-up arm Land area Crophnd Grassland Shrubland Wetland San Fabian Mangaldan Dagupan City Rinmaley Lingayen Labrador Sual Alaminos Rani Anda Bolinao Total % of total Source: Bureau oC Soils. Tablc 5. Existing land usc (krnL)in thc coastal municipalities of La Union b o r d e h y Lingayen GulC. Coastal municipali~y Land area Built-up area Cropland Gmssland Shmbland Woodland Welland Rosano Sto. "Somas Aringay Caba Bauang San Fernando Source: Bureau or Soils. Development Issues and Recommendations The issues relevant to the sustainable devclopmcni of ihc coaslal zone resources of the Lingayen Gulf area have been broadly categorized into: (1) water quality, (2) conflicting uses of marine and coastal resources, (3) socioeconomics and culture and (4) institutions/laws. Tables 6 to 9 elaborate on these issues as wcll as on ihc short- and long-icrm recommendations to their resolutian. Table 6. Management issues and recommendations relevanl to water quality in h e Lingayen Gulf area. Specicic issues I. Siltaiion from the mining operations within the Baguio mining district-due to the tailings p o n e which are usually washed-out dunng heavy rains, having the silt carried downstream and settled at ricefields and irrigation canals and/or discharged in Lingayen 2. Accelerated erosion due to foresl denudation, vegetable "truck gardening and urban expansion in the w s upland watershed. 3. Gulf. Increased urbanization within the coastal zone, especially within !he Short-term Strategies, programs and projects Periodic monitoring of the maintenance of tailings ponds lo ensure iheir continued usefulness; reatmen1 of mine tailings prior to disposal. Accelerating h e construction of San Roque multi-purpose dam to decrease mine pollulion within the Agno River. Rationalizing urban developrnenl, especially Rehabilitating disturbed area within the watershed as a result of mad building. w i the~Baguio area, though effective land use controls and shifting cultivalion in forest zones within h e watersheds of rivers l i e d to Lingayen Gulf. Providing buffer zones along riverbanks where waste should not be dumped. Agno-Bued della, has caused pollution to major river systems due lo inadequaie m w i d e drainage and sewerage syskms. 4. 5. Inlensifid farming wilhin the Pangasinan basin and the use of technology packages involving the use of chemicals will adversely affect wakr quality and salinity levels in the coastal zone. The expansion of irrigation facilities may lead to a significant diversion of freshwater from the coastal zone, resulting in the decline of fisheries production and increased salinizalion oE lowlands. Unconmlled human activities have resulted in the deterioralion of water quality in the gulf. Long-term Expanding the use of organic fertilizers for crop produchm; identifying environmenrally sound ways of sill disposal or recycling from irrigation canals and dilches. Pmrnoling proper use of environmentally acceplable pesticides/chemicals; more fatm tesling on the use of organic and inorganic ferlilizers; proper sewerage weatmen1 and disposal; conlinuous wakr qualily studies; identifying sources ol pollulants. lntensifymg reforestation of denuded areas within the watershed. Assisling concerned local govemmen1 units in increasing their administrative and fiscal capabili~yto plan and implemenl an effective urban deirelopment program, with cos~effective waste disposal recycling as a major s y s m c o m p nenl. heparing an environmental impact assessment for$major dam and irrigaiion projects within the watershed of rivers linlred ta Lingayen Gulf. Table 7, Management issues and rccommendaf ons relevant to conflicting resource uses in thz tingayzn Gulf coastal zone. Strategies, programs and projecls Long-Lerm Specific issues I n c r w d tourist arrivals in places of inkrest (see Fig. 6 ) in the gulf area may generate more wastes a d cause ksiruction of marine resources, especially coral reefs. Fort development may increase traffic of inerisIand and ocean-going vessels in the gulf and may a f k i water quality due to increased incidence of oil waste discharge and oiher shiprelated wases. Conversion of swamplands and hshpnds into urban uses (Agno-Bud delta), impairing heir ecological value as breeding and feeding grounds Tor fish and other aquatic organisms. Overexplohhn of rhe fisheries resources in Lingayen Gulf hresulted into low biomass/stock densitjes, low catch raws/income levels and incrcmd competition/conflict between and among municipd and commercial lishermcn. Coral reef degradation has resulted in the breakdown in he reef slructure, causing the decline in productivity. Tapping local govzmment uni6, hotel and louris1 associalions and othcr NGOs lo help in proper waste disposal and conbol regulating or banning he harvest of corals, shells and other marine producls lor commercial purposes Enforcing appropriate regulalions regxding dumping of ship wastes in nemshorc areas; preparing contingency measures for possible oil spills from oil tankeis. Enforcing environmend impact assessment to future conversion of wellands especially wiihin the Agno-Bued delh: expanding revegetalion of mangrove forests wihin Lhe gulf area Preparing comprehensive areawide land use considering the ecological values of natural resources within he Agno-Bued delta. ReguMng fishing erfort by establishing "open and closed" seasons for fishing operalions and replabng h e number of commcrcial fishing boa&; providing alicrnalivc 1ivcIihmd Lo fishermen; cducating fishing communities on the eifecls of bIasl and cyanide fishing through massive multimedia approach: improving logisdcs Tor law enforcement lo pmoI coastal a m i s ; buildingkupporting fishermen's organiradons LO aclivdy parlictpate in coastal management. Establishing a CRM council for Linpayen Gulf. Increasing qpmtmity cost in other sectors of he economy. Inilialing coral rransplanlation experiments. cyanidz fishing through massive mullimedia approach; xtting up artificial habitah to remove pressure from natural reefs; replanling mangroves In aflecld arcas to check erosion. Table 8. Socioeconomic and cultural issues relevant to sustainable development of thc coastal resources of Lingayen Gulf. Specific issues Strategies, programs and projects Many fishermen and other occupational groups along Lingayen Gulf ovcrcxploit the coastal rcswrces. Sustenance fishermen of Lingayen Gulf generally suffcr from underemployment and low income. Cultural degradation is gradually being manifested in coastal communities. Thcrc is low cnvironmcntal awarcness among the coaslal populace regarding propcr utilization of coastal rcsourccs. hformation campaign on family planning mehods with feedback mechanisms to assess their effectivity; setting up employment activities other than- fishing such as cottage industries, backyard agriculture, livcstock raising, twrism and aquaculture. Setting up area-specific alternative livelihood programs as showcase/pilot projects; intensifying nonformal education programs; developing practical occupational skills; expanding credit and marketing cooperatives and associations. Providing altcmative livelihoods to Iishermen; intensilying nonformal education programs; counteracting negativc cffccts of media by promoting and propcrly developing and enriching indigenous culture: enforcing laws against illcgal practices; passing barangay and municipal ordinances on the conduct of persons (e.g., tourists) w d activities. Including environmental subjecls in school curricula; multimedia campaign such as on radio, tv, postcrs and billhards; sctting up habitat restoration projects such as artificial rccfs, sanctuarics, mangrove reforestation and coral and seagrass transplantation to increase environmenlal awareness. Tablc 9. Lcgal and institutional issucs rclcvant to sustainable dcvclopmmt 01the coastal rcsourccs of Lingayen C;uK Spccilic issues Limitcd awareness and hiowlcdgc of local govcrnmcnr unils concerned. Strategies, programs and projects CRM by the Iinited support from the local government unirs on activilies rclalcd to thc preservation of coss~al resources. Promoting awareness and cducalion on propcr CRM at all levels of the govcrnrncnr through trainings, community-organi~~tions, elc. Providing alternative livelihood assistance to fishermen, which includes an inventory of available rcsources in h e area: s u p p r l services like markct. and credit: and encouragcmcnt to local cntrcprcncurs to support fishcmcn. Poor implementation of cxist.inglaws and policies regarding fishing activities. particu1;lrly illcgal fishing, due to lack o l cqml app1ic;ition of laws; lack of clcar dcfiition of thc responsibilities of agcncics (law enforcers) involvcd in thc protcction of coastal rcsources; and absence of facililics to protect coastal rcsources and to apprehend blasters. Strictly edorcing laws and policics against illegal fishing practices: providing iacilitics to law cnforccrs to protect coastal resources. Lack 01integration among agcncics, resulting in overlapping or Iunctions and programs. Clearly defining the agencies' role, functions, jurisdiction and resources to clirninate duplication and confusion among fishemen. Abscncc of guidelines, laws or policies on seafmning at the national and local levels. Piloling policies made by the local govemmcnt units at h e barangay Icvcl. Session 2 Habitat RestorationlEnhancement and Alternative Livelihood Artificial Reefs: A Fisheries Management Tool for Lingayen Gulf RAMONMICLAT~ and EVANGELWE MICLAT~ Miclat, R. and E. Miclat. 1989. Artificial reefs: a fisheries management tool for Lingayen Gulf, p. 109-117. In G. Silvestre, E. Miclat and T.-E.Chua (eds.) Towards sustainable development of the coastal resources of Lingayen Gulf, Philippines. 1CLARM Conference Proceedings 17, 200 p. Philippine Council for Aquatic and Marine Research and Development. Los Baiios. Laguna, and International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management. Makati, Metro Manila, Philippines. Abstract One of the ways by which man responds to thc various factors that impair the productivity of the coastal emsystems is the establishment of artificial reefs. These man-madc structurcs, rcgardless of the material used and when submerged in the marine environment, providc shelter, food and breeding ground to marine l i e . This paper gives an overview of tbc concept of artificial reefs, their usc and potential benefits, and issues arising from their wide acceptance (in the Pbilippincs, in general, and in Lingayen Gulf, in particular). The popularization of artificial reefs in the gulf, coupled wih the absence of a government policy on these projects, raises scveral issucs on thc: (1) siring, proper use, ownership and management of artificial reefs; (2) adoption of appropriate technology in constructing, rnonitoririg and planning; and (3) devclopment of intersec~oralcoordination and linkagcs to avoid conflicts of interests. Major recommendations to resolve thcsc issues are also outlined. Introduction Artificial reefs are man-made structures set up in the marine environment to serve as shelter, source of food and breeding ground for different fish and other organisms in the absence of a natural habitat. Though some would limit the use of the term "artificial reef' to man-made fish habitats in the marine environment, others use the same term to refer to artificial suuctures set up in the freshwater environment for the same purpose, but which are more commonly known as "fish attractors" or "fish hides" (locally called rama or buya). Artificial reefs may be constructed from various materials--scrapautomobile tires, old car bodics, rubble, cement or concrete blocks, PVC pipes, sunken ships and bargcs, and bamboos. Practically anything submerged in thc aquatic environment which provides shelter and food can concentrate fish. Several factors have been documented to effect fish concentration in artificial reefs. Thigmotropism, or the desire of the fish to be close to solid objects upon first contact, may aBureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources, Ben-Lor Bldg., Quemn Ave., Quezm City, Philippines. k u r r e n t address: c/o Marine Science Institute, U~versityof the Philippines, Dilirnan, Quem City, Philippines. account for the first appearance of fish shortly after artificial rccf construction (Stone 1974). The structure also serves as landmark or visual point of referencc for fish when set up in a barren area (Ogden and Ebersolc 1981) and as temporary shelter where fish could take cover to conservc Lhcir cncrgy in thc prcsence of water current. But more importantly, dcpcnding on the life span of the material used, artificial reefs provide shelter, food and breeding ground lo fish. The fish feed on the algae that have accumulatcd on Lhc rccf surface within the first month of installation. Newly rccruitcd juveniles also serve as food for bigger fish which eventually settle in the reefs. Within only two months, morc and larger fish rapidly colonize the artificial reefs (Miclat 1983; Barreto 3986). While some recruits establish themselves permanently and breed in the reefs, others depend on them only during certain l i k stages. An cight-month old artificial reef was reported to harbor a number of fish individuals and spccies cquivalcnt to lhat of a natural reef of the same size (Stone et al. 1979). Arlificial rccfs wcre also shown to contain 10-14 times more concentration of fish than that of a natural reef with the same area (Randall 1983). Experiments were carricd out to improve the methods of construc~ion; identify types of bottom prefcrencc; and test fishing gears to be used. These wcrc done with visual census of fish recruitment and measurement of fish production as gauges of the efforts' success. Duc to the interest generated by artificial reefs among researchers, fishermen, sports divers and other acadcmic and social groups, BFAR developed background materials, defining thc typcs and uses of artificial reefs and the criteria for artificial r e d establishment (see Table I). Then, in 1986, through thc joint project with the Home Improvcmcnt Tulungan Program of thc Ministry of Human Scttlcments (MHS) Development Corporation, BFAR camc up w i h a mimeographed manual in the Pilipino vcmacular which detailed the procedures of tire and bamboo artificial reef construction, installation and costing. To datc, morc than 70 small-scale artificial reefs have been established in the 12 regions of the country (Fig. 3) with the launching of a nationwidc h f i c i a l Reef Development Project (ARDP) m 1985 by BFAR-Department of Agriculture (DA) in a cooperative effort with govcrnmcnt agcncics (MIIS, Na- Artificial Reefs in the Philippines In the Philippines, artificial reefs are made either of tircs or bamboos (Figs. 1 and 2). The first tire artificial reef was conslructed by Silliman University Marine Laboratory in Dumagucte City in 1977 to monitor fish productivity (Alcala 1979). Thc next year, the UP-Marine Science Center (now UP-MSI) constructed another one in Bolinao, Pangainan, to study the succession of fish and benthic organisms (Murdy 1979). This was followed with studies conducted by BFARCoral Reef Research Projcct (CRRP) on artificial reefs as supplemental fishing ground with the establishment in 1979 or its first tire artificial reef in Caubian Island, Cebu, and in Taghilaran City, Bohol. In 1981, the first bamboo artificial reef in the country was made by BFAR-CRRP in San Juan, ~akingas. Fig. 1. A typical artilicid reef tire modulc. Pi&. 2. Typical modcl of a pyramidal artificial reef bamboo module. Table 1. Some critcria and considerations in establishing artificial reefs. Site seleclion 1. Should be over 1 km away from natural reefs; 2. Should be near an alternative f d source (i.e., seagrass bcds); 3. Should be constructed on a barren area of flat or gently sloping bottom of relatively good visibility; and 4. Should be at depths (15-25 m) protected from wave action but still acccssible to local fishermen. Considerations 1. Community involvement is a must to ensure success; e.g., the coopration and understanding of the local fishermen. 2. Prcconstmction dialogues, lectures, orientations through slide-seminar presentations among the local fishcmen 3. 4. 5. should be conducted. A dive team with expcricnce in artificial reef construction can help in on-site-sclcaion, construction of modules, monitoring and research. Establishment of artificial reefs should have specific scientific standards and should not be misused just to serve as promotional gimmicks for a special interest group. Artificial reef projects must be based on the right perspective and understanding of their concepts. They should be considered as habitats where fish and other valuable marine organisms may seek shelter and food. Artificial reefs arc certainly not meant to replace natural reefs. Source: BFAR-CRRP 1987. tional Environmental Protection Council), provincial and municipal governments, civic organizations, village councils, fishermen's associations, tire companies and NGOs. Many tire or bamboo artificial reefs ate planncd for construction and establishment in the different regions under the revitalized artificial reef building effoits of DA. The program has a longrangc objective of providing supplementary or alternative fishing grounds for sustenancc fishermen in areas where natural reefs have bcen extensively destroyed. This concept shall also serve as an entry point for disseminating information on coastal resources conservation. It 1s imperative to note that these artificial reef projects are community-based, therefore, endorscd to the people. By doing so, the fishermen (as target IOCOB None l o c o s Sur Sill~lll.l!jlli.. C3buP30 BSCqUBI, Tanud~r P I I Sla ~ cruz ~dlongbuyan.candon K,llipm.m. Sm%! P U I - 0 5 . GilhwDLl Namurangan. Cubugao Sm Pedro. vlgan Pdnloc, N'twaCII1 LB union BDlu.l"B, Ago0 Ban,, R o s w o Uulao. Arlnoay ~ m d o r oE. m g a r Fig. 3. Sbcs of thc BPAli anilicial recf development projcct beneficiaries) are madc to realize that their direct involvement is essential in improving a dwindling fisheries resource. They are encouraged to parlicipatc in the construction, inslallation and repair, monitoring of progress and protection of the artificial reels. 'This system also develops in Lhcm a sense of responsibility for their limited resources. The national artificial recf program also aims to consolidate and monitor ail other artificial reef building crforls [such as lhose of the Central Visayas Regional Project (CVRP), Silliman University, and other groups] to achieve coordinated arlificial rccl aclivides and management. Case Studies on Benefits Fish recruiunenl monitored through underwater observations and fish yields based on catch statistjcs measures the succcss of the artific i d rccl development. Somc studies show that a bamboo rccl of eight modules combincd with a floating FAD or payao (Fig. 4) wilh a bottom area o l 254 m2 at 12 m dcplh, could yield 900 kg of fish. This catch is from a four-month fishing operation commencing one year dtcr artificial reef eslablishrnent. The catch amounlcd to more than f11,000c with the cost of rccl constructjon and maintenance placed only at P1,260 (Barrclo 1986). Of the 88 specics of fish recorded in the ar~ificidreef, 46 were of commercial importance. Similarly, a largc-scalc artificial reef of 36 tire modulcs (Fig. 5 ) with an area o l about 1,500 ni2 at 20 m dep~h and five ynyao swuctures, recruited 41 commercially impor- Fig. 4. Diagram 01h e artilicial reef in Calubcub II,San Juan, Batangas. tant species (representing 50% of thc t o ~ d species recorded). Catch rccord for one year from this artificial reef amounted to morc than 800 kg wilh a value of approximately F24,000 (Miclat 1987). This did not include fish caught by sustenance fishermen from the adjacent villagc which were not recorded and were estimalcd to represent about 30% of the recorded catch. Costs of reef construction and maintenance amounted to P18,OOO. Artificial Reefs in Lingayen Gulf Of the more than 26 different arhficial reefs constructed in Region I, 15 arc located in the Lingaycn Gulf area. These arc in h c towns of Agoo, Rosario and Aringay in La Union, and Labrador, Sual, Bani, Agno, Alarninos and Anda in Pangasinan (Table 2). The popularity of artificial reels in the gulf was a result of the two pilot projects in Barangay Tobuan, Labrador/Sual boundary and Agm in 1981 of the Japan Ovcrscas Cooperation Volunteers (JOCV), BFAR Region I Office and BFAR Central Office. Kitamado (1984) reported that the area around SualLabrador is the most fcasible site for artificial rcef construction because of its gcnlly sloping topography, sandy-muddy substrate composition and the vastncss of barren bottom. Thc Fig. 5. Diagram of h e 30-module tire artificial rccf in combination with five payao as the site's buoy marker. Agoo site is also recommended. Most of Region 1's artificial reefs are constructed under the BFAR-MHS cooperative effort. At prcsent, artificial reef projects in the gulf are being continued under the DA-BFAR program with complementary activities by some fishermen's associations organized by NGOs. 2. Issues In view of the abscncc of a government policy or guideline on artificial reef projects in Lingayen Gulf (and in the country as a whole), here are the issues that have evolved which warrant immediate attention before a massive artificial reef program is implemented: People are inclined to think that all 1. artificial reefs are constructed for fishing purposes. Hence, these are at present fished uncontrollably. No 3. &stinction has been made between artificial reefs for fish catch improvement and those for habitat rehabilitation. There is a need for such hstinction. Some Lingayen Gulf fishermen have rnisuscd artificial reefs as they did natural reefs, by using dynamile and sodium cyanide, among olhcr dcstructive fishing practices rampant in the gulf. Some private sectors clamor for ownership of artificial reefs or tenureship of portions of the sea where haklad or fish corrals can be established. Such a misconception arises from the notion that the artificial reef is a type of fishing gear that may be owned rather than an extension of the natural resources @articularly of coral recfs) which are communal property. 115 Table 2. Sites of RFAR Artificial Reef Devclopmcnt Project (ARDP). . Site . Date of installation . . Materials used Cooperating agencies nocos Norte 1. Calayab. Laoag City 2. Puyupuyan. Pasuquin March 1986 Februaty 1986 10 tire modules (TM) 10 TM MHS, BFAR (Rcgion I), fishcrmcn Fishermen Uocos Sur 3. Salomaque, Cabugao December 1982 15 bamboo modules (BM) 4. Salomaquc, Cabugao December 1983 5. Becques, Tagudin January 1986 2 units midwater bamboo and tire artificial reefs 7 TM BFAR (Rcgion I), Japan Overseas Cwperation Volunteers (JOCV), municipal council, fishermen's association (FA) BFAR (Region I), JOCV. municipal council, FA 6. Pilar, Sta. Cruz Fcbruaty 1986 Fcbruaty 1986 June 1986 9. Pug-0s. Cabugao June 1986 10. Nammangan, Cabugao June 1986 11. San Pedro, Vigan June 1986 12. Pantoc. Narvacan July 1986 7. Calongbuyan, Candon 8. Katipunan, Sinait La Union 13. Baluane. Agoo January 1982 8M3 tires October 1985 June 1986 6 TM 15. Dulao, Aringay 16. Mindoro, Bangar Junc 1986 10 TM Pangasinan 17. Tobuan, Labrador 18. Raquioen. Sual Novcmber 1981 November 1985 8M) tires August 1985 October 1985 6 TM 14. Bani, Rosario 19. Centro Toma. Bani 20. Boboy, Agno 21. Pandan, Alaminos 22. Cabungan, Anda 23. Carot. Anda 24. Sunip, Bani January 1986 January 1986 October 1985 25. Cato, Infanta 26. Victoria, Alaminos June 1985 February 1985 MHS, RFAR (Region I), Samahang Kabuhayan (SW8 FAs in Uocos Sur) MHS, BFAR (Region I), SK MHS, BFAR (Region I), SK MHS. UFAR (Region I). SK MHS, BFAR (Region I), SK MIIS. BFAR (Region I). SK MHS, W A R (Region I), SK MHS. BFAR (Region I), SK BFAR (Region I), JOCV, municipal council, FA MIIS, barangay members BFAR (Rcgion I), municipal govcrnmcnt. MHS. FA. Philippine Long Distance Telephone Co. (PLDT), Philippine Navy (PN) BFAR (Region I),municipal govemment. MHS. FA, PLDT. PN 10 1'M 10 TM 13 TM 13 TM 10 TM 10 TM 14 TM and 1 BM 14 TM 300 [ires BFAR (Rcgion I), JOCV. FA BFAR (Region I), MHS, Young Mcn's Christian Action (YMCA). PA BFAK (Region I). MHS, SK RFAR (Region I). MHS, SK BFAR (Region I). MHS, SK BFAR (Region I), MHS. SK BFAR (Region I), MHS. SK BFAK (Region I), MHS, SK BFAR (Region I), MHS, SK W A R (Region 1). FA. Tombuyog Development Center Source: Miclat 1987. 4. 5. The mechanics of management of the artificial reef and where that responsibility residcs within a certain municipality are still unclear. Siting or location of the artificial reef sometimes intervenes with other fisheries activities (e.g., milkfish fry concessions, fish corrals, baby trawl 6. operations), thus resulting in social conflicts. Lack of wide-scale information drives on concepts of the artificial reef among the coastal fishermen, municipal government officials, and planners around the gulf contributes to differences in understanding the objectives of artificial reef projects and brings about conflicts of interest among different sectors. Lack of technical know-how on artificial reef construction, sitc selection, monitoring and planning has resulted in the loss of artificial rcef structures. Linkages have yet to be developed among the different groups involved in artificial reef projects in the Lingayen Gulf area. Disparities among these groups on project implementation sometimes occur and become detrimental to the success of a coordinated recf-building effort in the gulf. Recommendations Thc above issues can be addressed by Lhe following: 1. Two ~ypcsof artificial reefs should be constructed in Lingayen Gulf those mainly for fishing and those constructed in protectcd areas to induce recruitment of fish and other organisms and to contribute to habitat improvement. 2. Fisherics laws on the use of coastal resources should also apply to artificial rccfs. Any form of destructive fishing method should be banned. 3. Thc artificial reefs should rcmain a communal property, just like any natural resource, for the main reason that these arc cstablished to alleviate fishing pressure on natural rccfs and to augment thc dwindling fish yield of the degraded coral reefs. Artificial reef projects should be community-bawd and managed by the municipal government through a legitimate fishermen's organization, in coordination with the concemcd government agcncy on fisheries. Every fisherman should be encouraged to join this organi~alion. The artificial reef sitcs within the gulf should be established outside the influence of othcr fisheries activities (e.g., milkfish fry concessions, baby trawl operations and fish corrals) so as to avoid social conflicts. Massive information dnves on CRM (including thc artificial reef concept) should be conducted for the coastal folks, municipal government officials and planners concerned with the gulf. Technology on the establishment of artificial reefs should follow specific scientific standards that will ensure thc long life span of the structures. Linkages among the concerned government agencies, NGOs and fishermen's associations must be made to havc a well-coordinated and succcssful artificial rccf development program. References Alcala, A.C. 1979. Fish standing stock and yicld of an artificial reef off Bantayan, Dumaguete City, Philippines. Silliman J. 26(4): 253-262. Rarreto, E.F.C. 1986. Fish rccmitmcnt with notes on productivity in a bamtmo artificial resf. University of thc Philippines, Quezon City, Philippines. 87 p. M.S, thcsis. Barreto, E.F.C. and R.I. Miclat. A study on fish recruitment in a bamboo artificial rccf in the Philippines. Paper presented at the Fourth International Conference on Artificial Habitats for Fisheries, 5-1 1 November 1987. Miami, Florida. (Jnpress). BFAR-CRRP (Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Rcsourccs-Con1 Reef Research Project). 1987. Progrcss repon on the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources-Technology Resource Center Artificial Reef Dcvclopment Project in Calubcub U,San Juan, Batanyas, Philippines. (Mimeo). Kitamado, T. 1984. Report on the construction of an artificial rccf in Lingayen Gulf, I,u7an Island, Philippines. lapan Overseas Cooperation Voluntccrs. Hyogo, Japan. Miclat, R.I. 1981. Artificial reef development project. 1981 annual status report. Coral Reef Rescarch IJnit. Bureau 01' Fisheries and Aquatic Resources, Quemn City, Philippincs. (Mheo). 117 Miclat, R.I. 1983. Artificial reefs. Fish. Newsl. 