Environment Science, Issues, Solutions by Brendan Burrell, Manuel Molles

B R I E F CO N T E N T S
Preface xiv
1 Introduction 1
2 Ecosystems and Economic Systems 31
3 Conservation of Endangered Species 59
4 Species and Ecosystem Diversity 93
5 Human Populations 125
6 Sustaining Water Supplies 155
7 Sustaining Terrestrial Resources 187
8 Sustaining Aquatic Resources 227
9 Fossil Fuels and Nuclear Energy 261
10 Renewable Energy 295
11 Environmental Health, Risk, and Toxicology 329
12 Solid and Hazardous Waste Management 357
13 Air, Water, and Soil Pollution 385
14 Global Climate Change 427
Appendix A Basic Chemistry A-1
Appendix B The Rock Cycle: Product of a Dynamic Planet B-1
Glossary G-1
Index I-1
A B OU T TH E A U TH OR S CONTENTS
Environment
SCIENCE, ISSUES, SOLUTIONS
this page left intentionally blank
Environment
SCIENCE, ISSUES, SOLUTIONS
Manuel Molles
University of New Mexico
Brendan Borrell
NEW YORK
PUBLISHER: Katherine Parker
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To all people everywhere, and the web of life that sustains us
A BO U T T H E AU T H O R S
Manuel Molles
Manuel Molles is Professor Emeritus of Biology at the University of New

Mexico, where he has been a member of the faculty and Curator for the
Museum of Southwestern Biology since 1975. Presently, he and his wife
Mary Anne live in a cabin in the mountains of La Veta, Colorado, where
he writes full time and manages his 100-acre property. He received his
Bachelor of Science degree in fisheries from Humboldt State University
in 1971, and his Ph.D. in zoology from the University of Arizona in 1976.
His dissertation topic was “Fish Species Diversity on Model and Natural
Patch Reefs: Experimental Insular Biogeography.” Manuel has taught and
conducted ecological research in Latin America, the Caribbean, and Europe.
He was awarded a Fulbright Research Fellowship to do research on river
ecology in Portugal, and has been a visiting professor at the University of
Coimbra, Portugal, at the Polytechnic University of Madrid, Spain, and at
the University of Montana. Most recently, in 2014 Manuel was awarded the
Ecological Society of America Eugene P. Odum Award for “Excellence in
Ecology Education.”
(Courtesy of Manuel Molles)
Brendan Borrell
Brendan Borrell is a biologist and journalist who has written about
science and the environment for dozens of outlets, including Bloomberg
Businessweek, Outside, Nature, New York Times, Scientific American,
and Smithsonian. His reporting at home and abroad has given him a
firsthand view of some of the most pressing environmental issues of today.
He has visited the phosphate mines of Morocco, followed a rhino hunt in
South Africa, and taken a road trip through the expanding soy plantations
of central Brazil. Brendan received his Ph.D. in Integrative Biology from
the University of California, Berkeley, in 2006. For his dissertation research,
he studied the evolution, ecology, and physiology of nectar feeding in the
orchid bees of Costa Rica and Panama. His articles have received awards
from the American Society for Journalists and Authors, and his reporting
has been funded by the Alicia Patterson Foundation, the Pulitzer Center on
Crisis Reporting, and the Mongabay Special Reporting Initiative.
(Courtesy of Brendan Borrell)
AB OU T TH E A U TH OR S CONTENTS
W H Y I W ROT E T H I S B O O K
I wrote this book because I am concerned about the future of wild places and the welfare of humanity,
particularly the welfare of the next few generations who will inherit the world we leave.
I am motivated by a sense of urgency and mounting evidence that the time to establish a sustainable
relationship with Earth is fast running out. The roots of these concerns about the environment developed
early. I grew up on a family farm, where, from childhood, I was responsible for growing irrigated crops and
raising a wide variety of livestock. There, husbanding animals and tilling soil, I grew to appreciate a well-run
farm. However, my focus was not entirely on farming. There were wild places nearby where I was free to roam
when my farm chores and schoolwork were done. Our farm overlooked the Merced River in central California
at the transition between the flats of the Central Valley and the foothills of the Sierra Nevada. The headwaters
of the Merced River drain Yosemite Valley, that long-ago haunt of John Muir.
My father trained me to do all the farm chores, but he also taught me to appreciate wild nature, especially
the habits of birds—his first love. Likely because of these early influences, I would spend every available
moment on or in the Merced River. However, my knowledge of the place where I grew up was not limited
by what I saw in my ramblings, since my family had lived in the area since the mid-1800s. The stories of two
great uncles who arrived in northern California as young boys in 1865, three years before Muir began living
in Yosemite, were particularly exciting. Incredibly, one of them, Uncle Jim, was still active when I was a child.
Those early days were, he said, a time of extensive wetlands and abundant wildlife, of rivers teeming with
salmon, the ocean thick with whales, and most of the redwood forests still uncut. I never tired of those tales of
what once was, but they also filled me with a deep sense of what had been lost in less than a century. However,
I was also encouraged by the survival of unspoiled ecosystems near our farm, just an hour and a half drive
from San Francisco, which we called The City and where I learned to value culturally rich urban environments.
My hope is that through this text, I can contribute in some small way to a sustainable balance between wild
ecosystems, ecosystems managed for resource extraction, and urban ecosystems. It is my belief that a healthy
future for humanity depends on achieving such a balance.
The core of what appears on these pages—the organization, topics, tone, and language—is inspired by what
I have learned from the more than 10,000 students who attended my classes during my decades of teaching.
Whether in the field, laboratory, or lecture hall, it was these students who taught me what in a subject is
significant and how to communicate it. Through this text I hope to share a vision for sustainability with a new
generation of students who will be the keepers of humanity’s future.
I am also motivated by the feeling that my career would be incomplete without reaching out beyond my
academic publications to write this textbook, which I have written while living in mountains surrounded by
old growth, mixed conifer forest, abundant wildlife, and fishing for trout when I have a spare moment.
Manuel C. Molles
La Veta, Colorado
F EATU R ES L A U N C H PA D
B R I E F CO N T E N T S
Preface xiv
1 Introduction 1
2 Ecosystems and Economic Systems 31
3 Conservation of Endangered Species 59
4 Species and Ecosystem Diversity 93
5 Human Populations 125
6 Sustaining Water Supplies 155
7 Sustaining Terrestrial Resources 187
8 Sustaining Aquatic Resources 227
9 Fossil Fuels and Nuclear Energy 261
10 Renewable Energy 295
11 Environmental Health, Risk, and Toxicology 329
12 Solid and Hazardous Waste Management 357
13 Air, Water, and Soil Pollution 385
14 Global Climate Change 427
Appendix A Basic Chemistry A-1
Appendix B The Rock Cycle: Product of a Dynamic Planet B-1
Glossary G-1
Index I-1
A B OU T TH E A U TH OR S CONTENTS
CO N T E N T S
Preface xiv 2.6 How we represent economic systems can have
environmental consequences 48
(Kelli-Ann Bliss/NOAA)
2.7 Unregulated use of resources can lead to a “Tragedy of