12(2): 35-44. Miclat, R.I. 1987. Progress report on the mntinuing artificial reef development project of BFAR. R e p r t presented at the 1987 Philippine Council for Agriculture and Resources Research and Development (PCARRD) Regional Integrated R and D Review and Planning Workshop, 29 June3 July. Q u e m City. Philippines. (Mimeo). Murdy, E.O. 1979. Fishery ecology of the Bolinao artificial reef. Kalikasan, Philipp. J. Rid. 8(2): 121-154. Ogden, LC. and J.P. Ebenole. 1981. Scale and community structure of coral reef fishes: a long-term study on a large artificial reef. Mar. Ecol. (Prog. Ser.) 4: 97-103. Randall, J. 1983. An analysis of the fish populations of artificial and natural reefs in the Virgin Islands. Caribb. J. Sci. 3: 3 1-47, Stone, R.B. 1974. A brief history of artificial reef activitics in the United States, p. 97-99. In L. Colunga and R. Stone (eds.) Proceedings of the International Conference on Artificial Reefs. Texas A&M University. Stone. R.B., H.L. Pratt, R.D. Paker, Jr. and G.E. Davis. 1979. A comparison of fish populations on an artificial and natural reef in the Florida Keys. Mar. Fish. Rev. 4(9): 1-11. The Marine Conservation and Development Program of Silliman University as an Example for Lingayen Gulf White, A. 1989. 'he marine conservation and development program of Silliman University as an cxamplc for Lingaycn Gulf, p. 119-123. In G. Silvestre, E. Miclat and T.4. Chua (eds.) Towards sustainable development of the coastal resources of Lingayen Gulf, Philippines. ICLARM Conference Proceedings 17, 200 p. Philippine Council for Aquatic and Marine Research and Development. Los Baiios, Laguna, and International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management, Makati. Metro Manila, Philippines. Abstract The Marine Conservation and Development Program (MCDP) of Silliman University was initiated in 1984 with the primary goal of organizing community-based marine management programs for three island villages in the Visayan region. This paper provides an overview of the program, the implementation strategies utilized and the rcsults obtained. The positive results attained, which have persisted after the two-year project life span, emphasize the significance of education and community organi&tion/involvanent in the developnent of successful marine resources management programs in the Philippine context. Lessons and/or generalizations from the MCDP experience are drawn, and the potential utility/applicability of such approaches in the Lingayen Gull area are explored. The need for relatively immsdiate and tangible benefits for comrnunities/participantsinvolved in the managemen1 erfort has been identified as an essenlial element for success. Introduction to protect and improve their marine resou&. Thc sitcs wcre Apo Island, Negros, and Pamilacan and Balicasag Islands, Bohol, in the Visayas (Fig. I). This paper is derived from previous publications on MCDP of Silliman University by White (1988) and by While and Savina (1987a). The background and implcmentalion strategies are a prCcis of the article on the same topic that appeared in White el al. (1986). These are collated and presented herein to provide plausible approaches lowards improved management of the Lingayen Gulf coastal zone. The MCDP of Silliman University was intended to enable three island communities Similar to the resourcc-use problems in Lingayen Gulf, destruction of coral reef habitats, overfishing and a consequent decline in fish catches are serious problcms affccting small-scalc fishermen throughout the Visayas. The households on Apo (88), Pamilacan (168) and Balicasag (62) were no exception in expcricncing these problems. The approach taken by MCDP was that resources aICLAKM, MC P.O. Box 1501,Makati, Metro Manila, Philippines. 119 -- . .... , 12q'E . . . Fig. 1. l'rqlected island s i ~ e sin the Visayas, l'hilippincs. management must be based in local communities and that these needed to address their problems directly. It was thought that resources cannot bc prolccted or managed on a sustainable basis unless those who cxploit them arc committed to this goal and involved in the management proccss. Thus, MCDP focuscd on education, and community organization and involvement as a means Lo marine resourccs management. The gencral objccdves of MCDP included (1) institutional devclopment at Silliman University; (2) implemenlalion of marine resources management programs at the three sites; (3) community development programs to establish working groups of local people for accomplishing marine resources management; (4) a small agroforestry and water development project; and (5) an outreach and replication project to extend programs to neighboring fishing communities. The MCDP was implemented by a projecl team based in thc Biology Department of Sillirnan University. This [cam consisted of co-directors from the Deparlments of Social Work and Biology, a general coordinator from the University Research Ccntcr, and technical inputs from Silliman Universjty Marine Laboratory. There were two full-lime consultants, a resources manager and an anthropologisl, while he core of the project was composed of five full-timc community development workers stationed thrcc wccks a monlh on the islands. Implementation Strategies There were fivc general steps in the implementation process which were not necessarily chronological, but rather overlapping and ongoing, during the process. Integration into the Community During the first three monlhs, the field workers moved into thc community, introduced thc project, met with community leaders, attended meetings and gcncrally became accuslomcd to the island situation. Baseline data collection during this pcriod included socioeconomic and demographic survcys; a pretest of environmental and resource knowledge and perceived problems oI local people; and an environmcnul sumey to document the status of coral reefs and Lhc diversity and abundanccs of reef fish. This was accomplished so that changcs in h c reef quality as a result of management efforts could he nolcd. Education The focus of education was on marine ecology and resourccs management. It was mostly nonformal, done in small groups with an occasional formal prcscnlation using slides, posters or other visuals in a semi-kclure format. Local people wcrc involved in the education process by drawing on thcir 121 special knowledge. As some people learned, their assistance was solicited in making presentations to less informcd groups. Core Group Building Thc crux of MCDP was the formation of marine management committees at each of the island sites. It was assumed that the only effcctivc rcsources management would originate from the communities themselves. The core goups grew out of many activities supporlcd by the project. For example, special work groups emerged for thc constsuction of community education centers at each site which turned out to be supportive of the larger program. Thc barungay structure provided initial organization for the cote groups, but with lime, individuals emerged who werc more interested and motivated to achieve marine resources managcrnent. As thc residents identified their main management problems, the concept of a marine rcscrvc began to emerge as one possibility. As this concept became a reality, a group emerged which was willing to take on the responsibility of implementation with the support of thc community. This group, i.e., the marine managcment committee, then became involved in the drafting of a municipal ordinance which would set up the marine reservcs (with a sanctuary) on one part of thc island. An important lcsson in the process was that Lhc act of doing physical activities (such as building the community center) was critical in solidifying the working groups which latcr managed the marine reserves. Formalizing Organizations Formal recognition of the newly formcd marine management commiltees was necessary to permanently establish their existence. The accomplishment of various tasks gave positive feedback to thc community and hclpcd in the recognition of he core groups. When marine reserves began to function and some benefits were noted by the community (like repelling illegal fishcrs), the communities wcre supportive. Inauguration cere- monies for complcted projects were also important to give status to physical achievements. Ncw opportunities for projects provided addcd incentives for the continuation of working groups. Examples were: (1) placing giant clams in the fish sanctuary areas of all three islands; (2) refining thc marine reserve guidelines into legal documcnts; (3) training marine management committee members in the guiding of scuba and snorkeling tourists to the sites, and in collecting fces for the use of hcilities; and (4) initiating alternative income schemes such as mat weaving and sea cucumber mariculture and marketing. Strengthening Organizations This step came after the original two-year implementation period for h e project. This involved more subtle forms of recognition by thc visitors to the project sites who were genuinely enthusiastic about the marine rescrves and the condition of the coral reefs. One form of this recognition came iiom other similar projects. For inslance, the Central Visayas Rural Project (CVRP) used several MCDP sites to train their ficld workers and drew on the knowledge and expcricnce of marine management committees. A marketing cooperative also grew out of the marine management commillecs on Apo Island, which has been reinforced by visitors who buy locally woven mats. The ingrebenls of the five steps are quite particular to the local situation. They can nevertheless be generalizcd as above to point out the main considerations in desiping a community development program wilh goals similar to MCDP. Field Results At the end of the two-year program, the original goals of MCDP were met. There werc funclioning marine reserves on each of the threc islands which were being managed entirely by the community. The question remained, however, whether this could last, given the outside pressures on thcse communities and the vagaries of politics in the Philippincs. The author was able to visit thc siws again in May 1988. At that time, it was observed that the marine reserves werc still dcmarcated by buoys and signs. The marine managcmenr committees were intact, although with-different officers at two sites. Municipal ordinances, as written and approved in 1985, wcre being enforced. The community education centers were being used for meetings of marine management committees and in the case of Apo Island, the center WZLS being rentcd to tourists for overnight stays on the island. On Apo and Balicasag Islands, diving tourism increased because the sanctuaries wcrc luring divers looking for healthy reefs with dense fish populations. Baseline data on thc diversity and abundance of fish in thc sancluarics wcrc compared with new data collected in late 1986. Thc changes reported by White (1988) show that h e abundancc of fish ccnsuscd over the study period increased 173% for Apo, 89% for Pamilacan and 45% for Balicasarr. There was also an absolute increase in the mean number of species at each site. The quality of benthic habitats at the islands was either maintained or slightly improved. Residents on each island reported that their fish yields had improved or-at least maintained at the high levels documcnlcd during the pro.jcct. Apo Island, for example, was shown to have a reef yield of 31.8 t/km2Iyear (Whik and Savina 1987b). - Lessons for Lingayen Gulf Thc islands in western Lingayen Gulf are fringed with coral reefs which provide livelihood for many of the local midcnts. The problems of overfishing, coral habitat destruction and the general decline of coralline resources are all present and getting worse. The lack of rcsource maintenance and the overuse of the fisheries are problems of the "commons" where too many people depend on a dwindling resource. The people's natural reaction to this situation is to get whatever re- sources they can while these last. Thus, there is increasing blast fishing and use of smallmeshed nets. What is the solution' The MCDP may ofkr some in sigh^. The MCDP has shown that it is possible to organize local communities to manage their own coral reef resources, and that they will continue to do so if they derive benefits from this activity. The people on the islands saw some immediate rcsults from their efforts in the form of structures, increasing fish abundance and ou~siderecognition among others, and have continued to pcrccive benefits. Thus, only observable results can sustain such a program. In Lingayen Gulf, people havc thc same nccds but they would have to be organized to bcgin similar management efforts. Small islands provide some advanlagcs to marinc rcsources management efforts because resources are more accessible to the residents and less so to outsiders. This provides an incentive for the residents to manage their own area for their own use and advantage. This is a form of owncrship which was legalized by the municipal ordinances dcsigned by MCDP. In Lingayen Gulf, the situation is more complicated bccausc the islands are not isolated; and cach has many barrios which overlap in their use of thc coral rccf areas. This could be dealt with by studying which areas are exploited by the different barrios so that agrccmcnts could l x made on jurisdiction of particular arcas and rcsources. Baseline data in the case of MCDP were uscd as an educational tool to illustrate to residents thc condition of their environment and to reinforce their marinc management committees. The extensive data collcclion by thc ASEAN-US CRMP in Lingayen can also be uscd to advantage by sharing this with the local people, and showing them changes as a rcsult o l lhcir aclions. The collcclion can also be used to show how bad the situation is in their a r a s as compared to other parts of the Philippines. MCDP did this for fish yields among the islands. The formation of respcclcd community groups was essential for MCDP. The marine management comrnillecs were critical in the process of generating support from the wider community. This lesson should be closely considered in Lingayen Gulf since it is certain that "notoriously-respected groups are drawing the communities in the area away from marine conservation. A management strategy will need to consider how conscrvation-oriented groups can begin to gain respect. This will happen if they have good arguments and can show immediate and substantial rcsults as in MCDP. A last lesson of importance is the need for linkages among all participants--community leaders, mayors and their councils, local law enforcement officers, private business and national government organizations. The MCDP was able to facilitate thesc linkages from Silliman University which has a permanent status in the local community. The Marine Laboratory of Silliman University has continued to play a role in this process by periodically visiting the islands and encouraging the management efforts. Lingayen needs a similar model whereby some local institutions can serve as a catalyst in the imple- 123 mentation process and longer-term maintenance of local resources management. Conclusion Thcre arc no simple answers on how to organize local fishermen and rcsidcnts to manage their own resourccs. Nevertheless, it has been shown tha~it is possible on small islands where the coral reef resources arc still relatively intact. The solution entails much more than law enforcement since widc community support is necessary for succcss. This support will only be generaled il' some immediate benefits accrue to the community. Education may help people understand why management is ncccssary and may help initiatc their participation. But only results will sustain a program. Rural people, who livc close to thcir environment and sourcc of livelihood, will sense and respect thosc rcsults when they are attained. These pcople will also strive to maintain and manage their resources if givcn a chance to do so. References White, A.T. 1988. The effect of community-managed rcserves on their associated coral recf fish populations. Asian Fish. Sci. 2(1): 27-41. Whits, A.T. and G. Savina. 1987a. Community-hsedmarine rcscrvcs: a Philippine first, p. 2022-2036. In lJroceedings of Coastal T h e 87,26-30 May 1987. Scattlc, Washington. Whitc, A.T, and G. Savina. 1987b. Reef fish yield and nonreef catch of Apo Island. Ncgros, Philippines. Asian Mar. Biol. 4(1987): 67-76. White, A.T., E. Delfin and F. Ticmpo. 1986. The Marine conservation and Dcvelopment Program of Silllman University, Philippines. Trop. Coast. Area Manage. l(2): 1-4. Mariculture as an Alternative Source ~f Livelihood for Sustenance Fishermen in Lingayen Gulf ADELAIDA PALMA~, RIZALWA LEGASTOa and JAMESPAW^ Palma, A., R. Legasto and J. Paw. 1989. Manculture as an alternative source of livelihood for sustenance fishermen in Lingayen Gulf. p. 125-132. In G. Silvestre, E. Miclat and T.-E. Chua (eds.) Towards sustainable development of coastal resources of Ligayen Gulf, Philippines. ICLARM Conference Proceedings 17,200 p. Philippine Council for Aquatic and Marine Research and Development. Los BaAos, Laguna, and International Ccnter for Living Aquatic Resources Management. Makati, Metro Manila, Philippines. Abstract In general, mariculture is a relatively new activity in the Philippines, especially in Lingayen Gulf. Although m o h s k culture has been practised for many years in several areas of the country, other mariculture practices such as finfish cage and seaweeds culture are relatively recent developments. This paper gives an overview 01existing mariculture practices in the Philippines and presents an exploratory discussion on the potential of mariculture in Ligayen Gulf as an alternative source of livelihod for the sustenance fishermen. Potential mariculture activities include cage culture of finfish and mollusk and seaweeds farming. Constraints and management issues affecting mariculture developnent such as site selection, pollution, capital investment and technology transfer are briefly discusscd. Introduction Fishing has always been a major economic activity in the Philippines (Samson 1985). Production from marine capture fisheries was 1.3 million t in 1985 with municipal fisheries contributing about 60% of the total catch (BFAR 1986). In Lingayen Gulf, municipal landings was 8,900 t in 1985 constituting 26% of the total marine catch in the area. As an economic sector, municipal or small-scale fisheries is a large employer compared to the commercial sector. However, most of those in the municipal sector are sustenance fishermen. In the Philippines, coastal aquaculture (which comprises brackishwatcr pond culture and mariculture) has been rapidly developing, especially in the last decade (Rabanal 1986). Brackishwater pond culture of milkfish and shrimp is the predominant culture practice in many parts of the country (Carnacho and Bagarinao 1986). Mgriculture of mollusks, on the other hand. ranked second to uond culture as the most widely adopted cultke practice. However, in terms of production, seaweeds aBureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources, Marcelo Dldg., Q u e m Avenue. Q u e m City, Philippines. b~nternationalCenter for Living Aquatic Resources Management, MC P.O. Box 1501, Makati. Metro Manila, Philippines. 126 ranked second to pond culture. Total aquaculture production in the country in 1985 was 494,700 t. Approximately 95% of this comes from coastal aquaculture. In the Lingayen Gulf area, brackishwater pond culturc production was 19,500 t in 1985. Majority of the fishfarms practice milk€ish monoculture (sec Palma, this vol.). Lingaycn Gulf is a rich fishing ground. However, there has been a slight dccline in produclion from municipal fishcrics in recent years. This is possibly due to depletion 01fish stocks caused by intensive explo~tation (McManus and Chua, in press). Apart from this, therc has been increasing conflict with trawlers which frequently cncroach on the traditional fishing grounds of artisanal fishermen. There have been prevlous atlcmpts to improve the plight of sustenance fishermen such as modernization of fishing gcars and motorization of fishing boats through crcdit schcmes, but these have aggravated the resource situation and competition among fishermcn. Clcarly, there is a need LO allcviate the conchions of the artisanal fishermen by rcducing fishing pressure through alternative livelihood such as mariculture. This papcr explores this possibility in thc Lingaycn Gulf area. Mariculture Mariculture is defined as thc managed cultivation of aquatic species in coas~alwaters (Hansen el al. 1981). It takes advafitage of the natural featurcs in the coastal zonc such as protected coves, bays, inlets, estuxics, reef flats and lagoons. Farming arcas may extcnd horizontally from the shore to the sublitloral zone, and vertically from the water surface down to the seabed. Site selection depends on the dcgree of environmental contml dcsired, the type of culiurc system and ihe species to be cultivated. Specics cultivated in the Philippines include groupers, sea bass, snappers, siganids, oysters, musscls and seawceds like Eucheuma, Grucilaria and Cuulerpa (Trono and Ganzon-Fortes 1983; Cordero 1984; Rabanal 1986; Beveridgc 1987; Fortes 1987; and Juntarashotc et d. 1987). Except for Eucheumu, most of these arc cultured in protected or semiprot~tedenvironments. The most common finfish cultured are grouprs and sea bass for the cxport market and primc local outlcts (e.g., restaurants). These are r w c d in woodcn net cages moorcd close to the shorc in coves and bays in several areas of the country. Hatchery of sca bass and grouper 1s relatively new such that most or the seed stocks are caught from Lhe wild. In Lingayen Gulf, thcrc are small-scalc net cage operations that raise groupcrs and snappers in Sual, Pangasinan. Snappers are cultured as a sidc species and markcled locally. Elsewhere, such as 1n Iloilo, Cavite, Bulacan and Davao, groupers and sea bass are reared as broodstock for hatchery operations and to somc extent as food fish. Fry caught from the wild are also stocked but reared only to juvenile stage for subscqucnt export to Hong Kong and Taiwan. Other spccies of fish like siganids and milkfish arc also being reared in net cagcs but these opcrations are generally experimental or pdot in nature. The bulk of milkfish production still comes from pond culture. In Lingaycn Gulf, siganids arc cultured in net cagcs as well as 1n ponds. However, production is low and marketed locally. Commemal ventures m cage culture of groupers and sea bass are as yet limitcd although the rnarkct potential is vast considering thc demand for juveniles and tablc fish from Hong Kong, Taiwan and Japan. Allhough production of cultured fish in cages (especially groupers ,and sea bass) is increasing, no produclion statistics are presently available. This is largely due lo lhc recent development of marine cagc culture as compared to its Lrcshwater counlcrpart. Mariculturc of crustaceans (e.g., penaeids) is still experimental and takcs the form of nursery and broodstock rcaring in net cages. However, nursery rcaring has been practised in commercial scale in somc areas m Central Philippines (Bcveridge 1987). Lobsters, on the other hand, arc presently being stocked in net cagcs for fattening purposes prior to marketing. The culturc o l oysters and mussels has been practised for many ycars in several areas in the Philippmes notably northern Panay Is- land, Ncgros Occidental, Cavite and Pangasinan (Young and Serna 1982). Production of oysters in 1986 was 16,5(X3 t while that of musscls was 12,100 t (Juntarashote et al. 1987). Production is largely for domestic consumption as attcmpts to export these products are plagued by problems of microbid contamination (Palpal-latoc et al. 1986). Major constraints in the expansion of mollusk culture, especially for the export market are poor coastal watcr quality (including the occurrence of red tides) and improper culture and postharvest tcchniqucs (Juntarashole et al. 1987). The culture of mollusks relies solely on nalural spat fall and using bamboo stakcs or rafts for growout. The raft method gives higher productivity pcr unit area and lcsscns silt contamination. It is, however, more capital-intcnsivc than the stake mcthod. Cultureperiod is from six to eight months. Culture of bivalves is established in about 17 provinces in the country (Young and Serna 1982). Recent rcvicws on thc status of mollusk culture in the Philippines include those by Young (1987) and Juntarashole et al. (1987). Seaweed culture is rather restricted lo certain areas in the country. There are about six provinces with substantial maricullure of seaweeds. Bohol in Central Philippincs is the major producer (Trono and Ganzon-Fortes 1983 and Cordero 1984). This is partly due to the establishment in the province of Marine Colloids, Inc. which is the lcading producer and exporter of Eucheuma in the country. The company also cxports processed seaweeds in powder form. While most spccies of seaweeds cultured in ~ h country c are for human consumption (such as Gruciluria and Caulerpa), Eucheuma spp. arc generally cultured for thc production of carrageenan for use in the food and pharmaceutical indusuics (Hansen et al. 1981). Mariculture production of seaweeds in 1986 was 15,600 t largely consisting of Eucheumu (BFAR 1986). Caulerpa spp. are being cultured mainly in Mactan Island, Cebu. Thc scawceds are culturcd in impounded natural hollows situated along the rocky coastlines of the island (Coxdero 1984). Although a large portion of the production is marketed locally, there have been occasional exports to Japan. The product is frequently dehydrated with salt and then rehydrated in seawater upon rcaching the market in Japan. So far, attempts at commercial culture of Caulerpa in other areas of the country have not been successful. Gracilaria cultutc is generally a side activity and production is seasonal. No commercial venture has been attempted as of thc present time. A summary of some mariculture practiccs in the Philippines is shown in Table 1. Recent reviews of the status of coastal aquaculture in the Philippines are given by Macintosh (1982), Rabanal(1986) and RAPA (1986). Maciculture Potential of Lingayen Gulf Lingayen Gulf has an area of 2,100 km2 (Mincs 1986). On the Pangasinan side of the gulf, there are several estuaries and many sheltered coastal water bodies due to the prcscncc of rivers like Patalan (Bued), Dagupan and Agno, and islands like Santiago, Cabarruyan and Hundred Islands. Coral rcefs are also extensive, especially towards the western part off Bolinao. Such coastal features, particularly along Pangasinan, are vcry suitable for mariculture activities. In addition, the gulf has relatively abundant fry of many commercially important species like grouprs, siganids and milkfish (Mincs 1986; McMLmusand Chua, in prcss). The area is also a good source of marinc aquarium fish which, unfortunately, are gcncrally caught using cyanide. Among the possible mariculture activilies in Lingayen Gulf are mollusk farming, net cage culturc of finfish and seaweed culture. Mollusk Culture The estuaries of Agno River, specifically the areas along Manal in Binmaley district, Dawel in Dagupan City, Tambac Bay, Lucap Bay and Caquiputan Channel have been idendfid as natural grounds for oyster (Gludc et al. 1982). Other specics of mollusks llkc abalone and giant clam (liiducna) are Table 1. Mariculture melhods practised in ihe Philippines. Type of mariculture MoIlusk On-bottom Advantages Low capib1 input; easy to prepare and construct. Disadvantages Susceptible to crawling predators, siltation and poor water circulation. These problems are especially acute for h e stake mehod. Mehod Stake Wigwam Hanging method results in higher productivity pzr unit area as compared LO on-bottom cul~ureprac~ices;minimal problems with respect to crawling predators and siltation. High capital inpu~ Hanging Tray Long line Raft Description Use of bamboo or trunks of trees as stakes in the intertidal and subliuoral zones. Spat settle on h e surface and are allowed to grow to marketable sizes before being harvested. Variation of the stake m e l h d where 7-10 poles of bamboo are staked in a 2-m radius from a central pole and arranged like a wigwam. Uses boulders or logs placed on firm bottom where spa1 are allowed LO settle and grow. Harvesting is done by divers. Horizontal bamboo pdes are supported with pxts where wires or or strings with oyster or mussel shells are suspended. The empty shells serve as spat oolieam. Spat are allowed to setlle and grow until marketable size is stained. For mussel, lhinning can 're done or even transplanting to o h e r areas whcrc primary produclivity is higher. Usually made of bamboo trays ( I . 5 m x 1 m) w i h IS cm diameter supports to hold Ihe collectors. Oysters are reared wilh this ~ y p e or method. Oyster seeds are left in tray and allowed to grow ta markelable size. Clutch consists of a long line of h e a d e d empty shells held apart by tubes 12-15 cm long. The lines are slmng parallel to each other and spaced a b u t 20 cm apart. Strings of lhreaded oyster shells or coconut shells are suspended in a 4 rn x 4 m floating bamboo raft. The slings are prallel to each other and spaced 0.5 m apart. Finfish Seaweeds Species cullured are generally with high market value like groupers and snappers. Easily reloca~edto betler site when inclemental weather or poor wakr qualily (e.g., pollution) becomes a problem. Minimal problems with undesirable species unlike in ponds. Periodic cIeaning of nets is necessary lo ensure proper water exchange and remove biofculers . Trash feeds are expensive. Nets, frames and floats need replacement or repair after a few years (commonly two years) of operalion. Floating cages These are nylon net ca es with sizes ranging from 1-4 mf by 1-3 m deep. Several net cages are sel in a wooden frame and provided with floats (styrofoam or empty fuel dmms). Tom1 farm size is generally less than 1,000m2. Bouom cdture Cuttings of seaweeds (Earcharma) are attached to the corals and arranged on h e bottom into plots of uniform sizes. 2.5 m K 5 m monofilamen~netting materials (30 crn mesh size) are used and set on 6 m x 6 m bamboo rafis where cunings (50-100 g) are lied at the mesh intersections. The raft is anchored to Ihe b t t o m . A monofilament net is horizontdly attached and tied to bamboo or wooden poles (with 2 or 3 poles as support). One module usually consisls of 200 nets. A nylon string (about 10 m) is secured across 3 wooden or bamboo poles. Cu~tingsare tied to he suing. About 35 cuttings per s~ringare set at about 20-25 cm above sca bottom. Each monoline is set parallel to the o h m spaced I m apart. Ibis method is h e most widely practised at present due to lower capital cost and easy maintenance compared to &her methods for the culture of E t c h e m . Predator problem is minimal. This is practised mainly in Mactan Island for h e culture of Caulerpa. Natural hollows of limestone along the mast are converted into ponds by embankment. Sluice gates and canals are constructed to provide waler exchange. These enclosures are seldom axnplelely drainable. Raft Fixed offbollom Monoline Coas~al enclosures + not culLured presently alhough the potential exists in the hard bottom areas of Pangasinan. Giant clan is undcr cxperimental culturc by UP-MSI in Bolinao. Mussel culture is presently non-cxistent in the gulf arca. In Pangasinan, oyster farms cover an aggregate area of 38 ha consisting of an cstimated 600 operators @FAR 1987). Thcsc are concentrated along the Dagupan-Binmaley area whcrc several river channcls provide favorable salinity, nutrient supply and natural food suitable for oyster growth. The farms are gcncrally small, with ,an avcrage area of slightly over 100 m2. The main species cultured is Crassostrea iredulei. Hanging or bitin method uskg bamboo poles and polyethylene ropes is the most common culLure method. Five to Lwclve oyster hanging lincs produce one kerosene can ( equivalent to 1 1) of markclable oysters sold at P22-25c per can. Culture pcriod lasts from three lo four months. 0ystcr farmers are either full-time operators or part-time fishermen. In the latter case, oystcr farming provides supplemcn~aryincome to fishing which is the main source of livelihood. Potential areas fox expansion of oyster culture are some 4,000 ha in Tambac Bay, Lucap Bay and Caquiputan Channel (Glude et al. 1982). Pilot oysler farms havc been establishcd by BFAR in these localities. Sual Bay can also be hpped for oystcr farming but would require spat iransplanution since the area has no natural spat fall. The polcnlial areas identified are locatcd ncar or within the economically depressed fishing communities. Thus, the development of oyster farming in these areas can contribute to thc uplifment of the economic conditions in these fishing communities. Cage Culture The cage culturc of fish in Lingayen Gulf is a recent developmcnt, mostly undertaken by Lhc private sector. Thcrc arc three medium-scale operations locatcd in Buenlag in Binmaley district, Mangas Cove in Sual and Salapingao near Dagupan City. Cages are both of the floating and fixed types consisting of nursery cages measuring 1 x 1 x 1-1.5 m and grow-out cagcs with double nettings measuring 2 x 2 x 1-2.5 rn. Thc cages are sci in wooden Irarnes which serve as catwalk and working a m . Species cultured arc siganids, groupers and snappers. Therc is no venture of rcaring aquarium fish in cages in the gulf arca. Siganid fry or pudas arc abundant in the gulf and are generally caught using finemeshed nets. The padas arc used for Ihc manufacture of fish paste and dried fish (Calvclo and Gifion 1974). Municipal Cishemen are the suppliers of fry for ongoing cage culture activities in the gulf. The price of a grouper fingerling (about 5 cm in length) is about fl.20/pc., while snappcrs and siganids fctch PO.251pc. and PO.15/pc., respectively. Fry abundancc is smsonal and supply at present does not meet the demand as somc of the fry arc imported by operators from other provinccs. As mentioned earlier, siganids arc largely cultured in ponds. Cage culture of siganids is prcscnlly vcry marginal in tcrms of production. Managcmen~of thc cages is or thc modular type. Stocks are kcpt in one cagc for a pcriod of up to one month depending on the size at stocking. Size grading is done at least once evcry two wccks to minimize cannibalism. Growout period is six months for siganids and snappcrs, and up to eight months for groupm. Some of thc groupcrs arc harvcstd after one or two months stocking for export to Taiwan. However, most of the stocks are reared to markctablc sizc ranging from 500 g to 1 kg. In the Salapingao arca, thcrc arc a number of small-scale net cage operations aside from the existing medium-scale venture. Two fishermen-families have sct up two units of net cagcs. Othcrs have established nursery cagcs to rear gmupers and snappcrs from fry to juvenile stage for sale at higher prices. Farming of Seaweeds and Other Species Al~houghseaweeds (cspccially Eucheuma) are found in Lingayen Gulf, stocks are not sufkient lo allow commercially viable ventures. Most of thc stocks had becn overexploited in the past and have not recovered until now. Transplantation is a key towards seawced farming in order to augment curreni stocks. However, these arc still undcr experimenlal sludies by various government institutions such as UP-MSI and BFAR (McManus and Chua, in press). Cultivation of inverlebratcs like abalone and sca cucumbcr has no1 been attcrnpted, although Lhc market exisls especially for export. At present, thcsc are harvcsted from the wdd. 131 stimulate mariculture development among subsistencc fisherrncn, some form of linancing scheme must be provided eithcr on concessional credit terms or lhrough cooperative ventures involving rnatcrial input instcad of cash. 3. Constraints and Management Issues The dcvelopmeni of mariculture in the Lingayen Gulf area is potentially viable and would greatly benefil subsistence fisherrncn. However, scvcral constrain& hamper accelcralcd maricullurc development in lhc potenlial sites. Pullut~on.The Pangasinan portion of the gulf is densely populated. Most of thc untreated domestic wastes cspccially horn Dagupan City are being dischargcd dircctly into the gulf. Morcover, agricultural runoffs and mine tailings from h e mining district of Benguct may be conaminating the gulf with pesticides, nutrien~q,heavy mctals and silt. High bacterial coliform counts had been detectcd in oysters harvested nwr the Dagupan-Binmaley areas. Continued discharge of pollutants into thc gulf will greatly affect the development of mariculture in the arca Such situation will rcnder oysters and finfish unfit for human consumption in thc futurc. There is thus a nced to control h e discharge of waste into the gulf without prior Ircatrnent. 2. High capital investment. Mariculture activities such as cagc culture is relatively capital intensive. In order to 4. 5. Transfer of technology. At present, various maricullurc technologies have not been packaged properly for dissemination to end users. Lack of trained manpower to scrve as extcnsion pcrsonnel as wcll as availability of sul'ficicnt funds for extension work hampcrs dissemination of mariculture technology. There is also a nced to establish pilot mariculture projccts to showcase appropriate technology and provide skills training to Sisherrnen. Site sclection. Thcre is a nccd to propcrly evalualc potential sites for mariculture activities. At present, most oC the potential sites remain unsurveyed. There is also a need to assess potentla1 mariculture silcs in terms of legal and institutional aspccts. Possiblc schemes whereby subsistence fishermen can be providcd with practical tenurial systems to be able to establish mariculture farms nccd consideration. Availability of fry and f c d s . Abundance of finfish fry for cage culture fluctuates seasonally. Morcovcr, wild fry production is not sufficienl lo meet the demand for cagc culture both locally and abroad. There is a nced for rescarch on hatchcry production of finfish fry like groupers, snappers and siganids. So far, these arc still experimental. Similarly, low-cost formulated fccds need to be studied. Relatively low-valued fish (trash fish) are presenlly used to fccd groupers and snappcrs. These, however, are becoming expensive and their supply may not keep up with demand since thcy are also consumcd by the coastal population. 132 References Beveridgc, M.C.M. 1987. Cage aquaculture. Fishing News Books, Ltd., United Kingdom. BFAR (Bureau 01 Fisheries and Aquatic Resources). 1986. Fisheries statistics of thc Philippines. Vol. 36. Bureau of Fishcrics and Aquatic Kesourccs, Manila, Philippines. Calvelo, R.S. and J.S. GGcm. 1974. Siganid fishery of northwestern Pangasinan. Philipp. J. Fish. 12(2): 114-130. Camacho, A S . and T. Bagarinao. 1986. Impact of fishpond dc\relopmenton the mangrovc ccosystem in the Philippines, p. 383-405. In UNESCO/UNDP, Mangroves of Asia and the l'acific: status and management. (RASfl9/002) UNDPKJNESCO Research and Training Pilot Programme on Mangrove Ecosystems in Asia and the l'acific, Manila, Philippines. Cordero, P. 1984. Economic uses or seaweeds in the Philippines. Paper prcscnted at Lhe Erst Philippinc-US pbycology workshop, 24 0ct.-5 Nov. 1984. Manila and Dumaguete City. Philippines. (Unpublished). Fortcs, R.D. 1987. Status of seabass ( h e s calcarifer) culture in the I'hilippincs, p. 62-64. In J.W. Copland and D.1,. Grey (eds.) Management ol wild and cultured seabassfbarramundi (Lutes calcari/er). Proceedings of an Tntemational Workshop, 24-30 September 1986. Darwin, N.T., Australia. Australian Centre for international Agricultural Research, Canberra, Australia. Gludc, J.B,, M.A. Steinberg and R.C. Stevens. 1982. Thc fcasibility of oyster and musscl farming by municipal fishcrmcn in the Philippines. SCS/82/WP/103. South China Sea Fisheries Dcvclopment and Coordinating Programme, Manila, Philippines. Hansen, J.E., J.E. Packard and W.T. Doyle. 1981. Mariculture of red scawceds. CaliTumia Sea Grant Rcp. No. TCSGCP-002. Juntarashote, K., S. Bahromtanarat and H. Grizcl. 1987. Shellfish culturc in Southeast Asia. Southcast Asian Fisheries Developmcnt Center (SEAFDEC), Bangkok, Thailand. Machtosh, D.J. 1982. Fisheries and aquaculture significance of rnangrovc swamps, with special refcrencc to the IndoWest Pacific region, p. 3-85. h J.F. Muir and R.J. Roberts (eds.) Recent advances in aquaculture. C r o m Helm, Ltd., United Kingdom. McManus, L. and Chua T.-E. The coastal environmental profile of Lingayen Gull, Philippines. Manila, Philippines. (In prcss). Mines, A.N. 1986. An assessment of the fisheries of Lingayen Gulf. Dcpanment of Marine Fisheries, Collcge of Fisherics, University of thc Philippines in the Visayas, Diliman. Quczon City. Palpal-latoc, E.Q., S.J.S. Caoile and A.M. Cariaga. 1986. Bacterial depuration of oystcr (Crassostrea ireddei Faustino) in thc Philippines, p. 293-295. In J.L. Maclcan, L.B. Dimn and L.V. FIosillos (eds.) The First Asian Fisheries Fonun. Asian Fisheries Society, Manila, I'hilippincs. Rabanal, H.R. 1986. Seafarming as alt,cmativeto small-scalcfishing in ASEAN region. SE'I861WP.ASCAN/UNDP/FAO Regional Small-scalc Coastal Fisheries Dcvclopment Projwl, Phiippincs. KAPA (Regional Officc for Asia and the Pacific). 1986. Seaweed culture in h e Asia-Pacilic region. W P A Pub. 1987/8. Regional Office for Asia and the PaciTic, Food and Agriculture Organization, Bangkok, Thailand. Samson, E.D. 1985. Fisherics, p. 101-154. In G. Kent and M.J. Valcncia (cds.) Marine policy in Southeast Asia. University of California Press. Los Angcles, USA. Trono, G.C., Jr. and E.T. Ganzon-Fortes. 1983. Scawccd farming. Philipp. Fish. Annu.: 70-75. Young, A. 1987. ShcUfisb maricullurc in Southeast Asia: status, constraints and prospects, p. 39-45. I n K. Juntarashote, t Southcast Asian Fisherics Developmcnt S. Bahromtanarat and H. Grim1 (eds.) Shellfish culture in S o u t h ~ sAsia. Center, Bangkok, Thailand. Young, A. and E. Serna. 1982. Country repport: Philippines, p. 55-68. In P.B. Davy and M. Graham (cds.) Bivalve culture in Asia and the Pacific. Proceedings of a Workshop, 16-19 February 1982, Simgapore. DRC-200c. Tntemational Development Rcscarch Center, Ottawa. Canada. Mariculture Potential of Giant Clams and Sea Urchins in the Lingayen Gulf Area Trinidad-Roa, M.J. 1989. Mariculture potential of giant clams and sea urchins in the Ligayen Gulf area, p. 133-137. In G. Silvcstrc, E. Miclat, and T.-E. Chua (eds.) Towards sustainable development of the coastal rcsourccs of Lingayen Gulf, Philippines. ICLARM Conference Proceedings 17, 200 p. Philippine Council for Aquatic and Marine Research and T)evelopment, Los Baiios. Laguna, and International Center for Living Aquatic Resourccs Management. Makati, Metro Manila, Philippines. Abstract Sea urchins and giant clams are among thc most intcnsivcly exploited invettcbratcs in thc Lingayen Gulf area. Sca urchins are collcctcd for their gonads, and giant clams, for their meat and shell. Thc ~hrcato l local extinction of cotnmercially important spccies and thc urgcnt nccd for alternative sources of food and income in the gulf area pruvidc unpetus for thc cnhanccn~cntoimariculture activitics of thcsc specieslgroups. This papcr prcscnts an overview of current giant clam and sca urchin manculture technologies, their availability, potcntial applicability in the Lingayen Gulf arca, and recommendations towards accelerated reali~ationof this pstcniial. Kecommendadons ccmcr around the nccd to (1) address the issue of territorial use righls: (2) enhance cxtcnsion/cducation d f o n to increasc awarcncss and strcrlgthen local sociopolitical stnrcturcs; and (3) rcfinc available tcchnology (using local spccicslslrains) under local conditions toward improved pruduclion levels. Introduction Sea urchins and giant clams are among the most exlensively cxploited invertebrates in the Lingaycn Gulf area. Sea urchins (locally known as kuden-kuden, santol-sanlolan or luyon) are collected for their gonads. Occasionally consumed locally, most of the sca urchin catch is exported to Japan where it is an expensivc dclicacy called uni. In the Philippincs, the chinoid species preferred is Tripneustes gratilla (shirahige mi),although Diadema setosum and Echinothrix diadema are also used if T, grutillu is not available. On thc olhcr hand, all seven species of giant clams (locally callcd taklobo, kima, or suliol), viz. Tridacna gigas, 7.. derasa, 7'. squumosu, T. maximu, T. croceu, IIippopus porcellanus and H. hippopus, arc harvested for b o ~ hmeat and shells. The larger species (T. gigus, T. derasa, 1'. squamosa, H. porcellanus and II. hippopus) are more highly prized. Clam meat is largely for local consumption. The shells are uscd in thc shellcraft industry and in the collectors' trade. Management of sea urchin and giant clam resources, particularly in Lingayen Gulf, is virtually non-existent. Allhough a ban exists aMarinc Science Institute, University of the Philippincs, Diliman, Quewn City, Philippines. on the exportation of giant clam products, gathering for local consumption continues at a high rate. Clam Incat cannot bc lcgally shippcd out of the country, although giant clam shells are exported as finishcd shellcraft products and collators' ilems. In lhc casc of sea urchin collection, no rcgdation appcars to govern it. Hence, thc only factors that control heir harvest arc thc demands of buyers, availability of preservatives for the gonads and vagaries of the weather. If the current exploitation trend of thcse resourccs continucs, it is conceivable that widespread local cxtinction will take place, as has alrcady occurred for the larger spccics of giant clams (Alcala 1986; Juinio et al. 1986). In order to rcstock dcplelcd reefs and provide the requircd levels of production, as well as alternative sources of food and livelihood for coastal inhabitanls, mariculture of these species has bccomc essential in conjunction with propcr management. Sea Urchin and Giant Clam Mariculture Sea Urchins Sea urchins have been among the most extensively used animals for embryological studies (Tyler and Tyler 1966). Since thc early 1800s, sea urchin eggs and sperms havc been used to elucidate the processes ol' fcrtilization and early development (Hinegardncr 1969). 'Thus, a number of species have been examined and reared undcr laboratory conditions (see Aiyar 1934; Caccs-Borja 1956; and Sato, in press). Malsui (1968) was among the first to suggest the use of ral't-typc melhods for maricul~nrc of sea uichin. Culture and propagation, however, havc not yet bccn donc on a Iargc scale. Supplementary food in Lhc form of unicellular algae is essential for rearing the larvae. Larval food requirements are said to vary with sea urchin specics (Hincgardner 1969). Sato (in press) reported Chaetvceros gracilis to be the most suitable for five species cultured in Japan. Regulation of temperature and salinity, as wcll as maintenance of a certain amount of stirring or agitation (to keep larvac suspcndcd in ~ h cwatcr column) is required Tor successful re,aring lo juvcnilc slages (Hincgxdner 1969; Rupp 1973; Sato 1987). In thc Philippines, sca urchin (Tripneusles gralilla) culture is currently being aLLcrnptcd at the UP-MSI. laboratory in Bolinao, Pangasinan. Successful trial spawnings have already bccn undcrlakcn using simple methods of spawning induct.ion (such as cxposure to air, incrcascd water and air temperatures and agitation of the urchins). Based on culture studies conducted in Japan, there are no insurmountable technological problems involved in sca urchin culture. The broodstock is easy to acquire and handle; spawning induction involvcs simplc mcthods; and mature eggs and sperms are ezily obtained wilhoul problems of self-fertilization because the sexes are separate. Ongoing population studics indicatc that T. gratilla are fast-growing and attain scxual maturity at about 6 cm diamelcr (LC., 15 months). What is needed, though, is to modify these techniques lo suil local condi~ions (c.g., sca urchin species, materials and culture facilities available) especially in terms of' scaling up operations to suit mass culture requirements. Giant Clams La Barbcra (1975) and Jameson (1976) wcrc the first to rear giant clams to the juvenile stage. Since that breakthrough, all the tridacnid species havc bccn successfully culLured (Deckvar 1981; Fitt et al. 1984; Crawford et al. 1986; Murakoshi 1986; Alcazar et al. 1987). Howcvcr, the only large-scale commercial production of giant clams at prescnt is at h e Micronesian Mariculture Demonstration Center in Palau, Caroline Islands (Hcslinga and Perron 'I 982; Hcslinga and Watson 1985). Thc rnc~hodsoi' IIeslinga c1 al. (1984) rely on (1) large numbcrs of broodstock for natural spawning; (2) low larval stocking dcnsilies; (3) feeding with natural phy toplankion from unfiltered seawater; (4) postlarval culture in shallow, outdoor raceways; and (5) growout in ocean nurseries. The usc of serotonin and/or macerated gonads or gonad cxtracts to induce spawning in all species, as well as determination of gonad maturity by biopsy, has removed the complete depcndencc on natural spawnings (Braley 1986; Alcazar and Solis 1986; Crawford et al. 1986; Alcazar et d. 1987; and Trinidad-Roa, in prcss). Thc most desirable species for culture are T. gigas and T. derasa, which not only have very high growth rates but achieve biggcr sizcs as well. To a certain extent, If. porcellanus and H. hippopus are also favored for culturc because of their reasonably fast growth rates and thcir popularity in the shellcraft trade. The most atlractivc aspcct of giant clam culture is that once the symbiotic algae, called zooxanthellae, become established within the clams' mantles (within a two-weck postfcrtilization), they do not rcquire supplementary feeding as long as they are exposed to sufficient sunlight and clean, flowing seawater. Juveniles can be harvested within three to four months and outplanted for growout in the ocean nurseries. Depending on the desired clam product and the species of clams (which determines the growth ralc), harvest of outplanted clams can take place as early as oneand-a-half ycars lrom fcrtilization. However, to obtain thc grcalest biomass production (as calculated for T. derasa), the ideal ages at harvest are six years for adductor muscle and other soft tissues, and more than seven ycars for the shell (Watson and Heslinga, in prcss). Recent studies indicate that even faster growth rates can be achieved with giant clams if they are provided with additional sources of nilratcs or ammonia (Heslinga 1988 and Onate and Naguit, in press). At the moment, the greatest limitation to mass production of giant clams in the Philippines is the dearth of broodstock, especially of the larger, faster-growing species. Applicability in Lingayen Gulf Mariculture of both specks involves a hatchery or land-based phase and a growout or ocean nursery phase. The hatchery phase includes the period from spawning to the early juvenile stage when the animals have to bc provided with specific diets; clean, flowing, filtcred seawater; and a predator-free environment in which to grow before they are uansfcned to the field. Growout (to commercial sizcs) is usually accomplished in ocean nursery areas. In this author's expcrience, putting the giant clams in protected cages out in the ocean as soon as they are of appropriate sizes (10-15 mm) not only rcsults in better growth and survival rates, but also: (1) allows more tank space in the hatchcry for succeeding batches of larvae; (2) obviates the need to pump and filter seawater lor the juveniles; and (3) lessens labor input in terms of cleaning raceways periodically to prevent predator and algal buildup. Sea urchins during the larval and early juvenile phases require fecding with cultured diatoms. However, as they grow bigger, their diets shift primarily to seagrasses and seaweeds which can be provided by naturally occurring spccies in the ocwn nursery. Suirable areas for (marine) hatcheries require access to unpolluted seawater and freshwater, reliable clcctricity and reasonably good transport facilities. For thc occan nurscrics, giant clams require protected areas that are not subject to destructive waves during the typhoon season but still have good flowing seawater. Lagoons, sandy areas of thc reef, as well % seagrass beds have been proven to be suitable. Coral reef communities are not as favorable bccause they can harbor giant clam predators such as octopi, mulluscivorous fish and hermit crabs. Sea urchins will obviously thrive in seagrass areas, especially whcrc Lhcy have been known to occur. Under ccrtain habitat conditions, both giant clams and sea urchins can conceivably be cultured in the same area. For bolh groups, it is essential that the area is within monitoring distance so that thc growers can periodically check on the animals, as poaching can become a big problem. In Lingayen Gulf, there is an abundance of suitable areas for the mariculture of both clams and sca urchins. Thc technology for rearing clams and sea urchins from egg to juveniles is not particularly complcx. Howcvcr, thc inrrastructure and operating expenses required are substantial and may not bc within reach oS thc sustenancc fishcrmcn. As such, it is impormt that government or private institutions (with thc capability to build and staff such hatcherics) provide the seeds Sor growout in thc occan nurscrics of individual fishermen or fishing cooperatives. The mechanism by which this technology can be transferred is most feasible through thc barangay lcvcl or fishcrmcn's cooperatives, with the guidance of experienced social and biological science workers, especially during the early stages. Recommendations In coming up with a coastal area rnanagement plan integrated with manculture efforts, specifically for giant clams and sea urchins, it i s essential that the eslablishment of ownership of portions of reef areas (e.g., concession arcas) for farming or growout of these species, even if only for limited periods of time, should be considered. Thus, a fisherman who decides to venture into ocean farming has a legitimate basis for putting his "plot" orf-limits. This concept can be extended as well to communal ownership of an area by a baranguy, a fishermen's cooperative or the like. Juinio et al. (1986) rccommendcd a reseeding program as well as the setting up of giant clam breeding units in protected areas (in conjunction with existing marine parks) to encourage propagation of new recruits. Experimental reseeding of reefs has been reported in Central Visayas, Philippines, as well as in Palau (Heslinga and Perron 1982). For sca urchins, a management schcme that has been proposed for trial implementation in Bolinao, Pangasinan has already been presented by UP-MSI to the municipal council. The plan (which was also formulated in order to help the commercial sea urchin resources of Bolinao to recover) involves selcctive harvcst at (initially) a minimum s i x of 6 cm, thc imposition of a closed season from December to January (to coincide with the pet& spawning season) and the setting up of "mini-sanctuariuies" to serve as sea urchin breeding grounds.. Implcmcnlalion of thcsc proposals is intended to be at the village level involving the local inhabitants thcmselvcs. For L ~ long-tcrm C success oS rnariculture cl'lbrts toward providing alternative sources of food and livelihood to coastal inhabitants (as wcll as helping depleted reefs recover), a great deal relies on the establishment of rapport with the coastal comrnunitics so they will cvcntually havc thc initiativc to propcrly manage the marine resources. Thus, community development workers have their work cut out for them in terms of bridging the gap among the planners, rcscarchcrs and the people in the fishing villages. It is initially important that the concepts of management and conservation of resources be reintroduced hand in hand with feasible choices to existing (presumably dcslructive) practiccs. Currcnt community structures (political, economic, social) that enhance the achievement of management goals will have to be strengthened. Local inhabitanls can also bc assisted in terms of using proper growout, harvesting and processing techniques. Marketing and pricing of products should also be addressed so that the endeavor would be economically feasible. Howevcr, thcrc is still a lot of ground to cover in order to improve maricul~urecfforts, especially in terms of increased produclion. For instance, broodstock cnhanccment is nccdcd to provide a constant supply of fertilizable eggs. Hardier and faster-growing "strains" are also nccdcd to improve the seeds produced. Ways by which larval and juvenile survival and growth rates can be increased by the use of improvcd larval feeds, nutrient supplements, better tank designs, and more appropriate techniques of handling larvae and juveniles need additional research. To maximize utilization of tank space and reef areas, the plyculture of sea urchins and girlnt clams with othcr vertebrates (e.g., siganids), invertebrates (e.g., lobstcr, Trochus sp., abalonc) and swwccds could bc an intcxcsling area ol' rcscarc,h. Improved product handling, processing, packing, marketing and promotion have been barely explored. As allernalive sources of income for instance, giant clams can be sold in the aquarium trade (Heslinga et al. 1988 and Trinidad-Roa and Gornez, in 137 press), while sea urchins can be bred for use in laboratory experiments. Less commercially important species of sw urchins could also be Vied as food for other culturcd species. References Aiyar, R.G. 1934. Development of Salmcis bicolor Agassiz. Nature (Lond.) 134: 899-900. Alcala, A.C. 1986. Distribution and abundance of giant clams (family Tridacnidae) in the south-central Philippines. Sillirnan J. 33(1-4): 1-9. Alcaur, S.N. and E.P. Solis. 