the Commons” 49
Solutions 50
Chapter 1 Introduction 1 2.8 Economics should include environmental costs and
benefits 50
Science 4
2.9 Property rights can lead to environmental
1.1 Environment is everything 4 preservation 52
1.2 Science uses a formal method to gather evidence about 2.10 Alternative paths to sustainability: Tragedy of the
how nature works 6 Commons revisited 53
1.3 Scientific evidence can reduce uncertainty about natural
phenomena 10
(Jim Peaco, Yellowstone

National Park, NPS)
1.4 The integrity of science depends on following a strict code
of ethical conduct 12
Issues 14
1.5 Human impact and environmental awareness began Chapter 3 Conservation of Endangered
long ago 14 Species 59
1.6 Human impact on the environment has become a
global issue 19 Science 62
3.1 Genetic diversity is essential to the evolution and survival
Solutions 21 of populations 62
1.7 Environmental ethics extends moral responsibilities to 3.2 Distribution and abundance are key indicators of
the environment 21 population security 67
1.8 Sustainability as a pragmatic solution to environmental 3.3 Populations change 68
woes 25 3.4 The life history of a species influences its capacity to
1.9 Environmental science provides a comprehensive recover from disturbance 71
framework for addressing environmental issues 26 3.5 Species interactions define biological communities 73
Issues 76
(Jean Michel Labat/
3.6 Habitat destruction and alteration are the most serious

Ardea.com)
threats to biodiversity 77
3.7 Invasive species threaten native species 78
Chapter 2 Ecosystems and Economic 3.8 Plant and wildlife trafficking are growing dangers to
Systems 31 species 79
3.9 Pest and predator control have pushed species to the brink
Science 34 of extinction 80
2.1 Ecosystems and economic systems are built on matter 34
Solutions 82
2.2 Energy makes matter move 36
3.10 National laws and international treaties protect
2.3 Energy flows through ecosystems, while matter recycles 39
endangered species 82
2.4 Economic systems and their currencies take several
3.11 Banning of a toxin and captive breeding brought peregrine
forms 43
falcons back from the brink of extinction 84
Issues 46 3.12 Population ecology provides a conceptual foundation for
wolf restoration 84
2.5 Energy fuels, and limits, the economy 47
X CONTENTS
3.13 Restoration of North American gray wolves has required 5.3 The age structure of a population gives clues to its growth
working through conflict 85 or decline 131
3.14 Wild populations are sources of significant economic Issues 134
benefits 88
5.4 Fertility ranges greatly among countries and
regions 134
(Cheryl Jaworowski/
5.5 Development varies widely among countries 136