1986. Spawning, larval dcvclopment and growth of Tridacm m i m a (Roding) (Uivalvia: Tridacnidac). Sillirnan J. 33(1-4): 65-73. Alcazar, S.N., E.P. Solis and A.C. Ncala. 1987. Serotonin-indu'ced spawning and larval rearing of thc China clam. Hippopus porcellanur Roscwater (Bivalvia: Tridacnidae). Aquaculturc 66: 359-368. Beckvar, N. 1981. Cultivation, spawning and growth of thc giant clams T r i d o c ~gigm, T r i d a c ~crocea and fiidacm sqwmosa in Palau, Carolinc Islands. Aquaculturc 24: 21-30. Braley, R.D.1986. Developments in giant clam culture. Aust. Fish. (January): 7-9. Caces-Borja, P.C. 1956. The embryology of Diodemn setosum (Leske). Philipp. J . Fish. 4(1): 1-12. Crawford, C., W.J. Nash and J.S. Lucas. 1986. Spawning induction and larval and juvenile rearing of thc giant clam, Tridacna g i p s . Aquaculturc 58: 282-295. Fitt. W.K., F.R. Fishcr and R.K. Trench. 1984. larval biology of the tridacnid clams. Aquaculture 39: 181-195. Heslinga, G.A. (editor) 1988. MMDC (Micronesian Mariculture Demonstration Center) Bull. (March). Heslinga, G.A. and F.E. Perron. 1982. Palau halchery grows giant clam seed; iniriates experimental seeding program. Aquacult. Mag. 8(6): 7. lieslinga, G. and T.C. Watson. 1985. Rcccnt advances in giant clam mariculturc, p. 53 1-537. In Procccdings of !.he Fifth International Coral Rcef Congress, 27 May-l June 1985. Tahiti. Vol. 5. Antcme Museum-EPIIE, Mwrea, French Polynesia. Hcslinga, G., F.E. Perron and 0. Orak. 1984. Mass culture of giant clams (F. Tridacnidae) in Palau. Aquaculture 39: 197-215. IIeslinga, G., T.C. Watson and T. Isarnu. 1988. MMDC giant clam hatchcry regional serviccs summary (1987-1988). Micronesian Mariculture Development Center, Rlau, Caroline Islands. Hinegardner, R.T. 1969. Growth and development of thc laboratory culturcd sea urchin. Riol. Bull. 137: 465-475. Jameson, S.C. 1976. Early l i k history of the giant clams Tridacna crocea, Tridacna m a r i m and Hippopus hippopus. Pac. Sci. 30: 219-233. Juinio, A.R., L A B . Menez. C.I.. Villanoy and E.D. Gomcz. 1986. Giant clam resources in thc Philippines. Tech. Rcp. Univcrsity of the Philippines-Marine Science Institute, Diliman, Q u c m City. La Uarbera, M. 1975. Larval and post-larval development of thc giant clams, Tridacna m x i m a and Tridacna squamosa (Bivalvia: Tridacnidae). Malacologia 15: 69-79. Matsui. I. 1968. The propagation of sea urchins. Transl. Ser. No. 1063. 172 p. Fisheries Research Board of Cansda. Murakoshi, M. 1986. Farming thc boring clam, Tridacnd crocea (Iamarck). Galaxea 5 : 239-254. Onatc, J.A. and M.A. Naguit. A preliminary study on the effcct of increased nitratc concentra~ionon thc growth of giant clams Hippopus hippopus. Papcr presented at the National Giant Clam Workshop, 15-17 March 1988. Silliman Univcrsity, Dumaguete. (In press). Rupp, J.H. 1973. Effects of tcmpcrature on fertilization and early cleavage or some tropical echinoderms, with cmphasis on Echinometra m f h e i . Mar. Biol. 23: 183-189. Sato. H. Rearing young sea urchins from larval stage in the laboratory aquarium system. Papcr prcsmted at the Intcmational Seminar on Marine Aquarium Managcmcnt. 14-17 Septcnibcr 1987. Rangsacn, Thailand. (In press). Trinidad-Roa, M.J. Obscrvations on spawning and larval rearing of giant clams in thc kingasinan, Philippines. Paper presented at the International Giant Clam Workshop. 18-23 April 1988. James Cook University, Australia. (In prcss). Trinidad-Roa, M.J. and E.D. Gomcz. Maintenance and care 01giant clatns (Bivalvia: Tridacnidac) in marine aquaria. Pawr presented at the Intcrnationd Seminar on Marine Aquarium Manapxnent. 14-17 Scptmber 1987. Ran~saen, 'l'h:ailand, (In press). Tylcr, A. and B.S. Tyler. 1966. Physiology of fertilization and carly development, p. 683-741. In R.A. Boolootian (ed.) Phvsioloev of thc cchinodenna~a.Jnterscience Publications, NCWYork. ~ a b o n~.C.-ind , G.A. Heslinga. Optimal harvest agc for ' l i i d o c ~derasa: maximizing biological production. Paper presented at the International Giant Clam Workshop, 18-23 Apnl 1988. James Cook Univcrsity, Australia. (In prcss). Session 3 Socioecono~nic,Cultural and LegalIInstitutional Framework The Economics of Municipal Fisheries: the Case of Lingayen Gulf Aiionuevo, C. 1989. The economics of municipal fisheries: the case of Lingayen Gulf, p. 141-155. I n G. Silvestre, E. Miclat and T.-E. Chua (eds.) Towards sustainable development of the coastal resources of Lingayen Gulf, Philippines. ICLARM Conference Proceedings 17, 200 p. Philippine Council for Aquatic and Marine Rcscarch and Development, h s Baiios. Laguna, and International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management, Makati. Metro Manila, Philippines. Abstract This paper presents the results of a study on the economics of municipal fisheries in Lingayen Gulf based on data collected during the period January 1987 to January 1988. Information on capital assets, u s t s and retums, and household expenditures obtained indicate, among others, the following: (1) relatively heavy capitdimtion in municipal fishing activity in the area; (2) considerable underemployment among panicipants in municipal capmn: fisherics; (3) quite low net returns from fishing relative to family expenditures; and (4) the abject poverty of municipal fishermen and their families. Suggested measures center around the need for alternative livelihood and better management (such as correcting the open access situation and better law enforcement). It is emphasized, however, that such microlevel programs must be pan of holistic macrolevel approaches that address socioeconomic inequity and foster genuine industrialization (to draw manpower away from the natural resources and agriculture sector). Introduction Lingayen Gulf. This is borne oul by the data galhcrcd by the socioeconomic rescarch team of the ASEAN-US CRMP (Philippines) from January 1987 to January 1988. Four data galhering instruments were used, namely, (I) the demographic profile; (2) the capilal assets profile; (3) the daily cost and retums schedule; and (4) the weekly household consumption expenditure schedule. Of the four instruments, the first and second arc "onetime", while the last two are year-long instruments. Approaching the participatory An ironic situation in Philippine society o k n cited in development literature is the case of municipal or subsistcnce fishermen. It has been said that they and their families, whose livelihood rests on catching one of thc cheapest sources of protein, s u k r from sevcrc protein malnulrition. Thc desperate existence or thc fisherfolks, the gcncral situation throughout the Philippines, is so vividly illustrated in the case of College of Social Work and Community Development (CSWCD), University of the Philippines, Diliman, Qucwn City, Philippines. 141 research method, the "respondent-coopcratort' fishermen were thc ones who filled up thc year-long instruments wilh the assistance of research staff. This papcr bricfly prcscnts results using h e last lhree instruments and leaves out the discussion of he demographic charactcristics of cooperators. It should be emphasized h a t the results prescnled are preliminary in nalurc, and are intended to help draw general infercnccs pertaining to the economics of Lingaycn Gulf municipal fisheries. More detailed treatments ( e g , incorporating fishing gear variability and seasonality, etc. in the analyses) will be incorporatcd in the final project report when the analysis phase is completed. The Area and Selection of Respondent-Cooperators On 15 January 1987, the rccord-keeping of individual costs and income, as well as houschold income and expendiiurcs of 60 cooperators, was started in six selected research sites. These sites were: Alaska, Aringay and Ralawarte, Agoo, in Sector 111; Nibaliw West, San Fabian, Capandanan, Lingayen and Uyong, Labrador in Sector I1 and; Mangas, Sual and Tclbang, Alarninos, in Sector I (scc Calud ct al., Lhis vol., for delincalion and description of sectors used hcrein). For Lhc sclection of sample sites, the following criteria were used: Type of Fishing Gear Thcre is a largc variety of fishing gears used by the municipal fishmncn in Lingayen Gulf. Mines (1986) stated that "due to differences in bottom topography, nalurc of substrate and the kind of fish species commonly found in the area, some types of fishing gears are indigenous in a particular sector but not used at all in othcr areas; whilc somc are commonly used in one sector, but rarely used in other sectors of the gull." The western coast (Sector I), for instance, is dcscdbed as rocky and coralline. Hence, the fishing gears commonly used are surface/dnft gill nets, fish traps and other types of fishing cquipment which normally do not touch or scrapc thc sca bottom. Sector I1 is generally shallow with a muddy substrate; thus the g a r s commonly used are baby trawls and beach seines. The easlcrn coast (Sector In) is characterized by a hard, sandy bottom with scattered rocky substrate. In Lhis sector, the most common gears are round haul seine and baby purse seine. These major gear typcs were considered in the selection ol'thc sample sites. Fishing as a Major Source of Income In all the sites selected, fishing is considcrcd a major economic activity. The nurnbcr of municipal fishermen in rclation to the t o d population was also considered. The Community's Response to the Research Program The daily recording of catch and cxpenses by individual fishermen is a tedious task, and may be considered an unfamiliar activity given their orientation. Thus, the community's response to the research program is important. During the initial months, community mccdngs were conducted (in coordination with some local organizationslinstitutions) to cxplain the program objectives and method of data collection. Thc fishermen's willingness to bc involved in the program was a major factor in ~ h sarnplc c site selection. Accessibility of the Area One of the main tasks of the sociocconomic research team was thc bimonthly monitoring of the record-keeping activity. Ten individual coopcrators in each site were chos.cn. The criteria were that the cooperator must: (I) be a full-time fishcman; (2) bc willing to participate in the research program; and (3) be able to read and writc. Thc staff decided to have ten cooperators in each site 143 Thc types of gear used in the area essentially confirm thc findings of Mines (1986) which led to thc scctoral classification adapted in the different studies under thc program. In Sector I, one could see the preponderance of gcars suited for its coralline shores, and the same applies for Secmrs I1 and 111. But one common factor in all sectors was thc multigeat nature of the fisheries to suit the seasonality of cxploitcd species and area of operations. In terms of other equipment used (e.g., ice box and other containers, lighting paraphernalia), the data gathered essentially confirm the previous statement on the relative edge of Sectors I11 and I1 over Sector I. The number of units owncd by thc cooperators in Sector I11 was higher than those in Sector I. - instead of the eight originally projected to give allowance for one or two cooperators who would latcr lose interest in thc activity. Capital Assets Distribution Of the 60 cooperators involved in the research, 45% (27) owned a motorized banca; 13% owned a nonmotorized banca; and 42% are non-bancu owners or simply renters or wipulante (see Table I). Sector I1 accounted for the biggest share of motorized banca, followed closely by Sector 111. Based on the research staffs findings, lhis uneven share of the distribution could be explained by the: (I) concentration of fisheries credit programs of ~ h cgovernment and NGOs in Sectors I1 and 111, and (2) relative urbanization of Sectors I1 and I11 as compared to Sector 1. Table 1 also shows Ihe engine type owned by those who used motorized vessels as a general confirmation of the previous statement, except for the case of Sector I1 whcrc those who owned a lower horsepower engine would have a slight edge over those that have a higher horsepower enginc. Sources Allhough there were a number of "credit for capital asset" programs that were initiated in the area in the early 1980%personal savings and borrowings (SCCTablc 2) were still the major sourcc of financing of capital assets in the gulf and each sector. For vessel, only 27% availed of the credit program of the government such as Biyayang Table 1. Percentage distribution of rcspondcnt-cooperators'ownership of: Fishing craft by type and sector .- Type of vessel owned Motorized Nomotorized Renterlnm-owner of a vesselltripulanre Total Scctor I 11 m 25.0 45.0 75.0 0.0 35.0 10.0 Total 45.0 18.3 45 0 1 15.0a -- Walucs exceeding 100.06are due to ownership of more than one type of vessel. Motorized vessels by engine horsepower and sector Engine type 1 - 15hp 16 -22hp No hp given Total Sector Total I I1 Ill 33.3 53.3 40.0 6.7 100.0 0.0 100.0 0.0 100.0 66.7 0.0 100.0 37.0 59.3 3 .7 100.0 Table 2. Pcrccntage distribution of respondent-cooperators by sourcc of capital asset and scctor. Vessel owners Sourcc Sector Biyayang Dagat Kilroang Kabuhayan a1 Kaunlamna Pcrsonal money Others Total Total I LL m 0.0 40.0 11.1 21.2 0.0 66.7 33.3 100.0 13.3 33.3 13.3 100.0 0.0 77.8 11.1 100.0 6.0 54.6 18.2 100.0 Enginc owncrs Sector ll Source I m Total Biyayang Dagal Personal money Ohers Total Fishing gear owners Scctor Source II I Personal money Loan Total 100.0 0.0 100.0 Total lll 81.2 18.8 100.0 84.6 15.4 100.0 86.5 13.5 100.0 aNational Livelihood Program. Dagat (Marine Livelihood Assistance Program). As mentioned, all of these were accounted for by Sectors I1 and 111. Mormver, 56% of the cooperators were able to acquire their assets on cash terms; 10% through resourcefulness and friendliness; and 34% on installment basis. As a whole, 40% of the total assets could be accoun~edfor by Sector 11. of Ihe credit for capital assct programs implcrnented in the area. More than 50% of the iolal value was accounted for by thc vcssel and cngine, the two primary assets Sinanccd by such credit programs. Thus, relativcl y, lhcrc was heavy capilalizalion in fishing in Lhc area, and this was furhcr confirmed by he heavy deprccialion expense in ihe total cost structure. Value The total value of all lhc capital assets owned by thc coopcmtors amounted to a b o u ~ ~463,000b(Tablc 3a). Roughly, the avcragc cooperator owned P7,700 worth ol' capi~alassets (Table 3b). This average could be misleading in the sense that thc rangc of valucs varied from a low of less than WOO to a high of f53,000. Almost half of thc total value was accounted lor by Scctor 11, followed by Sector HI. Again, this confirmed lhe impact Daily Cost and Return Fishing nays and Hours For thc period covered, thc average number of days per month spmt in fishing by the cooperators was only 10.7 days (see Tablc 4). Those in Scclor 111 spent morc days fishing Table 3a. Total wst or value (8) of capital assets owned by resporldent-cooperators by assct type and sector. Sector Type of asset I Ranca Engine Fishing gears Other fishing equipment Total Total II 28.450 10,100 28,040 41.940 108.530 .III 50,150 22,800 33,490 4,160 110,6M) 160,030 38,400 40,930 4,680 244,010 238,600 71,300 102,460 50,780 463,140 Table 3b. Average value (B) of capital assets owned by respondent-cooperators by asset type and sector. Type of asset Tolal Sector I Bancn Engine Fishing gears Other fishing equipment Total I1 1.420 500 1,400 2,100 5.420 111 8.000 1,920 2,050 230 12.200 2,510 1,140 1.670 210 5,530 3,980 1,190 1,710 850 7,720 Table 4. Monthly and sectoral variation in mean number of days spent fishing by respondent-cooperators. Scctor Month 1 II III Total January February March April May June July August Scptcmber October November December Year-round than those in Sectors I and 11. Monthwise, January exhibited the lowcs~number of fishing days while March and October exhibilcd the highest. The data on thc average fishing days indicated that, generally, the subsistence fishermen of the gull wcre severely underemployed. This pointed to the possible kind of programs concerning resources management and upliftrnent of the plight of' the pcoplc. Of the reasons given for not fishing, the perception that the fishermen would not catch anything tops the list. This perception was bascd on observations that others came back with minimal catch that could not even cover the explicit costs of fishing. Not far behind in the list was thc reason of natural causes (e.g., rough sca condition). Table 5 shows the number of hours spent at sea per fishing day. For thc whole of the Table 5. Monthly and secloral variation in the mean number of hours spent at sca pcrfishing day by rcspondent-cooperators. Sector Month ., January February March April May June July August September Octoher November December Ycar-round I IT ID Total 5.5 6.5 5.2 11.1 7.7 6.3 4.8 4.2 7.4 8.3 8.6 8.9 8.6 9.2 8.0 7.5 6.7 6.4 6.1 6.7 8.2 7.2 8.3 8.6 7.3 6.7 7.3 5.6 5.6 6.1 7.8 79 8.9 9.6 7.8 4.8 6.8 gulf, each cooperator spent about seven hours in fishing. The fishermen of Sector 111 spent the longest hours perhaps because they were better skilled and more adventurous among lhc cooperators. Those who used immobile lift nets (i.e., rcspondcnts from Sual and Alaminos) fished longest, for about eleven hours. Volume and Value On each fishing trip, the cooperator would likely catch an average of 9 kg of fish (Table 6). Sector I accounted for the highcst volume 4.9 7.6 6.8 7.9 68 5.8 7.1 6.7 9.3 7.1 8.2 9.4 8.3 8.1 8.4 - caught (13 kg) per fishing day while Sector IJ exhibited the lowest (5 kg). For all scctors, Decernbcr to March seemed to be thc pcak months and May to June, thc lcan months. On the average, a fishing team grossed PI50 (Table 7). Thc average value was highest for Sector III (P199). Although this sector was only second in lcms of volume, it accounted for the highcst value of catch because the fisherfolk caught higher-priced spccics/varieties(Table 8). Sector I1 exhibited the lowest valuc, consistent with its rclatively lower average catch compared to that of the other two sectors. Table 6. Monthly and sectoral variation in mean catch (kg) per fishing day of rcspondent-cooperators. Sector Month January February March April May June July August September October Novcmbcr December Year-round I I1 III Total Table 7. Monthly and sectoral variation in mean value (f)of catch pcr fishing day of respondent-cooperators. Month January February March April May Junc July August Scptembcr October November December Year-round I 115.6 201.2 246.2 182.1 159.3 188.6 115.4 223.3 138.2 132.7 171.5 131.1 167.1 Sector I1 143.0 163.1 85.5 43.5 29.6 31.1 72.6 92.2 93.6 71.7 77.3 95.9 83.3 Ul 332.1 151.5 178.5 182.4 205.7 186.0 199.4 152.9 172.8 188.5 215.6 221.1 198.9 Total 196.9 172.0 170.1 136.0 131,5 135.2 129.1 156.2 134.9 131.0 154.8 149.3 149.7 Table 8. Monthly and sectoral variation in mean pricc of fish (P/kg) caught per fishing day by respondent-mpcrators. Sector Month I n III Total January Fcbruary March April May June July August Scptcmbcr October November December Year-round Disposition of the Catch Average Cost and Cost Structure On thc average, not all of the catch was marketed. Of the catch 2.5% was given away either to authorities or to relatives; 2% was eaten out at sea while fishing; and 4% was brought home for family consumption. Of the marketed fish, the average share of the cooperators per fishing trip was F49 (Table 9). Sectorwise, the average share in Sector I was the highest (851) since most of the cooperators here were lift net owners; followed by Sector I11 @50) and Sector I1 F'47). On the average, the cooperators spent W3 pcr clay to cover fishing cos~s. Of this amount, 45% (833) was used for gasoline; 29% for repairs and maintenance; and 7% for petrol for lighting purposes. Those in Sectors 111, I1 and I spent W8, P65 and t68, respectively. Thc highest cost for Sector I11 was reflective of the venturing out of municipal waters by fishermen from the area. In fact, about 70% of their average total cost comprised gasoline expense (see Table 10). Table 9. Average monthly share (8)per fishing day of respondent-cooperators Sector Month January February March April May June July August September October November December Year-round I I1 m Total 38.0 57.2 59.5 52.0 45.6 59.8 36.2 42.3 47.2 54.6 57.1 61.2 50.9 87.4 80.8 40.3 28.3 30.4 22.0 47.8 46.4 55.6 39.9 28.0 56.2 46.9 58.1 53.6 47.7 47.6 56.2 50.6 48.7 41.8 40.3 45.4 54.7 56.5 50.1 61.2 63.9 49.2 42.6 44.1 44.1 44.2 43.5 47.7 46.7 46.6 58.0 49.3 Table 10. Percentage distribution of respondent-cooperatorsby cost item. Gasoline cost (F) per fishing day and sector Sector Cost 10 and below 11 -20 21 - 30 31 -40 41 - 50 51 -60 61 -70 71 - 80 81-90 91 and abovc Total - I I1 50.0 25.0 15.0 10.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 40.0 15.0 10.0 20.0 5.0 5.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.0 103.0 In AH 30.0 5.0 5.0 0.0 0.0 10.0 5.0 0.0 25.0 20.0 100.0 40.0 15.0 10.0 10.0 1.7 5.0 1.7 0.0 8.3 8.3 100.0 Repir cost (P) per fishing day and sector Sector Cost 10 and below 11 -20 21 - 30 31 -40 41 and above Total I 84.2 10.5 5.3 0.0 0.0 1M1.0 a 80.0 5.0 0.0 5.0 10.0 10.0 m 85.0 10.0 0.0 0.0 5.0 100.0 AU 83.1 8.5 1.7 1.I 5.0 100.0 Petroleum cost (P) per fishing day and sector Sector Cost 5 and bclow 6 - 10 11 - 15 15 and above Total I 35.0 20.0 15.0 30.0 100.0 II 95.0 5.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 m 65.0 25.0 10.0 0.0 100.0 All 65.0 16.7 8.3 10.0 100.0 Continued Table 10 (continued) Cigarette cost (P)per fishing day and sector Sector Cosr 2 and below 3-4 5-6 7-8 9 and above Total I II III 35.0 25.0 30.0 10.0 0.0 100.0 50.0 35.0 15.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 40.0 10.0 35.0 10.0 5.0 100.0 All 41.7 23.3 26.7 6.7 1.7 100.0 Ice cost (P)per rishing day and sect01 Sector Cost 2 and below 3-4 5-6 7 and above Total I 100.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 I1 m All 80,O 15.0 5.0 0.0 100.0 30.0 25.0 40.0 5.0 100.0 70.0 13.3 15.0 1.7 103.0 Food cost (7)per fishing day and sector Sector Cost 5 and below 6-10 11 -15 16 and above Total I II m All 70.0 15.0 15.0 0.0 lM3.0 95.0 5.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 75.0 20.0 0.0 5.0 100.0 80.0 13.3 5.0 1.7 100.0 Markcting cost (T) p=r fishing day and sector Cost 2 and below 3-4 5-6 7-8 9 and ahove ToLal 75.0 5.0 0.0 15.0 5.0 100.0 60.0 15.0 10.0 15.0 0.0 100.0 45.0 10.0 15.0 10.0 20.0 100.0 60.0 10.0 8.3 13.3 8.3 99.9 0 t h costs (B) per fishing day and sector Sector Cost 5 and below 6 - 10 11 - 15 16 and abovc Total I I1 m All 80.0 0.0 10.0 10.0 100.0 90.0 10.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 80.0 20.0 0.0 0.0 100.0 83.3 10.0 3.3 3.3 99.9 150 To include the implicit costs in fishing, some assumptions were made in calculating the opportunity costs for capital and labor. For capi~al, the prevailing savings iritercst rate served as he measure (5%). For labor, a daily (eight-hour work) wage of P35 was assumed. This figure is way below the legal minimum wage rate. But due to widespread unemployment and undcrcmploymcn~ and based on job opportunities and earnings in the area, this figure is deemed reasonable. Table 11 shows the total cost per sector per month. gulf (without taking in10 account other implicit costs, whcthcr social or personal). The long line and dynamite group was h c most cllicicnl, followed by baby trawl. Boltom set gill ncl opcrations were the most inefficient. I-lousehold Expenditures On the avcragc, a coopcralor family spent t1,290 pcr month (Table 13). Those from Scctor I spcnt the highest ($l,%O), followed by thosc liom Scctors TI and I ('81,265) and I11 (PI, 170). Their spending pattern generally exhibited the samc structure except for a relatively higher share of food and a relatively lower share of rccreational cxpcnditures in Sector 111. One need not compare the spending paitern with the povcrty thresholds to recognize the dire poverty stalking the h i l i c s of h e coopcrators. The average monthly share a fisherman obtained from fishing amounted lo P470 in Scctor I, P425 in Sector I1 and F690 in Sector 111 or P530 in all thrce 'scctors combined. By simply comparing such averagc monthly sham with the actual household expcnditures, one could conclude that a fishcrman cannot solely provide the financial ncccssities of a family. Even if it would bc assumcd [hat here are two fishermen per family, each family would still need to look for othcr sourccs of income (except in the case of Sector 111). Net Returns On h e average, the net returns or h e resource rent that "accrued" to each of the coopcralors pcr fishing day was only P17.20. Sector I11 fishermen got a F30.00 resource rent each while those from Sectors 1 and I1 got P26.10 and 8-4.40, rcspcclively. Figs. 1 to 3 illustrate the low net returns and/or incomes from municipal fishing opcrations in L ~ Lingaycn C Gull arm, and provide some cvidcncc that the common access equilibrium may have already been reached in the case of the gulL Efficiency of Gears Table 12 essentially reveals the rcason for the preponderance of dynamite users in thc l'ablc 11. Monthly and scc~oralvariation in avcragc tot.al costs (P) (bolh implicit and explicil) pcr fishing day of rcspot~dcnt-coopcrators. Scctor Month January February March April May June July August September Oc~ober November December Year-round 1 I1 llI All 400- 5u 3=0- Sector 320- 0--. I1 z.-,* m F M - 1 240- ~OL_ .,I_ J I (_-- A M J J A S I O N D Month Fig. 1. Average total cost (7)' (including both explicit and implicit costs) per day of respondent-cooperators by month and sector. Month Fig. 2. Averagc returns (7)per day 01respondent-cwperatorsby month and sector. Preliminary Analysis of Variability in Fishing Effort and Catch Variability of Effort per Fishing Day The following is an attempt to explain variation in time spent in fishing or whatever factors motivate a fisherman to stay longer at sea and exert more effort. The specifications includc the following: E = f ( C , P , H , A , I , S,F,Dl,D2) or in log-log form are logE = loga + BllogC + B~logP + B3logH + B3logA + B4logI + B~logS+ BglogF + B6logD1 + B7logD2 + e where E = numbcr of hours in fishing C = cost of fishing P = weighted price of fish in the area H = household expenditure A = age I = educational attainment =& + -*+ M ,-*+- Month Raturnt 0-0 E k S ---0 - 0 I \ ' \ a 1 \ -200 -300 J I , I I I F M A M J - . ! J Month A S O 1 I N D Fig. 3 (continued) , - 1 d , J F , M A M 1 I J J , A I S , O 1 N ( D Month Fig. 3. Monthly variation in average costs and returns (P) per day of respondent-cooperators. Table 12. Total cost (P),cntch volunlc (kg) and net rctums ( f ) per fishing day for selectcd municipal fishing gears in Lingayen Gulf. Gear type Average total cost Average total volunlc Averagc net return Bottom set gill net Baby trawl Parigdigllift nct Long line and dynamite 88.2 148.4 140.1 110.7 5.6 9.0 15.5 10.4 -4.4 30.4 17.9 62.6 Table 13. Average monthly household expenditures (P)of respondent-cooperators by month and sector. Sector Expense type Fwd Medicine Education Clothing Recreation Utility Others Total I 658.3 97.4 102.1 237.9 87.0 43.4 118.2 1,344.3 ll 636.2 121.7 85.1 130.6 98.4 103.5 89.5 1,265.0 m All 820.2 662.9 107.8 89.4 173.3 75.2 61.2 138.6 24.2 37.5 10.9 1,166.8 86.7 73.4 93.3 1,286.8 154 S = household size F = number of years in fishing Dl, D2 = dummy for sector: if D l = 0, D2 = 0: Scctor I Dl = 1, D2 = 0: Sector I1 D l = 0, D2 = 1: Sector I11 a = constant The results are as i0110ws: logE = log 0.788 + 0.269 logC + 0.357 logP s.e 0.093 0.140 t 2.90 2.55 -0.011 logH - 0.420 logA + 0.216 log1 0.105 0.202 0.108 -0.11 -2.07 2.00 +0.092 logs + 0.065 logF + 0.90 logDl 0.090 0.074 0.154 1.02 0.58 0.58 -0.081 l0gD2 0.146 -0.56 ~2 = 0.6382 Adjusted ~2 = 0.5502 F = 7.251 From the above equation the following can be drawn: Of h e variations, 64% can be ex1. plained by the variables chosen. Of the five explanatory variables, 2. two arc highly signilicant at b 0 . 0 1 (i.e.,cost and weighted price) and two othcrs arc signilicant at b 0 . 