5.6 Population growth and development generally increase
USGS)
environmental impact 137

Chapter 4 Species and Ecosystem 5.7 Developmental differences between populations create
migration pressures 139
Science 96
4.1 Species and ecosystem diversity are key elements of Solutions 142
biodiversity 96 5.8 Most nations have national policies aimed at managing
population growth 142
4.2 Geographic patterns and processes influence biodiversity 97
5.9 Human development is associated with lower fertility
4.3 Some species influence biodiversity much more than
and reduced emigration 147
others 103
5.10 The challenge: Achieve high development and
4.3 Some species influence biodiversity much more than
sustainable resource use 149
others 103
4.4 Ecological succession affects community composition
and diversity 106
4.5 Global species richness results from a balance between
(NASA)
speciation and extinction 108
Issues 110 Chapter 6 Sustaining Water Supplies 155

4.6 Habitat fragmentation reduces biodiversity 110
Science 158
4.7 Valuable services of ecosystems are threatened 112
6.1 The hydrologic cycle moves water around Earth 158
4.8 Many invasive species harm ecosystems 113
6.2 The El Niño Southern Oscillation causes periods of dry
years and wet years 161
Solutions 115
4.9 The number of protected areas has grown rapidly 116 Issues 162
4.10 Nongovernmental conservation complements 6.3 Access to adequate water supplies as a human
governmental programs 117 right 162
4.11 Sustaining biodiversity and ecosystem services requires 6.4 Humans already use most of the world’s accessible
active management 118 freshwater supplies 164
4.12 Integrating conservation with local communities can help 6.5 Groundwater is being depleted faster than it is
sustain protected areas 120 replenished 166
6.6 Managing water for human use threatens aquatic
biodiversity 168
(Jorg Hackemann/
Shutterstock)
Solutions 173
6.7 Water conservation can increase water use efficiency
Chapter 5 Human Populations 125 substantially 173
6.8 Reclamation and recycling are saving water
Science 128 throughout the world 175
5.1 Human population density varies significantly across 6.9 Desalination taps Earth’s largest reservoir of
Earth 128 water 178
5.2 The global population will grow into the middle of this 6.10 Conservation and restoration can protect aquatic
century 130 ecosystems and biodiversity 181
XI
8.2 Nutrient availability influences primary production in

marine environments 232
(Dudarev Mikhail/
Shutterstock)
8.3 El Niño and other large-scale climatic systems affect

fisheries 236
Chapter 7 Sustaining Terrestrial
Issues 237
Resources 187
8.4 Tragedy of the Commons: Intensive harvesting has
Science 190 resulted in overexploitation of many commercially
important marine populations 237
7.1 Climate, biodiversity, and nutrients influence terrestrial
primary production 190 8.5 Dams and river regulation have decimated migratory
fish populations 241
7.2 Agriculture, forestry, and grazing systems are built on the
natural biomes 193 8.6 Aquaculture can pollute aquatic environments and
threaten wild fish populations 242
7.3 Soil structure and fertility result from dynamic
processes 194 Solutions 245
Issues 198 8.7 Saving global fish stocks requires careful management
and strong incentives 245
7.4 Industrial agriculture, which increased production, came
with environmental impacts 198 8.8 Biodiversity contributes to the productivity and stability
of fisheries 248
7.5 Common farming, grazing, and forestry practices deplete
soils 199 8.9 River restoration may be a key to restoring decimated
salmon populations 252
7.6 Deforestation and some forestry management practices
deplete soils and increase flooding danger 202 8.10 Aquaculture can provide high-quality protein with low
environmental impact 254
7.7 Irrigation can damage soils 205
(Dado Galdieri/Bloomberg
7.8 Intensive agriculture can cause pollution and promote
pesticide resistance 206
via Getty Images)

7.9 Genetically modified crops are sources of controversy
and agricultural potential 209
Solutions 213 Chapter 9 Fossil Fuels and Nuclear

7.10 Investing in local farmers, while increasing genetic and Energy 261
crop diversity, may be a sustainable approach to feeding
our growing population 213 Science 264
7.11 Sustainable farming, forestry, and ranching practices can 9.1 Fossil fuels provide energy in chemical form 264
reduce soil losses and improve soil fertility 215
9.2 Power plants and vehicles burn fossil fuels to
7.12 Sustainable irrigation requires careful management of generate electricity and movement 270
water and salts 220
9.3 Nuclear energy is released by atomic fission and
7.13 Integrated approaches to pest control can reduce pesticide fusion 272
pollution and evolution of pesticide resistance 221
Issues 274
9.4 Global energy use grows as energy shortages
(Bill Dewey, Taylor
Shellfish Farms)
loom 274
9.5 Fossil fuel extraction and use can harm the
environment 277
Chapter 8 Sustaining Aquatic 9.6 Nuclear power development comes with environmental
Resources 227 costs 281
Science 230 Solutions 284

8.1 Commercial fish populations are heavily harvested and 9.7 New laws and technology are cleaning up the oil
actively managed 230 industry 284
XII CONTENTS
9.8 Ecosystem restoration can mitigate the environmental 11.2 Bacteria, viruses, and parasites are spread through the
impacts of fossil fuel extraction 286 environment 334
9.9 Advances in nuclear power plant operation and design are
aimed at improving safety 288 Issues 339
11.3 Toxic substances move through the environment and can
(Andrew Henderson/National
accumulate in large concentrations 339

Geographic Creative)
11.4 Exposure to endocrine disruptors can affect the health of

humans and other organisms 340
11.5 Misuse and overuse have promoted resistance to
antibiotics and insecticides 342
Chapter 10 Renewable Energy 295
11.6 Infectious diseases spill over from wild species and
Science 298 continue evolving to evade our defenses 344
10.1 Solar energy can be used as a heat source and to
Solutions 346
generate electricity 298
11.7 We assess risk both qualitatively and quantitatively 346
10.2 Wind, water, and geothermal energy add to the renewable
energy portfolio 302 11.8 Risk management involves reducing environmental
hazards and controlling disease 348
10.3 Biomass fuels represent stored chemical energy 307
Issues 310
(USFWS photo by
10.4 Solar power remains costly and can damage the
Susan White)
environment 310
10.5 Wind turbines and transmission lines kill birds and
bats 312 Chapter 12 Solid and Hazardous Waste
10.6 Hydroelectric development can have multiple Management 357
environmental and social impacts 314
10.7 Biofuel development can reduce food supplies and harm Science 360
the environment 315 12.1 The “waste” generated by economic systems does not
occur in ecosystems 360
Solutions 317 12.2 Waste has diverse sources and properties and varies with
10.8 Smart solutions to issues associated with solar power level of economic development 361
are under development 317
10.9 Less damaging wind-generation strategies are under Issues 364
development 319 12.3 Municipal solid waste management is a growing
10.10 Downsizing can mitigate the impacts of hydroelectric problem 364
development 321 12.4 Hazardous waste generation is increasing and is often
10.11 Less damaging, more efficient biofuels are under handled unsafely 367
development as alternatives to oil-based fuels 323 12.5 New forms of hazardous waste are on the rise 369
12.6 Safe nuclear waste disposal requires long-term
security 370
(fotog/Getty Images)
Solutions 373
12.7 Modern waste management emphasizes reduced
disposal 373
Chapter 11 Environmental Health, Risk, and
12.8 Food waste and other biodegradable trash can be reduced
Toxicology 329 and repurposed 374
Science 332 12.9 Recycling and demanufacturing are critical to reducing
waste 376
11.1 Chemical hazards include toxic substances and
pollutants 332 12.10 Safe and secure long-term disposal is the last resort 378
X III
Deseret News via AP)
Marie-Luce Hubert/
(Jean-Louis Klein &
(Geoff Liesik/The
Science Source)
Chapter 13 Air, Water, and Soil Chapter 14 Global Climate Change 427
Pollution 385
Science 430
Science 388 14.1 The atmosphere exerts key controls on planetary
13.1 Industry releases pollutants 388 temperatures 431
13.2 Humans produce a wide variety of pollutants 390 14.2 Scientists began building the basis for understanding the
greenhouse effect more than 200 years ago 432
13.3 Atmospheric and aquatic transport eventually move
pollutants around the planet 396 14.3 Global temperatures and atmospheric CO2 concentrations
have varied cyclically 434
Issues 400 14.4 Atmospheric CO2 appears to be the thermostat controlling
13.4 Air pollution exacts major health-related and economic global temperatures 437
tolls 400
Issues 440
13.5 Acid rain is a major source of damage to aquatic and
terrestrial ecosystems 402 14.5 Precise measurements reveal that fossil fuel burning is the
main cause of increased atmospheric CO2 levels 440
13.6 Persistent pollutants enter the human food
chain 404 14.6 As CO2 levels have risen in modern times, global
temperatures have increased significantly 443
13.7 Organic matter and nutrient pollution can disrupt local
and distant ecosystems 407 14.7 Rising temperatures have been accompanied by diverse
changes in the Earth system 445
Solutions 409 14.8 Climate change can lead to a wide range of societal
13.8 Environmental regulation and international treaties have costs 448
played important roles in reducing pollution in North
America 409 Solutions 452
13.9 Control measures have reduced emissions of pollutants 14.9 Developing a road map to reduce carbon emissions 452
and acid rain 412 14.10 Reducing greenhouse gas emissions provides new
13.10 New technologies can reduce indoor air economic opportunities 457
pollution 415 14.11 Restoring and enhancing carbon sinks could help balance
13.11 Soils and sediments contaminated by hazardous wastes the carbon budget 459
can be cleaned using a variety of techniques 416
13.12 There are many effective ways to reduce organic and Appendix A Basic Chemistry A-1
nutrient pollution 419
Appendix B The Rock Cycle: Product of a
Dynamic Planet B-1
Glossary G-1
Index I-1
XXI IVV CONTENTS
PREFACE
A UNIQUE CHAPTER STRUCTURE