0 5 (i.e., agc and education). All havc Ihc cxpccted signs. Variability of Catch The following is an attcmpt to explain variability in catch, V, across the gulf. V = f@,C,P,H, A, I, S,F, Dl, D2) or in log-log form logV = loga -t BllogE + B2logC + B3logP + Bqlogkl + B510gA -I-B6logI + B7logS + BglogF + B9logD1 + B lologD2 The results are as follows: logV = log 0.93 1 + 0.624 logE + 0.986 10gC - 1.32 10gP s.e 0.298 0.186 0.274 t 2.10 5.29 -4.82 - 0.168 logH - 0.242 logA + 0.038 log1 0.191 0.387 0.205 -0.88 -0.62 0.19 - 0.187 logs + 0.168 logF + 0.077 logDl 0.166 0.136 -1.124 1.241 - 0.1001 10gD2 0.265 0.280 0.274 -2.64 ~2 = 0.6814 Adjusted ~2 = 0.5929 F = 7.68 Thc following could be drawn from the above: The specification could account for 1. 68% of the variation in catch, and lhc overall fit is quite good. For most of the variables, the ex2. pected signs were obtained, cxccpt for household size. Of thc cxplanatory variables, cost, price and being in Sector I11 arc highly significant at 0.01 lcvel, while effort and dummies for the sectors are significant at 0.05 level. Conclusion and Recommendations The rcsults abovc indicated the abject povcrty h a t stalks the coastal cornrnunitics surrounding Lingayen Gulf. The irnmediatc reason appears lo be the condition in the area-the dissipation of resource rent due to the ncar a~tainmentof common access equilibrium. Data sets on capitalization, costs and returns and household expenditures support this conclusion. Solcly addressing the common access issue, however, would not solve the problem of poverty. Thc prcscnt situation did not evolve in a socioeconomic vacuum. Factors that may be macro in character must be considered in rhc planning process to remedy thc cxisting situation. I1 must be realized that although programs that dcal with the micro situation might ease poverty (e.g., alternative sourcc of incomc such as backyard poultry and piggery), the benefits would not be long-lasting unless laid down under a holistic macro plan. Some environmentalists havc opincd that thc solution to environmental degrathtion and natural resources dcpletion could not be found in the sectoral areas themselves. This is bccausc the rml causative factors stem from the social and cconomic structures of the counh-y. The problems of inequity on the macro level need to be addressed, and rcal industrialization should bc pursued lo increasc opportunities and draw manpower from lhc natural resources and agricullure scctors. Givcn these considerations, the lollowing proposals specific to the Lingayen Gull area need attention: I. With the relatively high capitalization in the area, a stop to credit schemes for fishing capitallequipmcnt should bc effectcd and the availablc funds rcchanneled for socioeconomic projccts that would be community-based and that rest on the principle of cooperation and sclfreliance. This proposal is not only to ease somc pressure away from L ~ C resourccs, but also to promote better ins~iiutionalstructures that could be the basis of a community-based resources management program. Alternative sourccs of income must bc promoted and should consider the nature of fishing and the number of days spent for fishing. One should also consider the possible role of other family mcmbers, especially those of thc women and children. Some pricing mechanisms that would show and internalize the real costs of illegal fishing (such as dynamite fishing) are needed. As may be gleaned from the data, the "efficiency" ol' the gear is the best explanation for thc persistence of illegal fishing methods. No amount of half-heartcd implementation could solve this problem. Studics that would link the micro with he macro situation would bc desirable. Studies of market intcrlinkages could be revealing in thc sense that markct smuctures could be analyzed and imbalances identified. Reference Mines, A. 1986. An assessment of the fisheries of Lingaycn Gulf. PCARRDINSTA Proj. Rep. 26 p. College of Fisheries, University of thc Philippines in the Visayas. Diliman, Quemn City. Prospects for Territorial Use Rights in Fisheries in the Lingayen Gulf Area Ferrer, E. 1989. Prospects for territorial use rights in fisheries in the Lingayen Gulf area, p. 157-162. I n G. Silvestre, E. Miclat and T.-E. Chua (eds.) Tawards sustainable development of the coastal resources of Lingayen Gulf. Philippines, ICLARM Conference Proceedings 17,200 p. Philippine Council for Aquatic and Marine Research and Development, Los Baiios, Lguna, and International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management, Makati, Metro Manila, Philippines. Abstract In many countries, fisheries resources are legally defined as common property and open-access. However, experiences over the decades have shown that open-access exploitatiun of fisheries resources leads to excess fishing capacity and dissipation of resource rents. To overcome the problan of failing fisheries, resources allocatiun through territorial use rights in fisheries (TURFS)have been advocated. In Lingayen Gulf, TURFS have been known to exist in the form of exclusive use rights in the construction of fish corrals, oyster culture beds, catching of fish fry and, mote recenrly, in the laying down of artificial reefs. The natural acquisition of TURFSby fishermen's organizations in connection with their anihcial reef projects opens the feasibility of a community-managed TURF. I h e existence of traditional use rights in the use of payao and artificial reefs enhances the feasibility of using or adopting localized/traditional TURFSto meet both economic and social objectives. Introduction In many countries, fisheries resources are legally defined as common property and open-access. However, experiences with many fish stocks over the decades have shown lhat open-access exploitation of fisheries resources leads to excess fishing capacity and dissipation of resources rents. Failing open-access fisheries throughout the world have been characterized by declining total yields, sharp decreases in the yield per unit of fishing effort, disappearance of the more highly valued species, cutthroat competition among fishermen and, in some cases, the economic collapse of the fishing industry (Berkes 1986). Lingayen Gulf is not exempted from this trend. Management Alternatives To overcome the problem of failing fisheries, several management alternatives have been put forward. These include, among others, the following (Panayotou 1982): 1. Selectivity of gear - such as restriction on the size of meshes, spacing Wollege of Social Work and Community Development, University of the Philippines, Dilirnan, Q u e m City, Philippines. 158 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. of hooks or thc opening of pots, aim to achicvc and mantain the most productive age slruclme of the stock by allowing immaturc fish to grow larger and more valuable, and possibly to reproduce bcfore hey arc caught. Gcar restrictions - such as bans on thc use of poisons and explosivcs, aim a1 11icprotecuon of the resource and ~ t productivity. s Seasonal and arca closures - aiming lo improvc the produclivily of the resourccs by ensurmg uninlcrrupted spawning and protection of juvcnile fish; the closure of a fishery during ccrtain scasons or in c c r ~ i nareas may also control total eSSort and catch. Catch quotas - aim to improvc the producttvily of the stocks through (lircct control of fishing mortality; thcorctically, my catch quota can be sct and enforced, thercby, maintmning thc stock at the desrred lcvcl of production. F~qhing cTfort controls - such as l~mits on lhc numbcr of fishing units, quantity of gear, or capacity of vcsscls, aim 10 improve the yield and cconomic performance of thc fishery rhrough the ellmination 01 excessive fishing cffort. Economic controls - such as taxes on effort or catch, royalties and license fecs, aim to mdlrcc~lycontrol fishing cffort by dircclly rcmoving the economic surplus (or resource rent) which cncouragcs ovcrexpansion 01cffort; taxes and Tccs drive a wedge betwecn social and private costs of fishing which dissuade fishermen from expanding cNort beyond thc socially optimum level. Resources allocation through lerritorial rights - such as lcclsehold arrangemenb, h c h i s e s , or allocalions of ownership over an area or a stock, aims to m a t e the appropriate environment Tor self-management through thc establishment of private or communi~y ownership of common propcrty resourccs; the "owncrs" of thc rcsource, having an interest in its currcnt and future productivity, would be inclined to control fishing effort to maximize the net bencfik from thc resources, in much the same way as farmers regulate thcir activities to maximize h e rcturns from their land. The Concept and Practice of Common Property. Thc condition of common propcrty has characterized the usc of most marine fishcries throughout the world Tor sevcral centuries. Briefly, common propcrty resources are those to which access is both frrec and open to a set of users or potential users. Thc consequcnces from the condition of common property includc the following: 1. 2. Tcndency to waste the resource physically. No individual fisherman has an incentive to rcsmin his catch in the intcrest of future returns, for anything he lcaves in thc sea for tomorrow will be taken by othcrs today. Thus, fish stocks tend to be used at, and frequently beyond thc point of maximum sustainable yield. Economic waste. In the absence of controls on capital and labor, thcre will tend to be too much cffort spcnl on too few fish. In overutilized fisherics, the same or evcn larger amount5 of fish can bc taken with fcwer fishermen and vessels than are actually employed. This means that the same or grcater total revenues could bc produccd with lower total costs. The difference betwccn total revenucs and total costs that would occur if access to he fishcries were controllcd, or thc condition of common property were removed, is an "economic rent." In common property fisheries, this rcnt is dissipated because whenever it occurs, it produces a surplus profit to the fishermen. Since access is free and open, thc surplus profit will attract more fishermen. New fishermen and capital will come into the fisheries until rent is totally dissipated. Low income. A related conscquencc 3. is that average incomes of smallscale fishermen tend to be at, or close to,the bottom of the scalc. Conflict. This occurs in the form of 4. congestion among fishermen using the same resource with the same gear; among large- and small-scale fishermen using different gears for the same resources or among fish: ermen using different kinds of gears for different stocks but on the same spacc, as between mobile trawlers and fixed nets or pots. In essence, the consequences of free and open-access fisheries are generally quite damaging. The only possible rationale for this is that it offers employment opportunities in situations where alternative opportunities are scarce or nonexistent. But this is a bcncfit which, in the long run, may be outweighed by ~ h olhcr c darnagc. The Concept and Practice of Territorial Use Rights in Fisheries such as lagoons, along beaches, and with regard to coral reefs. More recently, TURFs are being established, legally or illegally, with FADS and othcr new or rcccntly cxpanded technologies. Range and Variety TCTRFs are more pervasive than previously thought to bc Ihc case, in both modcm and traditional marine fisheries. A partial list of fisheries and techniques using or permitting exclusive TURFs would indicale this. These include the following (Christy 1982): 1. Oyster and clam bottom 2. Scawccdbcds 3. Raft culture 4. FADS: floating (e.g., payao) and fixed on the bottom (e.g., artificial reefs) 5. Bcach seine rights 6. Fishpcns and cagcs 7. Set net rights 8. Bottom fish traps (e.g., lobster pots and octopus shelters) 9. Coral reefs 10. Lagoon fisheries 11. Fish traps/co~~als To the author's knowledge, all of these varieties of TURFs except probably beach seinc rights and set net rights, exist in Lingaycn Gulf. Significance TURFs have becn known to exist for centurics. In fact, community fishing rights and other forms of proprietary rights have been the rulc rather than Ihc cxception in many traditional coastal fisherics. They have emerged (and some arc still maintained) where cond~tionspermit relatively easy acquisition and defense of exclusive rights. Scdcntary resources such as oysters, musscls, and seaweeds have long bcen subjcct to use rights. Encloscd bodies of freshwater (ponds, lakes and flood plains) have also been subject to exclusive usc rights for centuries (Christy 1982). TURFs have also emerged in areas or situations where ease of acquisition and dcfensc of exclusivc rights are not readily apparent. They have developed in marinc areas Christy (1982) pointed out scvcral consequences of TURFs, which include the following: Prevention of the damaging conse1. quences of common property. A TURF can remove, to a greater or lesser extcpt, the conditions of common property, thus reducing their negative consequences (e.g., the tendency to waste the resource physically). TURF owners can limit the inputs of capital and labor at the point where the greatest net benefits are produced. This could be the p i n t where net economic rcvcnues or social objectives arc maximized (such as maximum employment at satisfactory levels of income). Improvcment of the welfare of small-scale fishing communities and enhancement of equity. Communitymanaged TURFs provide both opportunity and incentive to manage the resources within the terntory. Since thc owners (group of individuals or community) of TURFs have an exclusive right to future products, it will be in their interest to ensure the flow of future products. This would facilitate the imposition of management measures as wcll as cnforcement. Thc mosl effective form of enforcement occurs where it is in the self-interest of thc uscr lo comply with the rules. Enhancement of self-regulation and help in minimizing conflicts. TURFs are viable especially for small-scale fisheries wherein thc community of uscrs is rclatively homogenous, and the group size is relatively small. Reciprocal and mutually rcinforcing relationships are feasible, thus, facilitating self-regulation and minimizing conflicts. Possiblc creation of a class of "sealords" or monopoly of the resources. While community-managcd TURFS provide control over the resources and thc bcncfits dcrived from them, the opposite can be damaging to the plight of small-scale fishermen. If locali~cdTURFs dcvclop on their own, without effective community control, these may creak a class of "sealords" and result in a monopoly of resources. Thc case of the fishpens in Laguna Lake illustratcs this. The Philippine Experience: A I.listorical Perspective Prior to Spanish colonization, the Philippines was inhabi~dby various ethnic groups organized into independent villages known as barangay. No comprehensive account exists of thc manner in which these communities relate to their environment, particularly the coastal resources. But early Spanish documents (in Blair and Robertson 1903-1909) as citcd by Lopez (1983) mentioned that: Barangay in the vicinity of Manila. claimed as much of the sea and ncarby rivers as they could defend against neighboring harangay (!2rancisco Colin 1663); and Tagalogs established fishery limits and set aside sections of river for use as trading centers. Usc of these areas by nonmembers of a settlement was contingent on the payment of fees (Juan de Plasencia 1589). As the Spanish rule prospered, the barangay were incorporated into the dominant sociopolitical system, and with it TURFs claimed by each village broke down. Cwastal and offshore waters became open to exploitation by all partics who had the means to do so. During the American occupation of thc Philippines, exclusivc use of coastal waters, this time by individuals, was again established by the Fisheries Act of 1932 for fish corrals, fishponds, oyster culture beds and for fry gathering. However, municipal fishing liccnscs issued under the act still allowed subsistence fishcrmcn to exploit all waters within the jurisdiction oC a municipality. The Lingayen Gulf Area In at lcast onc locality (Bolinao, Pangasinan), lhe Fisheries Act was used to conccntrate control of municipal waters within a small circlc of the affluent. Waters to a depth of 10 fathoms (18 m) were divided Into five or six lots and leased by auction. Concessionaircs cxacted fees from net fishcrmcn and corral-builders who wished to opcratc within thcir lots, based on estimates of potential catch. Hmk-and-line fishermen were exempt from this levy becausc heir catches were considcrcd negligible. The concessionaire could then control thc number of fishermen utilizing his lot and, at least in theory, make surc his stock would remain productive (Lopcz 1983). The exclusive use of comtal waters by individuals or corporations continues up to the present, and remains the dominant arrangement for TURFS in Lingayen Gulf. For instance, Ordinance No. 8 from the Office of the Municipal Secretary (series of 1976) of Bolinao and known as the "Basic Fishery Ordinance" declares: "Operating fish corrals, oyster culture beds or catching of 'bangus fry' or fry of other species for propagation shall be considered as exclusive fishery privileges which shall be gmnted always to the highest biddcr in public bidding held according to the provisions of this Ordinance." In thc municipality of Sual, TURFSfor fish cages and stationary lift nets have been awardcd to individuals or corporations. Similar arrangements exist for the oyster rafts and musscl stakes off Binmaley and San Fabian. Fish corrals all over the gulf are administered undcr individual or corporatc franchises. In thc municipality of Agoo, La Union, a similar provision for exclusivc use of coastal watcrs in the operation of fish corrals, oyster culture beds and fry gathering exists in the ordinance pcrtaining to fisheries. Howcvcr, therc arc no clear provisions with rcgard to the operation of puyuo or FADS prevalent in the La Union area of Lingayen Gulf. Nevertheless, an observation has been made regarding ils use and another FAD, thc artificial rceL Galvez (1988) noted the existence of an imporlant cultural and institutional practice in Bdawartc - a form of sea tenure systcm. As hc observed, "anyonc who has laid down an artificial reef in an area cams the sole right to fish around thc reef." This form of sea tenure may havc developed ovcr Ihe long years hat the people have bccn practising thc laying down of paym. In the process, it has institutionalized a traditional use right in thc operation of payao and its variant, the artificial reef. A recent development in the gulf area is the natural acquisition of TLJRFs by fishermen's organizations in Alaminos, Sual and Labrador in connection with their laying 161 down of artificial reefs in the coastal waters adjoining their communities. In the statement of management rules for thc artificial reef project, the fishcrrnen's organizations statcd categorically that their members should be given priority to the bcncfits accruing from the project. Furthermore, their rules provide that anyonc fishing within 50 m of the artificial rccfs should share 5% of his catch either in cash or in kind. They also provide that only gill net and multiple hook and line may be used in catching fish from thc artificial reds. Blast fishing and cyanide poisoning are strictly prohibited. Working commiltces have also bccn formed to monitor and maintain the operations of the artificial rccfs. This new dcvelopment in thc acquisition and maintenance of TURFS provides an alternative arrangement in CRM. It poses the feasibility of community-based management of TURFS ovcr lhe dominant practicc of individual and corporate management. Lessons and Recommendations Successful expcriences in coastal fisheries managcmcnt indicate the importance of Iradition and local organizations. Fishermcn who have inherited detailed knowledge of the natural environmcnt and time-tested systems for fishing, and who have organized themselves have a better chancc of managing their fishcrics successfully. Thus, in the formulation of a community-based CRM plan for Lingayen Gulf, there is a nccd to cxamine h e ways by which localized/traclitional TURFS can be uscd or adopted to meet both economic and social objectives. Addi~onally, there is a nccd to: 1. Explore the possibility of organizing the small fishermen of Santiago Island and havc thcm bid for the exclusivc use right of setting up fish corrals; 2. Harness the traditional use rights prevailing in the coastal communities in the setting up of artificial reefs; and 3. Incorporate organizing as an esscntial element of community-based CRM. 162 Another critical factor in the success of coastal fisheries management is the use of extra-local authority or "enabling lcgislation" such as provincial or municipal ordinance. Such facilitates the protection of communitymanaged TURFS and givcs legitimacy 10 local rules for the use of the coaslal rcsources. While BFAR is looking inlo the possibility of formulating a fishery administmtive order for the sctting up of arlificial reefs, the provincial boards and municipal councils in the provinces of Pangasinan and La Union can initiate the promulgation of ordmances to protect community-managed TURFS. References Berkes, F. 1986. Local-level management and the common pmhlems: comparative study of Turkish ~qastalfisheries. Mar. Policy lO(3): 215-229. Blair, E.H. and J.A. Robertson. 1903. Thc Philippine Islands, 1493-1898. The Arthur H. Clark Co., Cleveland, Ohio. Christy. F.T.. Jr. 1982. Territorial use rights in marine fisheries: definitions and conditions. F A 0 Fish. Tech. Pap. 227. 10 p. P o d and Agriculture Organi~adotl,Rome. Galvez, R. 1988, Ficld report: CRMP Legal. Institutional and Cultural Division. Collcgc of Social Work and Community Development, University of the Philippines, Quezon City. (Mirnco). Lopez, M.D.G. 1983, Notes on traditional fisheries in the Philippines, p. 191-206. I n R. Kuddle and R.G. Iohannes (cds.) I h e traditional knowledge and management of coastal systems in Asia and the Pacilic. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organizal.ion, Iakana. Panayotoo. T. 1982. Management concepts for s m a h c a l e fisheries: economic and social aspccts. F A 0 Fish. Tech. Pap. 228. 53 p. Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome. Overview of the Development Targets and Concerns for the Province of Pangasinan (1987-1992) ILOCOSREGIONAL DEVELOPMENT COUNCILNATIONAL ECONOMIC DEVEI,OPMENT AUTHORITY(REGIONI)a Ilows Regional Development Council-National Economic Devdopment Authority (IRDCNEDA). 1989. Ovcrview of development targets and concerns for the province of Rngasinan (1987-1992). p. 163-166. In G. Silvestre, E. Miclat and T.-E. Chua (eds.) Towards sustainable development of the coastal resources of Lingaycn Gulf, Philippines. lCLARM Conference Prwecdings 17, 200 p. Philippine Council for Aquatic and Marine Research and Development, Los Baiios. Laguna, and International Center for Iiving Aquatic Resources Managemcnt, Makati, Metro Manila, Philippines. Abstract This p a p givcs an overview or development conoems and targets for the province 01 Pangasinan based rm the medium-term development plan covering the period 1987-1992. It presents a brief profile of thc province, its pressing development problems and objectives/requirements during the plan period. Provincial Profile Pangasinan's land area of 5,368 km2 covers one-fourth of thc Ilocos Region's land area. Pangasinan is composed of 46 municipalities and 1,348 barangay including the cities of Dagupan and San Carlos. The provincial capital is Lingayen. Population, Labor and Employment Pangasinan has ~ h chighcst popula~ion among the four provinces in Region I. h 1987, its total population (including its cities) reached 1,847,300 or 46% of the tola1 regional population. As of April 1988, 714,000 composcd the labor force, 633,000 of which aDon Pedro Bldg., Pagdaraoan, San Fernando, La Union. b1985: t19.00 = US$1.00 were employed; thus a provincial employmen1 rate of 89%. Of those employed, 52% were in agriculture. The unemployment rate ol 11% was highcr than the regional unemploymcnt raic (6%). Family Income and Expenditure The average monthly family income for Pangasinan and ils cities was R,440 in 1985b. However, the average monthly family expenditure was B1,950. Both parameters were below the region's average monthly family income of F'2,620 and expenditure of F2,190. Thc proportion of farnilics earning less than P10,000 annually was 6%. Natural and Financial Resources Infrastructure and Utilities Pangasinan has the largest arable land area in Rcgion I. Of the province's total area (536,818 ha), about 70% are classified as alienable and disposable lands best suited for intcnsive crop production. Its forest lands make up about 30% of the combincd forest area in the Ilocos Rcgion. About 48% oi Pangasinan's land area is used for agricultural production. Pangasinan is a lcading producer of rice, corn, lowland vegetables and livestock. It also has the largest fishpond a m in Region I. Threcfourths of the region's fcshwater area is in Pangasinan. The province bordcrs Lingayen Gulf, Lhc most productive fishing ground in Region I. Communal waters occupy ncarly 5,000 ha, the biggest in the region. The Hundred Islmds in Alaminos, Sual Bcach and other beaches around Lingayen Gulf makc Pangasinan a favorite summer spot, especidly for water-oriented rccreation. In terms of local government revenues, Pangasinan generated P102 million in 1987c representing a per capita revenue of F55 versus the regon's P89. Pangasinan's average pcr capita government expenditure was 860 compared to the region's f77. In 1983, the total road length in Pangasinan represented 26% of the rcgional total. More than one-half of thc roads are asphalted while the rest are of carth and gravcl. In terms of communication facilities, all of thc municipalilics of Pangasinan arc servlced by telegraph facilltles. As of June 1987, there was one postal station lor cvery 36,200 pcrsons. About 87% of the municipalities havc been providcd with electricity. Less than oncfifth of tts total population still has to be supplied with potable water. One-hird of the potentially irrigable land still needs to bc irrigated. Agriculture and Industry During the first half of 1987, Pangasinan accounted lor more than 60% of the ricc production in the Ilocos provinces. Ncarly half of the region's inland fishcrics production came from thc province. In 1986, fish production totallcd 32,000 t, accounting for about 80% of the fish production in the Ilocos provinces. For the thud quarter of 1987, Pangasinan was thc primary source of limestone, shale clay, white clay and guano silica. In 1987, there were 454 ncwly registered business establishments in the province, of which 280 were cngaged 1n trading. Total investrncnts were P45 million. Development Concerns The natural endowments of Pangasinan have been projcctcd to offer growth and development. Certain problems, however, impede thc maximum utilization of these rcsources. Farm siltation and river pollution are two major concerns. Two of the rcgion's major rivcr basins, Agno and Bued, havc served as dumping sites of mine silt and wastes gcncrated by mining companies in Benguet. This river systcm Lravcrses and pollutes wide tracts of agricultural lands in Pangasinan. Decreases in crop produclion (particularly rice) in Pangasinan axe altributcd to the high cost of farmlands and mining activities in thc uplands. Pond management and fingerlmg dispcrsal, technological assistance and coordinated systems of fish production arc still inadequate. Small-scale,,backyard livestock production is common. Its expansion is limited by the lack 01brccdcr stocks and efficicnt dispersal programs, as wcll as inadequate capital to support increased production. Backward linkages of thc indus~ialscctor with the agricultural sector need to be strcngthcncd to complement the planncd increases in crop and livestock production. Marketing and credit facilities and training programs appropriate for craftsmen, production workers and managers are inadequate and constrain the development of small and light industries. Raw materials like rattan, bamboo and narra are dwindling to the detriment of cottage industries. The lack of standard hotels and other necessary tourist facilities hampers the touristdrawing potentials. of Pangasinan. Its wateroriented recreation resources have yet to be fully developed. The rural arcas, particularly in the eastern and western portions, need to be beneficiaries of an expanded program in health, nutrition, family planning, education/training and other social services. These areas lack water, electricity and sanitary disposal systems. Communicable diseases are the main causes of morbidity and mortality. These have yet to be controlled more effectively. In 1987, one-fourth of the childrcn in the 0-6 age group were found to be malnourished. The services of more physicians, nurses and dentists are required by the increasing population. As of June 1987, more than one-fifth of the total number of barangay in Pangasinan needed electrical facilities. Existing school buildings and hwlth facilities need substantial rcpair and improvement. While the road density of the province is slightly highcr than that of the region, many road sections (barangay or farm to market roads) need repair and improvement. Port facilities are inadequate to meet Lhe development in agriculture and industry. Largc arcas, especially in thc castern and central parts, require flood control systems to protect farms and property. Development Targets and Requirements Agriculture and Natural Resources Pangasinan's population is projected to have an annual growth rate of 1.6% during the 1987-1992 period. Its population shall have reached 2,003,000 by 1992. During this period, the percentage of thc total population belonging to the active labor force would be 55%. Continuing to absorb majority of he labor force shall be the agriculture scclor, followed by services and trade. The agriculture, fisheries and forestry sectors shall likcwise experience the highest average annual growth rate in labor absorption during the period. Pangasinan is and will continue to be a major producer and supplier of rice in Region I. For the 1987-1992 period, the area plantcd with rice shall increase by 5% from 196,000 ha in 1987 to 206,000 ha by 1992. Fish production shall grow to be a major livelihood activity for coastal municipalities. Activities, however, should shift from capture fisheries to aquaculture given the rcsourcc situation. Livestock and poultry production shall be encouraged. Meat production is projccted to grow by 1.6%. Vcgctablc, cotton and native burley tobacco production and tree farming shall also be expanded. Industry, Trade and Tourism The development of cottage, small- and medium-scale industries depends on the extension of liberal financial assismcc, ~echnical and consultancy services and manpower and entrepreneurship training needed by the industry. Handicraft, furniture, food processing, machine shop, leather production, leathercraft and cotton spinning are the industries to be developed in Pangasinan. Agricultural and resources-oriented industries need to bc established. A comprehensive survey of the province's mincral resources and other indigenous materials shall be undertaken. The further development of the mineral industry is a high priority. Trade strategies must be focused on the creation of centers and subccntcrs to serve as trading posts for agricultural and industrial products. Additional efforts in product development and standards, and campaigns on responsible consumerism are essential for trade activities. 166 The ncxt five years will call for the improvement of hotcls, inns and other tourist facilities especially in designated tourist zoncs. In all of these activities, adequate infrasmcture support is necessary. Social ServicedFacilities and Infrastructure For the p1,uning period, the increasing number of students at all levels will need a gcncral education that is relevant and supportive 01rcgional and national development. This will require the provision of adequate and well-maintained facilities and the training and retraining or tcachers and school administrators. Moreover, the financial and social well-being of school personnel will demand propcr attention. The provision of quality health care shall seck the service of some 400 midwivcs by 1992. Existing hcalth facilities will nccd to be dispersed strategically in rural areas. Based on planning standards, additional 100 units and 400 units of haranguy health s~alionswill bc needed to serve the population by 1992. Social wclfare projccts for Ihe coming years must fill the need of highlighting the welfarc of the family and the child. Opportunities for work, increased income and productivity muqt be gearcd toward thc disadvantaged groups and individuals. Throughout the whole development period, there is compelling need to provide inlcgrated serviccs in transportation, communication, power, w a w resources and other social facilities. Induced investment supportive of balanccd agroforestry development will requirc the consmuction, repair and mamtcnance of vital support facihties. This requlremcnt, when providcd, shall strengthen the link bclween these complcmentary scctors. The backlog in rural rcads will need to bc minimized within the period. Urban roads are already deenled sufficient. Rural road developmcnt needs grcalcr attention evcn on the assumption that no change occurs on the existing area of agricultural lands. By 1992, 300 postal stations will be needed by thc growing yopulation. Reference IRDC-PPDS-NEDA @ocos Regional Dcveloprnent Council-Pangasinan Provincial Development Staff-National Economic Dcvelopment Authority Rcgion I). 1986. Median-term developnent plan for the province of Pangasinan (1987-1992). National Economic Development Authorily Region I, San Fernando. La Union. Overview of the Development Plan for the Province of La Union (1987-1992) llocos Regional Development Council-National Economic Development Authority. 1989. Overview of the development plan for the province of IA Union (1987-1992). p. 167-179. 111 G. Silvestre. E. Miclat and T.-E.Chua (cds.) Towards susminable development of h e coastal resources of Ligayen Gulf, Philippines. ICLARM Conference Proceedings 17, 2M1 p. Philippine Council for Aquatic and Marine Research and Development. Los Baiios, Laguna. and Intcmational Center for Jiving Aquatic Resources Management, Makati, Metro Manila, Philippines, Abstract 'this paper givcs an overview of developnent programs and objectives for the province of La Union based on the medium-term development plan for the period 1987-1992. It gives a profile of the province, previous development efforts and programs for implementation during the five-year period. Planning Framework land arca of the region and country, respectivcly. It is composed of 20 municipalities and 575 barangay. Of the formcr, San Gabriel has the biggest land area, 17,81.0 ha (12%) while Agoo has the smallest, 3,910 ha (3%) of the total provincial land areas. In terms of the number of barangay, San Fcrnando has the most (59) while Bagulin has the lcast (10). Provincial Profile General profile La Union is located in the southwestern part of the Ilocos ~cgionb.It stretches over a length of 102 km from north to south lying between 1200 15' and 1200 36' E longitude and 160 13' and 160 57' N latitude. It is bounded in the north by nocos Sur, in the south by Pangasinan, in the cast by Benguet and in the west by South China Sea. La Union, with a total land area of 149,300 ha, is considered the smallest province in the region. Its area is 7 % and 0.5% of the total Population and family income In 1980, La Union had a popula~ionof 452,600, which was considered the second highest among the region's seven provinces. It was estimated to have grown at an annual average rate of 2.3% to a level of 508,300 in anon Pedro Bldg., Pagdaraoan, San Fernando, IA Union, Philippines. bThe nocos Region referred to in this paper is the old regional delineation with seven provinces and four cities. 167 168 1985. The growth rate was slightly htgher than the average growth of 1.9% during the 1970-1980 per~odbecause ol the combincd effects of bettcr hcalth and the incrcasc m the immigration slrcarn rcsulling from, among others, the designation of San Fernando as the rcgional capilal, thc cshblishmcnt in 1983 of a State University and the ~mplementalion of major projects prowding lhc pull factors to population migration. The prownce's populat~on1s concentrated in the coastal municipalilies. Almost onethird is in the threc most populated towns of San Fernando, Bauang and Agoo. Thc capital town of San Fernando has rcmained the most populated town with i~ population in 1980 of 68,400 accounting for 15% of the provincial population. Thc least populated towns in 1980 wcrc Lhc upland towns of Bagulin, Burgos, Pugo and S a n d , with a combined population of 26,800 constitutmg only 6% of lhc total provincial population. The population density of the provincc in 1980 was 303 persons/km2. Thc municipality of Agoo had the highest density with 891 persons/km2 whilc San Gabricl, the largest municipality in terms of land area, had the lowest with 58 persons/km2. The lowland/ coastal municipalities, on the avcragc, wcrc more densely populated than thc upland municipalities. On lhe avcragc, there are sl~ghtlymore womcn than mcn in the province, with a ratio of 98 men for cvcry 100 women. In 1980, in ~ h young c segment of the population, i.c., in the 0-19 age group, Ihc raho was 106 men to 100 womcn. In the older age groups, the opposite was true, 100 womcn to 90 mcn. La Union's population is growing older as shown by the decreasing proporlion (to tola1 population) of thc 0-14 age group. Since 1970, whcn this group accounted for 44%, the proportion has gonc down to 40% in 1980 and to 39% in 1985. Thc 15-64 agc group, an the olher hand, has increased in proportion from 53% in 1975 Lo almosl 56% in 1985. The implications of his LO the province's employment generating capacity arc of primc consideration in planning. In terms o l age dependency ratios, La Union in 1980 had 85 depcndcn~for cvcry 100 polcnlial carncrs. The number has declined to 79 in 1985. Of the tohl number of dependents in 1980, 75 belonged to the 0-14 age group while 10 were aged dependents. In 1980 the provincc had a predominantly rural population with 84%. Except for San Fernando, all the municipalities had more than four-fifths of their population in thc rural areas. The municipalities of Bagulin, Burgos and Sanlol, all upland municipalities, havc rcmaincd totally rural cven as of 1985. The urban-rural population ratio in 1980 was 19 to 100, and in 1985. 22 to 100. Thc tempo of urbakzafion during this pxiod was 3%. Although both urban and rural areas exhibit similar trcnds of dccrcasing proportions in thc youth group (0-14) and increasing in the potential economically active group (1564),thc lcvcls vary. In 1980, the proportion of the youth group LO the 15-&I age group in the urban and rural areas was 37% to 41 9% and 53% to 57%, respectively. Also in 1980, lhc number of dependents in the rural areas was higher Lhan that in the urban ones. Evcry 100 pcrsons in the productivc agc group of the urban population had 75 dcpcndcnls while every 100 in the rural population had 87 persons. Thcsc figurcs imply the necessity of providing more incomc-gcncrating opportunities in the n ~ m areas. l Part of La Union's population growth comes from a net immigration flow. For the period 1975- 1980, thc nct immigration rate was 3.2/1,000 persons, or a gain of 1,470 pcrsons. Of the total gain, 23% were intrarcgional migrants while the rest were interregional migrants. In 1985, ~hcrcwere about 90,000 hrnilies in La Union with an annual average family income of P36,600c. The urban family's average annual income of B48,000 was almost 40% more than the rural family's P34,500. In terms of distribution by income class, around 80% of thc families (72,800) have incomes equal to or less than the annual average. There was a higher proportion of rural families (72%) receiving less than the rural average income as compared to the urban families (69%). Financial resources In 1983, La Union had a total revenue of P18.3 rnilliond, 51% of which came from internal rcvenue and specific tax allotments. One-fourth of the total revenues were in the form of national aid. Only 21.4% of these revenucs came from the exercise of the province's taxing powcr and its proprietary or busincss activitics. In 1983, too, the province incurred expenditures amounting to P17.1 million for economic development (30%), capital outlays (23%), public welfare (15%) and general adminiswation (15%). San Fernando, a first-class municipality, had a total revenue of 17.7 million, the highest of the 20 municipalities. Bagulin, a fifthclass municipality had the lowest revcnue, B224,OOO. Past Development Trends Production As of 1985, thc total area for crop production was 51,540 ha, 96% of which were for temporary crops and 4%, for permanent crops. Since 1980, the area cultivated to crops increased by 10.5% or an annual increase of 2%. Rice is the most widely grown crop in the province, with 64% of the total agricultural area in 1985 devoted to its cultivation. Rice crop yield in 1985 was 128,200 t (2.56 million cavan at 50 kglcavan), or an average yield per ha of 3.9 t (77 cavanlha). This level of yield was 22% below the Masagana 99 (a government national rice production program) target of 99 cavanlha. Irrigated areas gave a greater yield of 4.3 ma, 14% higher than that of rainfed areas' 3.8 t. Tobacco remains to be the main commercial crop of the province. In 1985, tobacco production 169 reached 5,900 t, harvested from 5,980 ha. This yield was roughly equal to the national average of 1.0 ma. Vegetable areas covered 8,580 ha or 14% of the total crop area for 1985. Vegetable production of 48,300 t from 8,580 ha placed vegetable productivity at 5.6 tiha. During the 1978-1982period, poultry production declined by an annual rate of 5.6%. Livestock production generally increased at an annual rate of O.9%, with carabao and goat production registering positive growth rates of 0.2% and 5.4%, respectively, and cattle and hog production repstering negative growth rates of 3.1% and 1.1%, respectively. Fisheries production remained practically stagnant during the 1983-1984 period, with production increasing only by 0.4%. Commercial and inland fisheries production registered positive growths but municipal fishing, which accounts for more than half of the total fisheries production, registered a negative 32% growth. Cement production in the province, both in terms of output and value, declincd from 6.54 million bags in 1983 to 4.75 million bags in 1984. Likewise, output of sand and gravel and pebbles declined. But, limestone production increased from 338,000 t in 1983 to 477,000 t in 1984. The declining trend in production may be attributed to the general economic slowdown experienced nationwide. Labor force and employment Thc population of 15 years old and ovcr reached 293,700 in 1983 from a level of 260,000 in 1977, or an annual growth rate of 2%. The labor force participation ratc fluctuated during the six-year period (1977-1983), with an average level at 63%. The highcst rate was noted in 1982 at 72% while thc lowcst was in 1977 at 57%. In 1985, the rate even went down to 55%. Ernploymcnt rates also fluctuated and averaged 95%. A downward trend was noted in 1977-1982 pcriod, from 95% in 1977 to 92% in 1982. In the 1975-1984 pcriod, the agriculture, fisheries and forestry groups registered a generally declining trend, with an average annual rate of decline of 3%. 170 Two major indusQ groups registered negative growths (in tcrms of employment) during the 1975-1980 period: manufacturing with an annual rate of 2% and wholesale and retail group, with 5%. The 1980-1984 period saw tremendous declines in the electricity, gas and water groups with annual decline of 12%, and in the agriculture, fisheries and forestry groups with 9%. The financing, insurance and real estate, and the transport, stcrage and communication groups registered moderate rates of decline at 5% and 4% annually, respectively. Development Challenges Low incomes The average income per family in 1985 was P36,600. Although this level was 19% more than the regional average, it was still considered relatively low. Estimates made by NEDA placed the poverty line . a1 B3 1,3o()/year. With averagc income at only 17% morc than thc poverty line, it is estimated that 65% of the families in La Union have incomcs lower lhan the threshold levcl. Uneven growth and development Despite generally having a relatively higher lcvel of develop~nentcompared with the other provinces in the region, many rural households in La Union barely bcnefit from the effects of such growth. Many municipalities, particularly those at thc foot of the cordillera Mountain, remain isolated from the mainstream of the development process due to lack of access, both in physical and economic terms, to productivc activities, services and facilities. Such disparities in growth are evidenced by the following : 1. In 1984, San Fernando had revenues four times morc than the socond highest earning municipality, Agw. 2. Also in 1984, the 1389,400e average revenue of the four most depressed municipalities (all upland) was only 12% of the average rcvenue of the thrce municipalities (all coastal) with the highest revenuc next to San Fernando. 3. In 1985, the average annual family income or an urban family, 148,000 was 40% more than that of its rural counterpart. Geographically, growth has not been widespread but has largely been focused on the coastal and developed areas. This may bc attributed to the growth center approach which caused the funnelling of investrncnts in a few municipalities. Environmental degradation The destructive effects of indiscriminate disposal of industrial wastes, especially minc tailings, from the upland provinces; increasing forest denudation for agricultural purposes (e-g., shirting cultivation or felling of trees for fuel in the tobacco industry); and the proliferation of illegal means of fishing have been manifested by the frequency of destructive flash floods, inefficiency of river and irrigation systems and the dsappearance of certain species of aquatic animals. Aggravating this increasing environmental stress is the prescnce of such pollutive entities as cement plant, tobacco redrying plants and large-scale swine breeding which emits an obnoxious odor. Rising social problems resulting from the qualitative inadequacy of social services In terms of social facilities like schools and hospitals, the provincc is generally sufficiently provided for. In terms of the service component, however, the province is found wanting. For instance, while the classroompupil ratio is 1:22, the teacher-student ratio is 1:31 at Lhe secondary level. Although adequate in number, many of the facilities are in a dismal state of disrepair, thus contributing to the low levcl of social services offered. Some services particularly needed in urban areas (e.g. sewerage, solid waste disposal) are not adequately provided, if at all. The incidence of drug depcndency, juvenile delin- 171 quency and prostitution remains unabated because of the inadequacy, if not complete absence, of services and facilities to counteract them. People's participation and program orientation Project/program identification has largely been motivated politically and by the national government and has focused considerably on the showcase type of project. This is not to say, however, that these projects have not succeeded in providing some of the basic socioeconomic development prerequisites, like income and employment. To a limited extent, they have. The point is that external assistance could be of limited efficacy and could be misdirected without local participation. Externally generated programs become of limited efficacy when these require local participation only at the implementation phase. They also become misdirected when geared solely to serve the national interests or, much worse, the interests of those initiating and irnplementing them, totally neglecting local inputs. The challenge, therefore, consists of redesigning nationally formulated programs/ projects so that these will be relevant not only to the national interests but also to the local communities. Strategic location and function of the province La Union has been dubbed as the "gateway to the North" because its main roads lead to the northern coastal provinces like Ilocos Sur, Ilocos Norte and Cagayan and to inland ones like Benguet and Abra. Moreover, the province's capital, San Fernando, is the center of the Ilocos Region. These, obviously, bind La Union to the rest of the region. As such, the province cannot plan for its development in total isolation from the rest of the provinces in the region. Inevitably, its planning horizon, at least in particular aspects, needs to transcend its political boundaries. Development Framework Objectives The basic objectives of the La Union FiveYear Plan are to: Increase incomc and productivity levels to attain a "better quality of life." This requircs the expansion of employment opportunities for the unemployed and the underemployed, and the intensification of projects lo expand the output of essential items like food to provide not only for the minimum consumption of the province's population but also to generate surplus for export. Ensure a more equitable distribution of economic opportunities. The distribution policy will seek to ensure that the more depressed segments of the population would enjoy higher levels of economic and social services in order to lessen the geographic development disparities and income differentiation. Attain a higher level of social development. The delivery of social services will be improved, expanded and made more responsive in thc depressed and underserved areas to attain a higher level of well-being among the people of L a Union. These services include those on health, education and social justice. Improve environmental quality. While intensified economic growth is an overriding objective, it should not be pursued at the expense of the environment. Effective measures to control the ill effects of pollutive industries should be devised. Increase local participation in the development process. Existing local institutions shall be activated and strengthened to ensurc their effective delivery of development services. Devise a settlement pattern conducive LO the development of the province as an administrative center. The fulfillment of this objective requires the consideration not only of the existing relationship between production areas and market centers and urban-rural areas within Integrated Arca Development (IAD) boundaries, but also of the implications of tha multifunctional roles of certain municipalities of the province, particularly San Fernando. One of this municipality's roles, that as an administrative center, connotes its being a service area which transcends provincial boundaries. The plan also intends to set boundaries to create kcy and support programs as shown in Table 1. Overall Strategy The IAD strategy was adopted not only to set a new pace and direction in the overall development of La Union, but also to achieve complementarity of combined intervention efforts or inputs of both private and government entities, whether in the form of policies, institutions, programs and projects on the onc hand; and popular participation in the planning and implcmcntation process, on the other. The IAD concept is deemed appropriate in La Union as a response to the need for balanced developrncnt between the predorninantly rural agrarian and fast-growing urban sectors. Through IAD, the rural areas, especially the upland towns where agriculture remains the key economic activity, shall be linked to the urban centers in the coastal areas where the finance, technology and organizational expertise needed to stimulate development are located. The application of IAD to La Union is sccn to be a step towards meeting the present government's commitment to develop the countryside and the dcpressed urban areaslgroups. For planning purposes, and considering such factors as geographic unity and cohesion, thc province has been divided into three sub-IADs as follows: Area I (northern area) - Luna, Balaoan, Santol, Bangar, and Sudipon. Area I1 (central area) - San Fernando, San Juan, Bacnotan, Naguilian, San Gabriel, Bauang, Bagulin and Burgos. Area I11 (southern area) - Caba, Aringay, Agoo, Rosario, Tubao, h g o and Sto. Tomas. Spatial Development Framework Existing Land Capability and Use A large portion of the province's land area, with varying range of slopes from 0-3% and 30% and above, is class R which is suitable for forest production and limited grazing. This class occupies an area of 100,410 ha or 67% of the province's total land area. Belonging to classes ,A, Bs and Bw are 39,570 ha (27%) of the total land area which are suitablc for crop production with varying requirements for soil conservation. Class X which is found along the province's coastal areas facing South China Sea occupies an mca of 1,570 ha (1%). Ofthe total land area of La Union, 108,290 ha (73%) are classified as alienable or disposable, 8,410 ha (7.7%) of which are under urban and industrial uses; 52,210 ha (42%), under cultivation; 1,480 ha (13%) for inland fisheries; 44,810 ha (41%) of grasslands and 350 ha reserved for a national park. Based on thcse figurcs, it can be noted that there is an indiscriminate'land use mix and a lack of spatial interrclationship. This can bc attributed to urbanization and the lack of proper zoning ordinances. In terms of development, coastal municipalities are being favored at the expense of inland municipalities which are lagging behind. Among the areas that are highly urbanized are San Fernando, Bauang, Agoo and Rosario. Builtup areas account for 8,407 ha of occupicd lands which are mainly concentrated along major transport routes. Land capability assessment shows that 39,570 ha are classified as prime agricultural land capable of sustaining the economic productivity levels of crops/land use over time Tablc 1. Key and support programs to be created by the La Union development plan, with their respeclive objectives and strategies. Program Key Agricul~uraldevelopment Natural rcsources conservation and environmental proleclion Rural indu slrialization Objectives Maximize rice produc~ionand achieve self-sufficiency in other food like vcgembles, corn, fish. livestock and pouliry. Increase production of commercial and other agricul~uralcrops sewing as raw malerial inpub for manufaduring and processing induslries. Provide, improve and expand markekng and other poslharvesl facilities and services. Reorient agriculture research to the demands of an intensified and diversified agricultural slrategy. Intensify extension sewices and credit support especially in h e production 01long-geslalion/pernnial crops. Strategies Expansion of agricd~ureand fisheries areas. In~ensificationof produchn Lhrough Ihe use of finproved varieties and the provision of other inputs and support activities. Diversification of production by employing multipk and intercropping mehods. Specialization in crops where the province has a comparative advantage (e.g., tobacco and grapes). Conscrve and protect forest areas, natural reserves, marine resources and olher environmenta1ly cri~icalareas. Minimize, if not completely stop, the use of environmentally destmctive melhods of resources exploilation, e.g., blast fishing, h i n g i n , erc. Introduce measures LO rehabilitate areas put to inappropriate use, e.g., kaingin areas. Reforeslation/agroforesla~ion of identified dcnudcd forcsts or forest lands encroached upon for agricultural use. Promo~ion of comrnunityJcooperative effort in both resources exploilalion and conservation and rnanagemenl. Promo~e/developcoltage and small-scale industries using agriculiural crops indigenous 10 the province as inputs. Provide h e necessary impetus and intensified suppoi? lo reinforced agriculture development by utilizing surplus. Promole employment-generaling aclivilies to enhance rural incomes. Encouraging the development of labor-intensive industries for the manufacture and processing of agricullural inpub and tools and machineries. Hastening of subclassfication of public forests. + Continued 4 W Table 1. (wntinucd) Program Support Support services and lacililies Objeclives S~ralegies Provide the nceded social support services and iniraslmc~urefacililies. More qualiblive improvement of exisling facilities and services and addilion of these to focus on undersewed and unserved areas. Insritu~ionaLdevelopment Improve the province's capabilily LOplan for and manage iu developmenl. Enhance bcncliciary participa1ion in programJproject planning and irnplmenlation. Promote efficient instiru~ionallinkages and coordination for devclopmenr planning. Ac~ivationo l existing entities and linkages for developmcnt planning. Involvement of intended beneficiaries as early as