Each chapter is divided into three sections: Science, Issues, and Solutions.
“It clearly distinguishes between

the science and political, social and
economic choices required by the
problems. It is more congenial to my
teaching than any of my current or
recent texts, period.”
–BrianM ooney,
Johnson & Whales University
“I love this [science-issues-solutions]

approach. Science is the tool that lays
the foundation for what follows.”
–BarryP erlmutter,
College of Southern Nevada
Central Question: How can

we mitigate and adapt to the
environmental and social Explain the factors that control climate
impacts of climate change? and global temperatures.
(Jean-Louis Klein & Marie-Luce Hubert/Science Source) SCIENCE
Navigation bar clearly guides

students through each chapter,
using color to identify science,
issues, solutions.
XV
XV
C H A P T ER 14
Global Climate Change

14.1–14.4 Science
Each chapter begins by explaining the basic
science relevant to the chapter’s topic, as a
foundation for the coverage to follow.
14.5–14.8 Issues
Students draw upon the science coverage
to get a better understanding of current
environmental issues.
14.9–14.11 Solutions
Each chapter concludes by asking students to
evaluate the success or failure of solutions (either
implemented or proposed) for environmental
Analyze the causes and impacts of Discuss thee local
locala and
and international
inter
internat
nation
ional
al tactics
tac
ctic
ticss
a warming global climate. that could m
mitigate
itiga
iti g e glob
gat global
g problems
lobal
al climate
climat
cli ma e change. e in different parts of the world.
ISSUES SO LU T I O N S
X VI PREFACE
A CENTRAL QUESTION SETS THE LEARNING GOAL FOR THE CHAPTER
428 C HAP T E R 1 4 G LOBAL CLIM ATE CH ANG E 429
SOME CONSEQUENCES OF A WARMER EARTH
(John McColgan, Bureau of Land Management, Alaska Fire Service)

shutdown of natural gas fields, interrupting the flow of of the environmental and economic consequences of climate
critical energy supplies. All told, wildfires in the United change. In fact, they have concluded that by mid-century,
States in 2012 burned more than 1.7 million hectares if present trends continue, the western United States would
(4.1 million acres). be subject to droughts worse than any occurring in the
Abnormally high temperatures in the United States previous 1,000 years. Human action has played a significant
had other impacts as well. For instance, cattle had so little role in changing Earth’s climate, particularly by increasing
healthy pasture that the USDA allowed ranchers to graze the concentrations of gases in the atmosphere that trap the
their cattle on conservation lands set aside for erosion Sun’s energy, leading to a temperature increase of almost 1°C
control and wildlife habitat. Approximately half of the since 1880. Climate scientists predict that climate change will
nation’s corn crop and one-third of the soybean crop include a higher frequency of heat waves, droughts, and other
had failed or were near failing—an episode that would weather extremes along with the loss of the polar ice caps and
play out in the global economy as an increase in food a rise in sea level.
prices. Reduced farm income would hurt a wide range of By the end of the 21st century, climate models suggest
businesses located in agricultural regions. that the temperature of Earth’s surface will rise another
2 to 3°C. “Warming of the climate system is unequivocal,
and since the 1950s, many of the observed changes are
(USDA photo by Bob Nichols)
(Scott Hortop/Getty Images)
“Preservation of our environment unprecedented over decades to millennia,” wrote the authors
of the fifth assessment of the Intergovernmental Panel for
is not a liberal or conservative Climate Change (IPCC), published in 2014. “It is extremely
challenge, it’s common sense.” likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of
the observed warming.”
Heat waves are setting temperature records and impacting larger and larger areas around the world. High President Ronald Reagan, State of the Union address,
temperatures combined with drought have been conducive to large wildfires of unprecedented magnitude. January 1984) The good news is that once we recognize that we are
Drought has had severe impacts on agricultural production in regions such as the midwestern United States. significant contributors to climate change, there are steps we
can take to reduce the problem. However, as we address this
Climate scientists modeling future climates believe issue, we will need to avoid causing other forms of disruption,
Tracking Wildfires in the West that the summer of 2012 may provide a preview of some both environmental and economic.
Raging fires and extreme weather events could become

more common with a changing global climate Central Question
A t 7 a.m. on June 23, 2012, a jogger was running along
the Waldo Canyon Trail in the mountains above
in Colorado’s history, resulting in insurance claims of more
than $450 million. Although the fire may have been started How can we mitigate and adapt
to the environmental and social
Colorado Springs, Colorado, when he smelled smoke. He by an arsonist, another suspect has been singled out for its
veered off the trail to investigate and found a smoldering rapid spread and devastating impact: climate change.
fire in the woods. After he reported the fire to the local That year, the wildfire season in the West came on the
sheriff’s department, high winds and drought conditions in
the forest caused the fire to spread over 600 acres in several
heels of a period of unrelenting heat. During the 12 months
from August 2011 to July 2012, land temperatures in the
impacts of climate change?
hours’ time, leading to evacuations of several nearby 48 contiguous United States were the warmest in 117 years
communities. By the time firefighters finally contained of record-keeping. Across Colorado, wildfires blackened
the Waldo Canyon Fire, two and a half weeks later, it nearly 67,000 hectares (165,000 acres) and destroyed over
had burned 7,384 hectares (18,247 acres) and 346 homes, 600 homes. In Montana and New Mexico, they consumed
killing two people. It ranked as the most destructive fire another 529 homes. In Utah and Wyoming, they forced the
HOW CAN W E MIT I G ATE AND ADAPT TO TH E ENV IRONM EN TA L A N D S O C I A L I M PA C TS O F C L I M ATE C HA N GE ? SC IENC E I SSUES S OLUTIONS
In each chapter, a case study introduces the student to the topic

and establishes the overall learning goal for the chapter. This
learning goal is called the Central Question.
“Using the Central Question as a theme through the chapter allows students to
keep a focus on a thesis statement, tying together the supporting information.
I find the Central Question very helpful in connecting concepts throughout the
chapter.”
–Terri Matiella, University of Texas, San Antonio
X V II
Neptune
Uranus
Mars
Saturn
Earth
Venus Jupiter
Mercury
(NASA/JPL)
FIGURE 14.1 Mars, approximately 228 million kilometers (km) from the Sun, is the smallest of the three planets discussed here. Earth
is approximately 78 million km closer to the Sun and twice the diameter of Mars. Venus is approximately the same size as Earth, around
40 million km, or 30%, closer to the Sun. However, the average temperature of Venus is more than 30 times higher than Earth’s.
HO W CA N WE MIT IG AT E AN D AD APT TO T H E EN VIRO N MENTAL AND SOCIAL IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE?
The Central Question is visible on every spread of the

chapter to help students keep it in mind as they read.
Central Question: How can we mitigate and adapt to the environmental

and social impacts of climate change?
14.1–14.4 Science 14.5–14.8 Issues 14.9–14.11 Solutions Answer the Central Question:
• What affect does the atmosphere have on • What is the primary cause of increased CO2 • What tactics can we take to reducing carbon
planetary temperatures? levels and how do we know? emissions?
• How did scientists learn about the greenhouse • What global physical effect results from rising • What new economic opportunities may arise
effect and its role on Earth? CO2 levels? from reducing greenhouse gas emissions?
• How do global temperatures and CO2 • What types of changes on Earth have • What role do carbon sinks play in balancing
concentrations vary over time? accompanied rising global temperatures? the carbon budget?
• Which atmospheric factor exerts the most • What societal costs have resulted from climate
control over global temperatures and how do change?
we know?
At the end of each chapter, students create an Active Summary as a

recap of the Science, Issues, and Solutions sections presented in the
chapter; it also prepares them to answer the Central Question.
“This layout has great value in terms of encouraging students to read, and it also
requires the student to answer questions along the way that feed back into the
Central Question. This lends itself to a curriculum based more on concepts and
discussion rather than simple fact recitation.”
–Megan Lahti, Arizona Western College
X VI I I PREFACE
A Focus on Solutions
The topics and issues in environmental science can leave students feeling hopeless and
powerless about environmental issues. Because of the unique chapter structure, this text
emphasizes solutions—what has been done (and how well it worked) and what more can be
done (and how science can help us implement it).
(AP Photo/Danny Wilcox Frazier) (Mark Henley/Panos Pictures)

(Greg Gibson/AP Photo)
Empowering Students
Following the Solutions section of each chapter, students work through a list of activities
they might try in order to directly engage with environmental science issues and feel that their
experience counts.
Climate Change and You cooling in summer (no cooler than 78° F). Save energy by walking or
bicycling whenever practical and safe, or use public mass transport.
Many consider climate and atmospheric change to be the most serious
If you operate a motor vehicle, you can try to maximize fuel economy
environmental challenge that our species has ever faced. Massive
by choosing a fuel-efficient one and keeping it well maintained.
releases of greenhouse gases resulting from the activity of a growing
human population have already warmed Earth and threaten to radically ! Support efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
disrupt the entire biosphere. The challenges posed by climate change
As a citizen, you can use your voice and vote to support transitioning
put our collective life and economic support systems at risk. In the face of
to renewable energy sources and reducing greenhouse gas
such a challenge, what can an individual do?
production. You can support local, regional, and national programs
“This [science-issues-solutions
fostering conservation agriculture and forestry practices that help framework] allows students to
! Follow the science.
Although climate scientists are in overwhelming agreement on
sustain these natural carbon sinks. You can also support legislation
understand the basis for the issues,
that levels a cost on carbon emissions associated with power
climate change and its causes, the deniers of climate change production and other industrial activity. As a consumer, you can go and then helps them look toward the
science present competing conclusions on the present state one step further and support clean energy initiatives offered by your future with a sense of hopefulness
and dynamics of Earth’s climate, as well as the societal and local electrical utility.
environmental stakes. The best way to sort your way through these and optimism [that] these issues can
competing narratives is to build on what you have learned in this ! Become involved.
be addressed, instead of leaving them
course by following developments in published science, paying In ways large and small, we can all be a force for constructive
particular attention to data associated with global temperatures, change. After completing this course in environmental science,
with a sense of ‘doom and gloom.’ ”
storm intensities, depth and frequencies of drought, sea level rise, you should have a broader understanding of the science, issues, –TerriM atiella,
and so forth. and potential solutions to today’s environmental challenges. More
important, you are better prepared to expand that base of knowledge University of Texas, San Antonio
! Conserve energy. far beyond where it is now. As you do so, let your informed voice
Collectively, we can alter the amount of energy produced simply be heard where appropriate and become involved individually and
by conserving energy. Energy utilities report that conservation by with organizations that reflect your knowledge and understanding of
consumers has already reduced energy demand in both the United the most pressing environmental issues, whether they be related to
States and Europe. A first step is to make sure that your residence climate change or the many other issues surveyed in this text. In the
is well insulated. If possible, you can also set your thermostat to end, because these issues reflect what we do or have done to the
reduce energy used for heating in winter (no higher than 68° F) and environment of our planet, all are interrelated.
X IX
Critical Thinking and Problem Solving
Think About It questions after each chapter section ask students to analyze
what they’ve just read and apply it to new situations.
? Margin questions throughout the chapter help students engage with the issues
and can serve as lecture or discussion prompts.
Critical Critical Analysis questions at the end of each chapter require students to apply
Analysis higher-level Bloom’s skills to environmental issues and solutions.
INDEPENDENT CONFIRMATION OF LAND