in the project plaming stage. Integralion of aclivities across the spatial and functional areas. Domcstic ouri ism promotion Increase domes~iclourkt arrivals. Develop h e lourism sector as a support market for coltagc industry products. Creahn of a systematic tourism marketing program. Setling up of commercial centers within tourisrs' destina~ion 10 market cottage industry products. Urban infras~ructurepackage Upgrade infras~mcturefacilities to meet the growing nccds of a rapidly urbanizing rcgional centcr. with ICSSinput to production and without any adverse effect on the, immediate and adjoining environment. However, the existing land use for agricultural purposes is figured at 52,210 ha. This docs not mean that there is no room for expansion sincc not all the agricultural areas (66,760 ha) fall within prime agricultural lands. Potential prime areas for agriculture (2,575 ha) were determined to bc in the northernmost and southernmost municipalities of the province, notably Sudipen, Balaoan, Bacnotan, Bangar, ~ o s h i o ,Agoo and Sto. Tomas. Area dcvcloprnent for agricultural purposes shall be limitcd to 18% slope and below. There are agricultural activities in some upland areas adversely affecting environmental quality. These cultivated portions are found in the eastern part of the province, notably in the municipalities of Santol, San Gabriel, Bagulin, Burgos, Tubao and Pugo. Of the province's 19,389 ha of potential irrigable areas, 93% or 18,064 ha are already irrigated. The existing irrigation systems, mostly under the sup&sion of the National Irrigation Administration, are the Amburayan Irrigation System servicing Sudipen, Bangar, Balaoan and Luna; and the Masalip River Irrigation System servicing Agoo, Aringay, Sto. Tornas and Tubao. As of 1984, La Union had 41,020 ha or 27% of its total land area classified as forest land. Out of this area, about 29,790 ha or 73.6% were classified as timberland. A watershed reserve of 90 ha is located at Naguilian for protection of the watershed area of Naguilian River. Of this forest land, a 210-ha park along the coast of Darnortis and Agoo was reserved for mangrove forest. Civil and military reservations accounted for 1,085 ha. Brushlands covered 9,836 ha or 24% of the total forcst area. Encroachment of forest lands with agricultural activities is one of the pressing problems in the proper managcmcnt of forcst areas. Shifting cultivation which uses lowlevel farming system technology deprives the area not only of its forest cover but also of its habitat and sanctuaries for game and wildlife. These areas were identified to bc in thc municipalities of Pugo, Santol, San Gabriel, Bagulin and Aringay . Mineral land covered 1,030 ha or 0.6% of the total land area of the nrovincc. Mclallic dcposits in the form of titanefcrous magnetite sand which account for a volume of 23.3 million t can bc found in Aringay, Caba, Agoo, Bacnotan and Sto. Tomas. As of 1.985, there was no reporkd exploila~ionactivity made on such mineral resource. on metallic deposits in the Corm of limcstonc arc abundant in thc municipalities of Bacnotan, Balaoan and San Fernando with a total reserve of 69.1 million t. Considcring the prcscnce of Bacnotan Consolidated Industries (BCI) which tapped these resources for cement making, establishing another cemcnt project is not practical. BCI is classified as a hcavy pollutive industry. Its pollution effects are in 200-500 m radius in the form of dust particles and smoke emitted. Other mincral deposits are in the form of agillaceous, sticky clay and white and gritty clay. Of these deposits, sticky clay is the most promising source of income. It is used in potterymaking which augments rural income, and is abundant in almost all parts of the province. Opcnland/grassland areas are the most vulnerable to intcnsivc land usc sincc thcir conversion needs less effort. Of the 62,950 ha of opcnland/brushland, 30,260 ha can be converted for forestry or agroforestry purposes. Openland/grassland with forcsl land should be subjeckd to intensive forestation activitics. Wetlands fall undcr land capability class X which are most suitable for fishpond devclopmcnt. Of the 1,570 ha, Luna has thc highest potential area of 840 ha; Bauang and San Fernando have 390 ha and 340 ha, respectively. Proposed Land Use Plan Being a limited resource, land should bc utilized, acquired and disposed of vcry carcfully. Hence, the allocation, intensity of land usc activitics and thc typc, design nnd location of structures and facilities are dctermined, thus: 1. Encourage the highest and best use, harmonizing private interests with social and economic policies; 176 2. Ensure the quality of air, water and other environmental values; Optimize the benefits and minimize 3. the cost of public ulililics, services and infrastructure and other development costs; 4. Maximize the utilization of land; and 5. Reconcile conflicts, whether interternporal or bctween present and future needs. Land use planning involvcs deliberate and studied efforts of minimizing, if not entirely preventing, the undesirable effects of unregulated and unplanned developments such as conflicting land uses, inadequate or subslandard facilities and services, congestion of people and activities and uneconomic and wasteful use of space. The most appropriate use of land is determined based on carefully undertaken studies and surveys. Thus, the land usc planning study for La Union was undertaken to equate proper utilization of land resources with any development efforts in thc area. The timing and phasing of the present land uses to other aspects within the framework of the overall growth and development of La Union are neccssary. The restriction policies for land use planning are recommended to fully attain the maximum benefits from the land. The existing urban land usc shows that thcrc arc low-density settlements in the occupied areas in Lhc province as of 1983. During the five-year planning period, it is assumed that expansion of arcas for urban use is limikd, cxcept for the three identified growth centers which are projected to have a 2.8% annual increase in land area for urban use. It is therefore recornmcndcd that areas identified in this plan bc prioritized. The expansion of urban and rural settlements has to be regulated by local land use plans and zoning ordinances. No expansion should bc allowed in areas designated for cropland, pasture, inland fisheries, exploited forests and mining and quarrying. Agricultural land expansion shall be limited to areas with 18% slope and bclow. This, however, does not apply to areas above 18% that are already utilized for agricultural pur- poses, provided that the occupancy of said area will not bc expanded. Howcvcr, these areas which are susccptible to degradation shall be protected to preserve environmental quality and minimize destruction. Potential areas for agricultural expansion arc identified as belonging to sub-IAD I and 111 where most lands are fertile and the slope is relativcly plain and undulating. These are the municipalities of Sudipen, Balaoan, Bangar and Bacnotan for Arca I and Agoo, Rosario, and Sto. Tomas for Area 111. Upland stabilization programs shall be implernentcd in thc municipalities of Santol, Burgos, San Gabriel, Bagulin, Tubao and Pugo whcrc agricultural activities are being undertaken. The ecological significance of the forest ecosystem is an important factor to consider in planning for development. The following functions or characteristics of natural ecosystems are relevant to planning: 1. Flora and fauna genepools/reservoirs for indigenous, rare, threatcncd or common spccics; 2. Nursing and breeding areM for gamc and wildlire; 3. Natural barriers to protecl/clcanse the areas from natural impacts; 4. Areas of high biological productivity essential lo food chain/web; 5. Primary habitat for specics perpetuationlprotcction; and 6. Areas which promote resources renewal. These functions clearly show the necessity to protect and develop important ecosystems that are sensitive and susceptible particularly to the impact of pollution, resources extraction, infrastructure developmen~industrialization and incompatible land uses. An ecologically significant area Identified in the province which nccds protection and rehabililation is the National Seashorc Park along Agoo-Damortis coastal area. The mangrove forest which covers the foreshore area must be developed and prcscrvd. Other areas of major significance are the two watersheds of the three major rivers and those classified as permanently protected forest in the municipalities of Santol, Bagulin, San Gabriel and Burgos. Existing and Proposed Hierarchy of Settlements As of 1980, the most populous town in La Union was San Fernando, with a population of 68,410 accounting for 15% of the total provincial population. The least populated was Burgos, an upland municipality, which population of 4,149 was less than 1% of the total provincial population. In terms of urban-ma1 population ratios, San Fernando had the highest, ,62 to 100, followed by Balaoan, 21 to 100; Aringay, 20 to 100; and San Gabriel, 18 to 100. Applying the scalogram technique to determinc the functional hierarchy of settlements in La Union, it was found that, based on 23 functions considcred, the 20 municipalities can be ranked into nine levels which are given in Table 2. This hierarchy underscores the existing imbalance among the municipalities in La Union, particularly between the lowland/ coastal and upland municipalities. 177 Wilhin the five-year period, San Fernando will remain to have multilevel functions: as regional and provincial and sub-IAD center. Beyond this period, however, San Fernando is envisioned to be transformed into a totally urban settlement, the functions of which shall be of higher level and of more specialized typesTo prepare for this, two minor centers shall be developed lo lake over the lower services, especially those on agricultural input and output market services. Bacnotan shall eventually serve the needs of the central municipalities of San Juan and San Gabriel including portions of Balaoan and Santol, while San Fernando is the province's center which offers both basic and specialized services and facilities (e-g., for education, health and cornmercc). However, it appears that Agoo is being developed as an alternative center of the province. To attain spatial integration in La Union (i.e., to efficiently link production areas to market towns, rural to urban areas and service centers to satellite areas), a hierarchy of settlemenls is proposed. This hierarchy shall provide a rational frame for the distribution and levels of scrvices and facilitics to be established in the province. Table 2. Hierarchy of La Union municipalitics based on functional analyses involving available services and facilities. Rankncvcl First Sccond l~ird PouILh Firth Six~h Seventh Eighth Ninh Municipality San Fernando Agm Bauang Bacnotan Balaoan Tubao Naguilian Luna Sto. Tomas Rosario Rangar Caba Aringay San Juan San Gabricl Sudipen Pug0 Burgos San~ol Bagulin Composite score 178 Bauang shall cater to the needs of Naguilian, Bagulin and Burgos, including portions of Caba and Aringay. A third minor center, Tubao, shall also be developed to absorb certain lower functions of Agoo, a sub-IAD center which is expected to develop into a major urban center. San Juan is expected to absorb part of the population migrating to San Fernando, and may eventually become the residential suburb to the latter. Balaoan shall continue its historical role as center for small-scale manufacturing establishments. This sub-IAD center, however, needs to be physically linked to certain portions of its hinterlands, e.&, areas of Santol, which rcmain isolated. The sub-IAD centers are expected to provide the markct with the outputs from the rural industries. The rest of thc municipalities shall continue to supply the food and industrial needs of the higher level settlements. With this proposed settlement hierarchy, a more efficient urban-rural integration is expected to be achieved. Plan Financing The proposed programs and projects under the La Union Development Plan for 19871992 entail a total financial outlay of P736.4 million, or an average annual outlay of B147.3 million (Table 3). Out of the total cost, f182.3 million (or B36.5 million annually) is the required net infusion from government. The amount of B554.1 million constitutes the private counterpart (particularly in the agricultural devel- opment and industry components) and the foreign funds committcd for somc infrastructure projects proposcd (e.g., Overseas Economic Cmpcration Fund of Japan for sports development). At thc current levels of regular budgetary appropriations to national agencies operating in the province and other fund infusions to it (e.g., infrastructure appropriations), and in anticipation of an increased revenue generation by the province and its constituent municipalities, financial capability for plan irnplementation is deemed adequate. Historical figures show the following trends: Regular appropriations/actual allotments to national agencies in the province were estimated to average P86.6 million in 1985. Special loans availed of by the province for agricul~uraland industrial/trade projects in 1985 amounted to 815.2 million . Local government-generated revenues are expected to reach El8 million in 1987. On Ihe assumption that these trends shall continuc, it can be gleaned that the province has the capability to finance implementation of the plan. An important issue to consider in terms of financing, however, is the operation of the government budgeting system whcre budget preparation emanates from the region while decisions on the budget contents are decided upon at the centraVnational levcl. As such, there is no assurance that provincial priorirics Table 3. Financing requirements oE programs and projects for implementation in the 1987-1992 develomcnt plan for the province of La Union. Programiproject Agricultural development Rural industrialization Support 'I'ourism Social services Infraslmcture cost vx106p 130.135 10.500 3.857 15.160 576.769 736.421 shall be given budgetary allocations by both the national government and the implementing dcpartmen t. To skirt this issue, therefore, the local government unit, in this case, the province of La 179 Union and the municipalities therein, must strive to improve its capacity to generate on its own the needed financial resources and to manage these in the most efficient and effective manner. Reference IRDC-LPDS-NEDA (nocos Regional Development Council-La Union Provincial Development Staff-National Economic Development Authority Region I). 1986. Medium-term development plan for the province of La Unicn (1987.1992). NEDA Region I, San Fernando, L Union. Working Group Reports on Issues and Recommendations The various CRMF activities in the Lingayen Gulf area were envisioned towards eventual development of three main outputs. Thc first is a general CRM policy plan for Lingayen Gulf which consists primarily of zonation schcmes for particular uses. It is to includc marine (e.g., protccled areas, tourism, commercial fishing areas) and terrcslrial (e.g., urban, agricultural, watershed areas) zonation schemes, and elaborate policies, linkages/interactions among zones, and the general institutional framework Lor implemcntation. The second output includes more dehiled action plans that address CRM from the perspective of the problcm/resource, its prevalence and kasibility for management (e.g., fishcrics management plan, alternative livelihood development plan, education action plan). The third output will bc detailed action plans for selected sites requiring special attention (e.g., marine parks/reservalion plan). Since its inception in 1986, the project has generated considerable information relevant to, among others, social, lcgal/institutional and CRM planning issues in Lingaycn Gulf. Givcn the preliminary inferences from these data as dcrived in two prcvious workshops (held in December 1986 and 1987) and thc information presented in Ihe three background sessions of this workshop, four working groups wcre formed to make issuecause-action statements designed as initial inputs lo thc detailed action p l a 6 for he gulf. The four working groups and their respeclivc issuelarea of concern are as follows: Group I: Resource management issucs Groun 11: Socioeconomic and cultural issues in relation to alternative management options and solutions Group HI: Legal and institutional arrangcments for CRM implementation Group IV: CRM planning As a general case, discussions involved (whenever possible) consideration of the: (1) available data and possible data gaps; (2) preliminary acuons/strategies to resolve resource-use conflicts; (3) possible implcmenting agencies; and (4) scale and geographical limi~sof various pl,?ns envisaged. Results of thc deliberations of the four working groups are summarized below. Group I: Resource Management Issues Members: Virginia Aprieto (Chairpcrson) Agnes Cargamcnto (Co-chairperson) Mary Ann Leah Maaliw (Secretary) Ernesto Baskinas Joe dc Gueman Susan Gaffutl Larnbert Anthony Menez Aida Pdma Teresita Peralta Romulo Rasing Geronimo Silvestre Ma. Thcrcsa Tungpalan Fermin Weygan In addressing issues on resource managemcnt, Group I focused on the following (Table 1): Overfishing - brought about by trawling, illegal fishing methods such as blast and cyanide fishing and others; Coral reef ecosystems - their ovcruse, destructive fishing methods prevailing in them, fishcrmcn's lack of awareness on their value and others; Aquaculture - land use, methods and intensity; and Water quality - how this is affected by siltation, chemical pollution and mining. Group 11: Socioeconomic and Cultural Issues in Relation to Alternative Management Options and Solutions Mcmbcrs: Nygiel Armada (Chairperson) Fe Pastrana (Co-chairperson) James Paw (Secretary) Juliet Abunyawan Remedios Baga Edwin Barcia Porfirio Basilio Roberto Galvez Flordeliz Guarin Rizalina Legasto Ramon Miclat Leo Tepalt Thc group focused on socioeconomic/ cultural issues (Table 2): overpopulation, low incorncs, poor cducation, cultural degradation, lack of alternative income and low cnvironmental awarencss. Solutions drawn out wcrc: Habitat restoration (artificial reefs, sanctuaries, transplanting corals, ctc.); Marinc rcserves (national, community sites); Tourism (locations, national vs. community type, etc.); Alternative livelihoods (aqualmariculture, tourism, handicrafts, other employment) (Table 3): Education (national, local, nonformal); and Community organization. Group In: Legal and Institutional Arrangements for CRM Implementation Members: Elmer Ferrer (Chaxperson) Victoria Baiiez (Secrctary) Joseph Alabanza Carlito Aiionuevo Ramon Binamira Jorgc de Vera Rafael Guerrero Alfredo Jacang Florante Lml Barbara Pernia Josefino Tadifa Chua Thia-Eng Group I11 discussed the following issues (Table 4): Capability and location of instihltions (government and NGOs) to implement CRM; Knowledge and appropriateness of existing laws affecting coastal areas; Institutional mandate over coastal and marine areas; and Low awareness among government officials about CRM at the local and national levels. The group's rccommcndations on these issues wcrc: Highlighting capable and motivated ins~itutlonsfor CRM implcmcnlation; Pinpointing of useful laws for enforcement; Rccommending how to improvc enforccmcnt; Recommending how to increase awareness and credibility of government officials to implcment CRM; and Suggesting new legal/institutional arrangements for field implementation. Table 1. Summary of resources management issue;, their causes and recommended aclions. \ Issue Cause 1. Overexploitalicm of fisheries 1. Unregula~edfishing operations. resources in Lingayen Gulf has resulted into: low biomasslstock densities; low catch .rateslmwme levels; and increased competition/conflict among municipal and commercial fishermen. 2. Illegal fishing methods such as blast fishing, cyanide fishing and use of fine-meshed nets. 3. Ineffective law enlorcement. 4. Lack of alternative livelihood. 5. Concentration of fishing in limited areas. 6 . Lack of awareness on status of resources and consequences of overfishing. 2. Coral reef degradation has resulted in the breakdown of h e reef structure causing decline in productivity. 1. Poor land management (siltation). Aclion 1. Regulate fishing efforts ~hrough: establishmenl of "open and closes' seasons for particular lishing operations; regulation of number of commercial fishing boats; and reduction of municipal fishermen. 2. a. b. I. a. Provide alternative livelihood; Establish complementary and mutually s u p p a ive program towards: massive multimedia approach to educate lishing communities on the effects of blast and cyanide fishing; improvement of logislics for law enforcemen1 to patrol coaslal areas; revision of fisheries laws; coordination among law enforcement agencies (COSAC.NP,local governmenth md creatinglsuppo~gfishermen's organizations to actively participate in CRM. 3. As in no. 2. 4. 4 s i n n o . 2 a . 5. Make topographic studies and map out fishing gmndsfresources. 6. Undertake massive multimedia approach to educale par&ipants in capture fisheries. 7. OLher actions: establish coastal resources management council for Lingayen Gulf; increase mesh size subjecl lo results of study; study seasonality and potential yield of m a and other resources outside the gulf b. 2 . Illegal fishing melhods. 2. Reforestation of mangroves in allected areas check erosion; and Seagrass k d rehabililaum. Same as action no. 2 of issue no. 1. 10 3. Unregulaled coral mining and fishing pressure. 3. a. b. c. d. 3. Low aquacdmre production has resulted in low income of small aquafarmers. 4. UnconmUed human activities have resulted in water quality deterioration in the gulf. Cornmuni~y-basedmanagement of reef resources (zoning); Selling up of no-access zones to serve as seed areas in which 10 iniliale coral ~ransplanlation experimenls; Setting up of adlicial habitats (away from natural reefs) lo remove pressure from natural reefs; and Management of coral reef areas by Cne coasbl resources management council of Lingayen Gulf. 1. Traditional management practices, 1. Demons~ration of productive management practices in pilot scale. 2. Lack of capital. 2. a. b. 3. Lack of accessibility from source of wakr (inefficient water managwenl). 3. a. b. 1. Unmnmlled use of pesticides and f e d z e r s even among small farmers. 2. Acmulation of nonbiodegradable waste in inland w a r n . 3. Possible heavy metal mtamination h m mining operations. 4. Heavy deposition of silt in riverslriver mouths (silt taming from sources olher than mine milings such as logging, kaingin,quarrying and subsidence areas). Contract farming with fish brokers; Organize small (1-2 ha) fishpond operators' cmperative as conduit for credi~ and other suppofl programs. Asinm.%,and Government support for the cons~ructimof a common waler supply canal. Promote proper use of environmenlally acceplable pesticideslchemicals (rotenone, tobacco powder). More farm lesting on the use of organic and inorganic ferrilizers (DA). Proper sewage dispsal (garbage bins, toilets); Regular garbage collection (local gwemmwt); Proper sewage treatment; and Provision of buffer z o n t s along riverbanks where wasks should not be dumped. Regular monitoring of mine tailing disposal system to determine concentralion from Ihe mine site to downs^ of critical areas; and Treatment of mine tailing waste prior to disposa1. Reforestation (Depament of Environment and Nalural Resources or D E m ; and Provision of land tenure for koingero (DENR). 5 . Conhuous wawr quality studies and identification of sources of pollumntr (Philippine Human Resources Developmenl Cenler, Environmental Management Bureau-DEhX). + t~ oc CL Table 2. Socioeconomic and cultural issues in relation LO a l ~ m a t i v emanagement options and solutions. Issue Cause 1. The large number of fishermen and other occupational grwps along Lingayen Gulf is causing overexploitahn of o o a s ~ l resources. Cultural perception of a large family uni~as beneficial in terms of security and of additional help to increasing i n m e in fishing and other activities. Lack of awareness of family p h n h g methods. Migration into coas~alareas. Lack of socimxonomic activities and other forms of recreation to recharmel time and energies. 2. Sustenance fishermen of Lingayen Gulf generally suffer im mdmmplployment and low inccnne. Action Information campaign on the disadvantages of large families and enhancement of population program Information campaign on family planning methods with feedback mechanisms to assess their effectivitiy. S e t h g up of alternative activi~es other than fishing, such as on recreation (sports, youth and employment clubs) cottage industries, backyard agriculture, livestock-raising, twrism, aquaculture). Stiff competition for a limited resource. Lack of alternative sources of livelihood. Lack of functional education and practical skills. 4. Lack offirnited market. 00 P Setting up of area-specific alternative livelihood programs as sbowcaselpilot projects (see Table 3). Intensificalion of nonfomal education programs e.g., practical mathematical calculation, value formation, e n v i m e n t a l protection and conservation. Development of practical occupational skills. Expansion of credit and marketing cooperatives and associations. Agencies Populatim Commission, National Cottage Industries Development Authority, Rural Improvement Club, Department of Educa~on, Culture and Sports (DECS), Family F'lanning Organization of the Philippines. Church-mandated organizations (all denominations possible), B FAR- DA . Department of Trade and Industry @TI), provincial and municipal gavemmaas, NEDA, NGOs, BFAR-DA, UP-MSI and UPCSWCD. 5. Unfair sharing practices in collective fishing advilies. 3. Cultural degradakm is gradually being manifested in coastal communities. I. Low income of fishermen. Provision of allemalive livelihoods to fishemen (see Table 3). DECS, Department of Twrism (DOT), NGOs and provincial and municipal govements. Mr. Lambert Anthony Mefiez Senior Rcseatch Assistant Coastal Resources Management Project MSI, UP Diliman, Quezon City Mr. Leonardo Quitos Assistant Rcgional Director NEDA Region I Don Pedro Bldg., Pagdaraoan San Fernando, La Union Ms. Evangeline Miclat National Coordinator Coastal Resources Management Project Villadolid Hall, UP Dilirnan, Quezon City Mr. Romulo Rasing Assistant Planning Officer Department of Agriculture Pangasinan Mr. Ramon Miclat Project Leader Coral Reef Research Unit Research Division BFAR Bcn-Lor Bldg., Quezon Ave., Quezon City Ms. Virginia Orejudos Supervising Development Project Analyst Office of the Provincial Planning and Development Council Provincial Capitol San Fernando, La Union Ms. Aida Palma Projcct Leadcr Coastal Resources Management Project BFAR Marcelo Bldg., Quezon Ave., Quezon City Ms. Cleofe Pastrana (Observer) Supervising Economic Research Specialist MACRO Division NEDA Region I San Fernando, La Union Ms. Marie Josephine Trinidad-Roa Senior Research Assistant MSI, UP Dilimm, Quezon City Mr. Geronimo Silvestre Study Leadcr Coastal Resources Management Project College of Fisheries UP in the Visayas Miag-ao, Iloilo Mr. Wilfredo Soriano Assistant Professor College of Fisheries Pangasinan State University Binmaley, Pangasinan Mr. Josefino Tadifa ((Observer) Economic Development Analyst NEDA Region I Don Pedro Bldg.. Pagdaraoan San Fernando, La Union Project Specialist Coastal Resources Management Project ICLARM Bloorningdale Bldg., Salcedo St. Legaspi Village, Makati, Metro Manila Dr. Chua Thia-Eng Project Coordinator Coastal Resources Management Project ICLARM Bloomingdale Bldg.. Salcedo St. Lcgaspi Village, Makati, Metro Manila Ms. Barbara Pernia Planning Officer Department of Environment and Natural Resources-Region I Dagupan City Ms. Ma. Theresa Tungpalan Study Leader Coastal Resources Management Project CSWCD, UP Diliman, Quezon City Mr. James Paw Mr. Arcangel Vargas Project Manager Bantay Dagat Project Philippine Tourism Authority Department of Tourism Bldg. T.M. Kalaw St., Ermita, Manila Mr. Fermin Weygan Officer-in-charge Environmental Quality Division Environmental Management Sector Department of Environment and Natural Resources Forestry Compound, Pacdal, Baguio City Lt. Cmdr. Jorge de Vera Philippine Navy Headquarters, Naval District I Poro Point, San Fernando, La Union Dr. Alan White Technical Advisor Coastal Resources Management Project ICLARM Bloomingdale Bldg., Salcedo St. Legaspi Village, Makati, Metro Manila 2. Lucrativeness of illcgal ahvities, e.g., prostituhm 3. Negative elfects of media 4. 