TEMPERATURE RECORD
NASA GISS
1.0
Hadley / CRU
NOAA / NCDC
Berkeley Earth
TEMPERATURE ANOMALY (°C)
0.5 (light band indicates 95%

uncertainty interval)
0 A focus on data in each chapter

builds quantitative skills and
−0.5
mathematical reasoning.
−1.0
−1.5
1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000
YEAR
FIGURE 14.21 The Berkeley Earth Surface Temperature
(BEST) research group independently confirmed global warming
of temperatures over land using a much larger sample of
meteorological stations and controlling for urban heat island
effects. (Data from BEST, http://berkeleyearth.org/)
EARTH’S GROWING CARBON SINKS
400 Cumulative emissions

GLOBAL CARBON ACCUMULATION (PgC)
Atmospheric accumulation
300 Global uptake
Cumulative carbon emissions
200 totalled 350 PgC. However . . .
100
. . . only 158 PgC remained in
the atmosphere, because . . .
0
−100
. . . land and ocean carbon
sinks had taken up 192 PgC.
−200
−300
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
YEAR
FIGURE 14.40 The uptake of CO2 emissions by land and oceans doubled between 1960 and 2010, reducing the buildup of the
greenhouse gas in the atmosphere. (Data from Ballantyne et al., 2012)
XX PREFACE
LaunchPad
LaunchPad gives instructors everything they need to quickly set up a course, shape the content of their
syllabus, craft presentations and lectures, assign and assess homework, and guide the progress of
individual students and the class as a whole. Meanwhile, LaunchPad is the students’ one-stop shop for
class preparation, homework, and exam prep.
Instructor Resources
The new standard in online course management, LaunchPad makes it easier than ever to
create interactive assignments, track online homework, and access a wealth of extraordinary
teaching and learning tools. Fully loaded with our customizable e-Book and all student and instructor resources, the
LaunchPad is organized around a series of prebuilt LaunchPad units—carefully curated, ready-to-use collections of material
for each chapter of Environment: Science, Issues, and Solutions.
LECTURE TOOLS
Lecture Slides
These slides combine art, classroom discussion questions, and descriptions of key concepts from the book for classroom
presentation.
Layered Slides
Slides for select figures deconstruct key concepts, sequences, and processes in a step-by-step format, allowing instructors to
present complex ideas in clear, manageable parts.
Optimized Art (Jpegs and layered slides)

Infographics are optimized for projection in large lecture halls and split apart for effective presentation.
Clicker Questions
Designed as interactive in-class exercises, these questions reinforce core concepts and uncover misconceptions.
ASSESSMENT
Activities use a game-like interface to guide students through a series of questions
tailored to their individual level of understanding.
Videos
Videos from an array of trusted sources bring the stories of the book to life and make the material meaningful to students.
Each video includes assessment questions to gauge student understanding.
Test Bank
A collection of questions, organized by chapter, presented in a sortable, searchable platform. The Test Bank features multiple-
choice questions and uses infographics and graphs from the book.
XXI
Student Resources
(alexsl/istockphoto)
Student resources reinforce chapter concepts and give students the tools they need to succeed in the course. All student
resources are organized and can be found in the LaunchPad.
Students have access to a variety of study tools in the LaunchPad, along with a complete
online version of the textbook. Carefully curated LaunchPad Units provide suggested
learning paths for each chapter in the text.
This set of formative assessment activities uses a game-like interface to guide

students through a series of questions tailored to their individual level of
understanding. A personalized study plan is generated based on their quiz results. LearningCurve is available to students in the
LaunchPad.
Graphing Tutorials
Students build and analyze graphs, using their critical thinking skills to predict trends, identify bias, and make cause-and-effect
connections.
Video Case Studies

Videos from an array of trusted sources bring the stories of the book to life and allow students to apply their environmental,
scientific, and information literacy skills. Each video includes questions that engage students in the critical thinking process.
Key Term Flashcards