4. There is a low environmental awareness among the coastd populace regarding the proper utilization of resources. Breakdown of community values. 1. Lack of educalional campaigns on the imporlance of suslainable utilization of coastal resources. 2. Absence of subjects in resources conse~vationand management in educdond curricula at different levels. Enforcement of laws agains~ illegal practices; passage of barangay and municipal ordinances on h e conduct of persons (e.g.. murists) and activilies. Counteraction of negative effects of media by promoling, properly developing and enriching indigenous culture. Intensification of n o n f m a l education programs. Setting up of habitat restoration projects (such as artificial reefs, sanctuaries, mangmve relorestation and coral and seagrass transplantation) to increase environmwlal awareness of h e people. Multimedia campaign (radio, TV, posters, billboards). Inclusion of environmental subjects in school curricula. NGOs. DECS. DOT, media, e.g., Public Information Agency (PW) and Kilusan ng mga Bmdkaster sa Pilipinas (KBP) and BFAR-DA. Tsblc 3. Area-specific alternative livelihood programs. Livelihood activities Agencies Sector I pilot arca: Bolinao Uandicraft : buricraft/fumiturc, shellcraft Agriculture : Maguey, peanut, cassava Aquaculture : fish, seaweeds, giant clam, sea urchins Scctar IIpilot areas: SualLbrador : ceramics (potterybrick), shellcnft, adobe quarryhg Handicraft : cashew Agriculture Livestock : hog and goat Aquaculture : oysters, finfish, aquarium fish, ~eawecds ( E u c h e m , Caulerpa) Scctor IEpilot areas: AgooIAringay Bottom set artificial reefs for hab'lbitat restoration and fish enhancement to increase production; to cnable the communities to exercise TURFS; and to discourage trawl intrusions in municipal waters Graup IV: CRM Planning Mcmbers: - Liana McManus (Chairperson) Leonardo Quitos (Co-chairperson) Florence Gacad (Secretary) Leo Dacanay Roberto Ferrer Edgardo Gomez Teresita Lana Jaime Lucas Evangeline Miclat Virginia Orcjudos Arcangel Vargas Alan White The group discussed the following goals: Conceptual framework for CRM planning; Specific mechanism for achieving planning tasks in Division 600-P as outlined; and Long-term planning for Lingayen CRM strategy implementation. Review of Management Plan Formulation. In doing this, attention was brought particularly to management policies involved, the plan as a zonation scheme, issue-oriented and DTI. Department of Science and ~ e & o l o (DOST), ~ ~ DOT Fiber Industry Devcloprnent Authority (FIDA), DA RFAR-DA DTI, DOST, DOT FIDA, DA FIDA, DA BFAR-DA BFAR-DA, NGOs special-area management plans and prioritization of such plans. Policies for managcment should includc: (1) a definition of dcsired resource area per capita; (2) a redelineation of commercial and municipal fishing grounds; (3) guidelines for marine protected areas; (4) delineation of communal usagc rights and municipal proprietary rights; and (5) a statement on augmenting production for domestic consumption rather than for export. The plan is proposed to be a zonation scheme showing areas that should bc dcsignated to particular uses. It should reflect lhc peoplc's will, and steps must be taken to ensure their participation in developing the plan. Education should be a component in drawing up thc various issue-orienlcd action plans. However, a largc-scale environmental education project can also be proposed as a separate action plan. Additional management plans should cover: (1) an aquaculture area management plan which would include an evalualion of the carrying capacity of Tambac and Dagupan areas; (2) afforestation with mangrove Table 4. Institutional and legal issues related to CRM implementation. Issues - Solutions - A. 1. Institutional Limited awareness and knowledge of CRM by the people and local government uniu (LGU)m c e m e h 2. Lirniled support from LGU for acGvilies r e l a d to the preservation of coastal resources. 3. Poor implementation of existing laws and policies regarding fishing activilies, particularly ilbgal ones, due to the following: no equal application of laws; no clear definition of the responsibilities of agencies (law enforcers) involved in the protection of coastal resources; and absence of facilities to protect coastal resources and to apprehend blast fishermen. 4. Absenceof eamomiclivelihood support to fishermen to augment their income and thus stop lhem fran practicing blast fishing. 5. 6. B. 1. 2. 3. 4. Presence of bureaucracy or red tape in the processing and approval of requests of agencies concerned. Lack of integration among agencies resulting in overlapping of functions and programs. Legal Lack of autonomy of LGU on fishing laws and regulations. Absence of guidelines, laws or policies on seafanning both at the national and local levels. Lack of appreciation and knowledge of existing traditional local arrangement at h e borangay level. Involvement of many national agencies in the management and prote&on of h e same masla1 resources. Promote awareness and education on proper CRM at all levels of the government through trainings and community organization. These activities should be a joint effort of line agencies concerned. Provide alternative livelihood assistance to fishermen such as: inventory of available resources in the area; provision of support services like market and credit; encouragement to local entrepreneurs to assist market support to fishermen; Strengrhen appreciation of the people's values and traditions. Transfer appropriate techno1ogy to fishermen. Clearly d e f i e agency roles, functions, jurisdictions and resources to eliminate duplication and wnfusim. FulI support to TURF by LGU and law enforcers. Policies made by LGU must be piloted at the bnrangay level. Implementation of the above may be done with the following cmsideralions: CRM planning will be undertaken at the regiond level wheress implernenlalion will be the responsibility of Ihe provincial I. and municipal governments. Local institutions, entrepreneurs,church councils and KGOs will be tapped to assist in the implementation and monitoring 2. of projecls under CXM. Table 5. Issue-oriented, special area management plans ranked according to various criteria. Plan Criteria Implernentabilitya urgcncyb htential benefitsb Meanc Coral reef resources management Commercial and municipal fisheries Alternative livelihood Water quality Social/educational action plan Aquaculture area management Afforestation Marinc parks Appropriate tourism LRgal/institutional program Human resources development ascores indicate easy(l), hard(2) or difficult(3). b~coresindicate high(l), medium(2) or low (3). CMcan score varies bctween 1.0 and 3.0, the lower limit indicating highcst priority ranking (i.e., most irnplernentablc, urgent and beneficial), and vice-versa. and fruit-bearing trecs; and (3) an educational program which will develop a lecture package on environment for elementary and high school students in La Union and Pangasinan. Apart horn the Hundred Islands National Park, olhcr arcas should be set aside as rcplcnishment or seed zones (e.g., Poro Point, Darigayos, Binabalian Turllc Ncsting Arca) all over the gulf. The development of tourism should be highly selective, that is, activities should not dcstroy the ecological or cultural environmcnl. Rcsourcc usc conflicts in areas to be dcclarcd as tourist spots should first bc rcsolved. The issue-oriented and spccial-area management schemes were prioritized using the following criteria and rank scores: 1. Implcmcntabili~y- easy (I), hard (2), difficult (3); 2. Urgcncy - high (I), mcdium (2), low (3); and 3. Polcntial bencfits - high (I), medium (21, low (3). The group came up with rankings as shown in Tablc 5. The lower the mean score for a given plan/scheme, the higher priority it shoud get and vice vcrsa. Identification of Management Plan Group. Regional and provincial expcrtisc should be tapped in the development of the management plan. Specifically, the agencies include NEDA-Rcgion I, the Provincial Development Staff (PDS) for La Union and Pangasinan and thc olher line agencies in the region (e.g., DECS and BFAR-DA). NGOs will also be potential resource agencies. The Ilocos Regional Development Council can help in policy formulation. The group unanimously recommended NEDA-Region I as the lcad agcncy for the CRMP plan formulalion. The present cooperating agcncics - UPV-CF, UP-CSWCD, UPMSI, BFAR-Aquaculture Division--will remain to constitute thc technical support panel for this activity. Summary of Plenary Session Discussions In the light of the workshop's set objcctives, the following were facilitated: (1) presentation and evaluation of the research findings on the coastal resources of Lingayen Gulf; (2) determination of long- and shortterm strateges necessary to remedy thc coastal resources depletion and environmental dcgradation and to offer alternative programs to sustain livelihood in the affected coastal communities; and (3) identification of thc government and nongovernment agencies that will either take active part in the management plan formulation and implementation, or serve as resource agcncies. The workshop participants, in plenary scssion, adopted and endorsed the reports of the four working groups. The following are the conclusions and recommendations stressed during the plenary session of the workshop: 3. 4. On /he formulation of the CRM plan for Lingayen Gulf: 1. NEDA-Region I and RDC shall take active part in the drafting of an integrated management plan together with the CRMP group. Other line agencies, staff bureaus, educational institurions and NGOs shall serve as resource agencies. 2. Alternative livelihood program, socialleducational action plan, upland/coastal afforestation, marine park establishment, legal/institutional program and human resources development are priorities based on the criteria of implementability, wgency and potential benefits. Though management of coral reef resources and of commercial and municipal fisheries are primary in terms of urgency and potential benefits, their implementabilily becomes difficult due to the legal and political problems attached to them. The planning group will have to come up with a set of criteria for selecting the pilot areas where management actions may be implemented. Among the suggested considerations are density of population, number of beneficiaries, volume of production and existence of necessary facilities and physical structures. During the course of management plan formulation, review and finalization, the direct beneficiaries of the program must be well-informed ana enjoined to participate in thc decisionmaking through h e conduct of symposia, consultative meetings, and/or public hearings. Some projects do not succeed because a topdown approach fails to give emphasis on the real needs and aspirations of thc pcoplc. Participatory planning and implementation must be encouraged to stimulate the enthusiasm of the local communities in CRM. On the immediate courses of action: 1. 189 The NEDA and RDC, through their functions of reviewing and approving the budget proposals of the government projects in Region I, shall suggest the incorporation of the urgent CRh4P action plans. This is to allow implementation prior to the 190 2. 3. preparation of an integatcd management plan as envisioned under ASEAN-US CRMP. NGOs must also bc mobilized to take on the early implementation of small-scale (but impact) action plans through the assistance of the local communities. This is to address the more serious problems of the gulf residents which cannot wait until the finalization and implementation of the overall management plan. The ongoing projects in thc region which are in accordance with the proposed CRMP action plans must be accelerated. Such activitics are implemented by line agencies (e.g., afforestation project of DENR), staff bureaus (e. g., fisheries resource enhancement through the artificial reef program of BFAR), and nongovernmental entities (e. g., upliftment of human conditions by the Center for Development of Human Resources in Rural Asia; artificial reef projects of fishermen's associa- 4. 5. tions). It is necessary that isolated efforts for similar goals be well-coordinated for an accelerated delivery of results. Task forces for some pressing issues (to be composed of selected projcct staff and NGOs and govcrnmenl entities identified to take part in the management planning) may now be formed. These task forces can later on become the nucleus for actual implementation of the plan. The issues affecting Lingayen Gulf and the efforts exerted by the different sectors to bring solutions to these must bc popularized. This can be achieved through the conduct of symposia, and the distribution of the CRMF' publications and information materials to improve or stimulate the awareness of the people. For these activities, cducational institutions, particularly the Pangasinan State University and the Don Mariano Marcos Memorial State University, must be tapped. Annexes Annex I Program of Activities 25 May 1988 Morning Registration Welcome Address - Dir. Joseph Alabama W D A Region I) Opening Remarks - Dr. Rafael Guerrero I11 (PCAMRD) and Dr. Chua Thia-Eng (ASEAN-US CRMP) Break Session I: Coastal Resource Utilization A. Status of Capture Fisheries in Lingaycn Gulf - Nygiel Armada Sociocultural Dynamics of Blast Fishing and Sodium Cyanide Fishing in Two Fishing B. Villages in Lingayen Gulf - Ma. Theresa Tungpalan Status of Coralline Resources in Lingayen Gulf - Dr. Lima McManus and Lambert C. Anthony Meiiez Patterns and Levels of Aquaculture Practices in the Coastal Municipalities of Lingayen D. Gulf - Aida Palma Watcr Quality Baseline Study in Lingaycn Gulf - Mary Ann Leah Maaliw E. Land Use Pattcrns and Physical Characteristics of Provinces and Municipalities F. Bordering Lingaycn Gulf - Leonardo Quitos Open Forum: Chairman - Dr. Virginia Aprieto; Moderator - Dr. Edgardo Gomcz; Rapporteur Lamhcrt Anthony MeRcz Lunch Break Session 11: Habitat RestorationEnhancement and Alternative Livelihood 192 A. B. C. D. E. Artificial Reefs: A Fisheries Management Tool for Lingayen Gulf - Ramon Miclat Community-based Marine Parks - Dr. Alan White Tourism - Arch. Edwin Barcia Mariculture as an Alternative Source of Livelihood for Fishermen in Lingayen Gulf Rizalina Legasto Mariculture of Giant Clams and Sea Urchins - Marie Jo Trinidad-Roa - Open Forum: Chairman - Dr. Reynaldo Trino; Moderator - Dr. Liana McManus; Rapporteur Mary Ann Leah Maaliw 26 May 1988 Morning Session 111: Socioeconomic, Cultural and Legalflnstitutional Framework The Economics of Municipal Fisheries: The Case of Lingayen Gulf - Carlito Afionuevo A. Legal and Institutional Arrangement for Territorial Use Rights in Fisheries in Lingayen B. Gulf - Elmer Ferrer Management Plan Formulation - Dr. Alan White C. D. Development Plan for the Provinces of Pangasinan and La Union (1987-1992) Leonardo Quitos Open Forum: Chairman Roberto Galvez - Dir. Joseph Alabama; Moderator - Roberto Ferrer; Rapporteur - Afternoon Workshop: Integration of Days I. and 2; Discussion~ecommendations 27 May 1988 Morning Work Group Presentations of Results/Recomrnendations from Day 2 Plenary Session to Synthesize and Discuss the Results of Four Working Groups (No consensus is expected but discussion should focus on conflicts and overlaps of group outputs.) Chairman - Dr. RaFael Guerrero I11 Closing Ceremonies Awarding of Certificates Closing Remarks - Roberto Ferrer (Provincial Planning and Development Council, Province of Pangasinan) and Dr. Virginia Aprieto (ASEAN-US CRMP, Philippines). Annex II Opening and Closing Remarks Welcome Address h k JOSEPH ALABANZA Director National Economic Development Authority (Region I) I would like to welcome you to Region I. It is quite symbolic that you hold your meeting in the region. A lot of times we in the regions feel that we are just second class citizens, in the sense that most of the decisions and actions are being made for us at our central offices. But your presence this morning, your concern about decentralization and regionalization, is what we appreciate most. I have gone over the objectives of this workshop which in particular refer to the proposed management of Lingayen Gulf. I suggest, however, that we bear in mind the other sections of Region I for which our actions and programs for Lingayen Gulf may be replicated and similarly implemented. Hopefully, the same can be replicated in other areas of the country. Another point that I would like to emphasize is that outputs for this workshop which are action-orientedactivities should be within the context of our regional development strategy. On our part we, as regional planners, will utilize the more specific information you provide in order to improve our strategy for development. Let us then work together in coming up with an overall framework for development in the region to which the specific actions that will be generated in the next two days will be inputted. Opening Remarks DR.RAFAELG U ~ E RIIIO Executive Dirator Philippine Council for Aquatic and Marine Research and Development Today we put on focus the heart of ASEAN-US CRMP in the Philippines. We are here to assess the more than two years of research works on various fields in the coastal zone of Lingayen Gulf and to map out our future directions. We have among us our colleagues and friends from the region who will share with us their gut feeling of the issues besetting Lingayen Gulf and perhaps feel the pulse of CRMP. I say this because we are in the site for which the 193 CRMP efforts are intended. I'm glad to see my colleagues from the implementing agencies notably the UP and BFAR who have worked so hard to make the project what it is today, with the able and valuable support of ICLARM. We are here to establish contact with our partners in the region who, in the final analysis, will decide whether the CRMP plan we envision to formulate will he practical and implerncntablc. Our three-day workshop here should be as exciting and stimulating as the previous workshops we have had. This one differs from the others, though, in that we shall be exchanging thoughts and ideas with the planners of the region. May I emphasize once more that the main objectives of CRMP are to improve the living conditions of the depressed coastal communities and lo manage the coastal resources on a sustainable bask. I wish to thank Dir. Alabanza and his staff for providing us the support in organizing this workshop. I look forward to fruitful and enlighteaing discussions among each and everyone of you. Opening Remarks DR. CHUA~?IIA-ENG Project Coordinator, ASEAN-US CRMP International Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management I wish to thank the organizers for giving me the honor and the opportunity to address thc workshop this morning. To me, this workshop is specially significant @r three reasons. First, it is being conducted at the site of the present study. Second, its being co-hosted by the Regional Office of NEDA highly signifies the regional interest in this activity. And third, we will be discussing the types of actions most appropriate in managing our coaml resources, the exploitation of which can be sustained environmentally. When we talk about +stainable development we must bear in mind that the resources we are now exploiting and utilizing will still be available in the same quantities, if not more, for the next generation a d others to come. This is the thud workshop being conducted by the Philippine National Team of the ASEANUS CRMP. The first two workshops were conducted in December 1986 and April 1987. The first workshop attempted to determine coastal resource use conflicts in Lingayen Gulf and their causes; identify information gaps; and develop research proposals to obtain the needed data for planning and management. The second workshop focused on the evaluation of data collected by each task. The present workshop will attempt to formulate appropriate management action plans based on the scientific data collected by variom teams. The outcome of this workshop will provide recommendations for general policy formu!ation and the development of area-specific and issue-oriented CRM plans. You may ask why we go through all these long processes to produce the CRM plans. My only answer is that careful consideration wiU be needed since the plans we develop have longterm socioeconomic implications on the welfare of the coastal communities. A good CRM plan should be based on sound scientific data and beneficial to the people. The major functions of this workshop should be to: critically assess the data collected for CRM planning; comment on the feasibility of action plans recommended by the technical teams; identify future information gaps and evaluate the data collection process; and set the scope for general and special a m management plans to be developed. At this stage I wish to point out that our role as technical persons is to provide an accurate data base and its scientific interpretation as well rs recommend appropriate policy guidelines for 195 management measures. We should provide the best advice we can think of. It is the political leadership that has to make the policy decisions. At this workshop, I am pleased to note the participation of relevant representatives from the region. Together with the technical teams, I am sure we will be able to achieve our set objectives. Closing Remarks DR. VIRGINIA APRIETO Program Leader ASEAN-US CRMP (Philippines) Closing ceremonies are like saying good-bye. In this undertaking, however, we shall not say good-bye because the results of the present workshop are simply the beginning of the greater task ahead of us -- an operational CRM plan. It must be noted, though, that this workshop has taken us closer to our ultimate goal. and thus the organizers and participants of this meeting deserve our congratulationsfor a job well done. The Philippine Council for Aquatic and Marine Research and Development (PCAMRD) is mandated to coordinate and evaluate all marine aquatic research and developmental programs in the country. The ASEAN-US CRMP in the Philippines is presently the biggest project (in terms of personnel, funding, and goals/objectives) being implemented via PCAMRD. The dedication, diversity and quality of the expertise that the CRMP has managed to pool together for its various activities has given PCAMRD both pride and pleasure in coordinating project activities. We are happy that CRMP has chosen Lingayen Gulf as one of its maiden sites. This is the first time such an integrated management program is being undertaken for an important water body in the country. Over the past days, we have heard of the serious issues affecting sustainable use of the Lingayen Gulf coastal resources. Amidst these problems, however, I am happy to note the genuine enthusiasm and support of the people of the Lingayen Gulf area for sustainable productivity of the gulf. It is quite encouraging that the leaders of Pangasinan and La Union, government agencies, nongovernmental organizations and the fishermen (such as Mr. Joe de Guzman of the local trawlers association) contributed considerably and enthusiastically to the workshop deliberations. We know that many challenges still lie ahead, but with the participation and institutional commitment demonstrated in this workshop and the political will, then an operational CRM plan (that is holistic and optimally sustainable) will soon be a reality. Closing Remarks MR. ROBERTOFERRER Secretary-General Provincial Planning and Development Council, Province of Pangasinan Thc three-day workshop has accomplished quantifiable results. It has successfully (1) identified and delimited data gaps; (2) transformed research results into tangible recommendations; (3) prioritized issues and corresponding action plans; and (4) laid the basis for redirection and/or improvement of local, regional and national government effortstprograms. Moreover, this meeting has drawn genuine commitments from the local agencies/communities and has made a very good case for concerted action and collaboration. Given the issues affecting sustainable utilization of the Lingayen Gulf coastal resources, we from this region would like to see the following: Restoration of the ecologylecosystems of Lingayen Gulf and peripheral areas; Maintenance of water quality by minimizing pollution from domestic, agricultural and mining activities; Increased social awareness (through famal and nonformal education) on the causes and effects of habitat destruction/degradption; Development of local CRM expertise; Increased community involvement/ErardCipatim to assure continuity of project gains, strengthening of existing social structur8s; Alternative livelihood projects; and Scientific but practical solutions. I would like to thank the ASEAN-US CRMP, the various academic institutions represented here, NEDA-Region I and all government agencies and NGOs for their genuine concern for the welfare of the people in the Lingayen Gulf area, and for their continuing commitment in pushing the CRM concept for the gulf from the realm of intentions closer to the realm of implementation.Let us move now before we 10% by default due to inaction. ~ ;,;..~ ICLARM PUBLICATIONSON COASTALAREA MANAGEMENT Towards sustainable development of the coastal resources of Llngayen Gulf, Philippines. G. Silvestre. E. Miclat and T.-E.Chua. editors. 1989. ICLARMConference Proceedings 17.200 p. US$9surface; $15 airmail. Coastal area management In Southeast Asia: policies, management strategies and case studies. T.-E.Chua and O. Pauly. editors. 1989. ICLARMConference Proceedings 19.254 p. $9 surface; $15airmail. . Towards an integrated management of tropical ctlastal resources. loM. Chou. T.-E. Chua. H.W.Khoo. P.E.Lim.J.N. Paw. G.T.Silvestre. M.J. Valencia. AT. White and P.K.Wong. editors'. Available October 1990. ICLARMConference Proceedings 22. The coastal environmental profile of Brunei Darussalam: resource assessment and management issues. T.-E. Chua. loM. Chou and M.S.M. Sadorra. editors. 1987. ICLARMTechnical Reports 18. 194 p. $2 surface; $10 airmail. The coastal environmental profile of Ban Don Bay and Phangnga Bay. Thailand. J.N. Paw. S. Bunpapong. AT. White and M.S.M.Sadorra. editors. 1988. ICLARMTechnical Reports 20. 79 p. $1 surface; $5 airmail. I .. I~ I I' I, ~ .. The coastal environmental profile of Singapore. loS.Chiao K.Habibullah and loM, Chou. 1988. ICLARMTechnical Reports 21. 92 p. $1 surface; $5 airmail. )' The coastal environmental profile of Ungayen Gulf, Philippines. LT. McManus and T.-E.Chua. editors. Available June 1990. ICLARMTechnical Reports 22. $1 surface; $5 airmail. The coastal environmental profile of South Johore, Malaysia. T.-E.Chua. K.loCh'ng and AB. Jaafar. editors. Available October 1990. ICLARMTechnical Reports 24. The coastal environmental profile of Segara Anakan-Cllacap. South Java, Indonesia. AT. White. P. Martosubroto and M.S.M.Sadorra. editors. 1989. ICLARMTechnical Reports 25. 82 p. $1 surface; $5 airmail. I. t I, f Coral reefs: valuable resources of Southeast Asia. AT. White. 1987. ICLARMEducation Series 1.36 p. $1.50 surface: $5 airmail. Marine parks and reserves: management for coastal environments in Southeast Asia. AT. White. 1988. ICLARMEducation Series 2. 36 p. $1.50 surface; $5 airmail. May pangako mula sa daga' (comics on blast fishing. in Pilipino). loM. Cabrera. ICLARMEducation Series 3. 26 p. Free upon request. . 1988. I There is stilihope (comics on marine parks). 1989.ICLARMEducation Series 4. 14 p. Free upon request. Seagrasses: a resource unknown in the ASEANregion. M.D. Fortes. 1989. ICLARMEducation Series 5. 47 p. $1.50 surface; $5 airmail. f : . I Directory of institutions and scientists in the ASEAN region involved in research and/or management related to coastal areas. T.-E. Chua. MAA Agulto. F.Y. Guarin and S.C. Guerrero. 1989.$2 surface; $10 airmail. . Mail orders and Inquiries to: International Specialized Book Services. P.O. Box 1632. Beaverton. Oregon 97075. USA(for North America). Airmailprice must be used. S. Toeche-Mittler GmbH. Versandbuchhandlung. Hindenburgstrasse 33. 0-6100 Oarmstadt. Federal Republic of Germany (for Europe). Airmail price must be used. The Editor. ICLARM.MC P.O. Box 1501. Makati. 1299 Metro Manila. Philippines (for inquiries elsewhere). Send US$ by international money order. bank draft or UNESCO coupons payable to ICLARM.We can accept US$checks only if from a US-based bank due to high clearance fees of other banks. Airmail Is strongly recommended due to delays of up to 6 months and occasional losses experienced with surface mail. . . " . J