Interactive flashcards can help students drill and learn the most important terms in each chapter.
Critical Thinking Activities

Assignable activities engage students in the material and inspire critical thinking based on content from the textbook.
Environment and Your Activities

Activities prompt students to get directly involved in environmental science issues in their lives and communities.
XXII REVIEWERS
Reviewers
We extend our deep appreciation to the following instructors who reviewed, tested,
and advised on the book manuscript at various stages.
Matthew Abbott, Des Moines Area Richard Bowden, Allegheny College Michael Draney, University of Wisconsin– Stephen Hecnar, Lakehead
Community College–Newton campus Anne Bower, Philadelphia University Green Bay Rod Heisey, Penn State University
David Aborn, University of Tennessee at Scott Brame, Clemson University Daniel Druckenbrod, Longwood University Keith Hench, Ph.D., Kirkwood Community
Chattanooga Susan Brantley, Gainesville State College Dani DuCharme, Waubonsee Community College
Michael Adams, Pasco-Hernando Susan Bratton, Baylor University College Carl Herzig, St. Ambrose University
Community College Beth Braun, City Colleges of Chicago John Duff, University of Massachusetts Boston Crystal Heshmat, Hudson Valley Community
Loretta Adoghe, Miami Dade College Randi Brazeau, MSU Denver George Duggan, Middlesex Community College
Shamim Ahsan, Metropolitan State James Brenneman, University of Evansville College Crystal Heshmat, Mildred Elley and Hudson
University of Denver Mary Brown, Western Michigan University Don Duke, Florida Gulf Coast University Valley Community College
Steve Ailstock, Anne Arundel Community Robert Bruck, North Carolina State Robert Dundas, California State University, Jeffery Hill, University of North Carolina
College University Fresno Wilmington
Marc Albrecht, University of Nebraska– Susan Buck, University North Carolina John Dunning, Purdue University Jason Hlebakos, Mt. San Jacinto College
Kearney Greensboro Karen Duston, San Jacinto College Carol Hoban, Kennesaw State University
Thomas Algeo, University of Cincinnati Amy Buechel, Gannon University James Eames, DePaul University Melissa Hobbs, Williams Baptist College
John Aliff, Georgia Perimeter College Robert Buerger, University of North Carolina Robert East, Washington & Jefferson College Jeffrey Matthew Hoch, Nova Southeastern
Keith Allen, Bluegrass Community and Wilmington Nelson Eby, University of Massachusetts University
Technical College Bonnie Burgess, Loyola Marymount Kenneth Ede, Oklahoma State University– Kelley Hodges, Gulf Coast State College
Albert Allong, Houston Community College University Tulsa Robert Hollister, Grand Valley State University
Brannon Andersen, Furman University Rebecca Burton, Alverno College Matthew Eick, Virginia Tech Joey Holmes, Rock Valley College
Matt Anderson, Broward College Willodean Burton, Austin Peay State University Diana Elder, Northern Arizona University Claus Holzapfel, Rutgers University Newark
Dean Anson, Southern New Hampshire Peter Busher, Boston University Catherine Etter, Cape Cod Community Barbara Holzman, San Francisco State
University, and Lakes Region Community Nancy Butler, Kutztown University College University
College Anya Butt, Central College Luca Fedele, Virginia Tech Aixin Hou, Louisiana State University
Clay Arango, Central Washington University Elena Cainas, Broward College Jeff Fennell, Everett Community College Phillip Hudson, Southern Illinois University
Walter Arenstein, San Jose State University John Campbell, Northwest College Fleur Ferro, Community College of Denver Edwardsville
Felicia Armstrong, Youngstown State University Daniel Capuano, Hudson Valley Community Steven Fields, Winthrop University LeRoy Humphries, Fayetteville Technical
Paul Arriola, Elmhurst College College Brad Fiero, Pima County Community College Community College
Tom Arsuffi, Texas Tech University Heidi Carlson, Harrisburg Area Community Jonathan Fingerut, Saint Joseph Todd Hunsinger, Hudson Valley Community
Augustine Avwunudiogba, California State College Ken Finkelstein, Suffolk University Boston College
University, Stanislaus Deborah Carr, Texas Tech University Geremea Fioravanti, Harrisburg Area Andrew Hunt, University of Texas at
Sonia Aziz, Moravian College Margaret Carroll, Framingham State Community College Arlington
Abbed Babaei, Cleveland State University University Linda Fitzhugh, Gulf Coast Community Jodee Hunt, Grand Valley State University
Daphne Babcock, Collin College Kelly Cartwright, College of Lake County College Catherine Hurlbut, Florida State College at
Nancy Bain, Ohio University Mary Kay Cassani, Florida Gulf Coast Stephan Fitzpatrick, Georgia Perimeter College Jacksonville
Jack Baker, Evergreen Valley College University Margi Flood, Gainesville State College Lilia Illes, University of California, Los
James Baldwin, Boston University Michelle Cawthorn, Georgia Southern April Ann Fong, Portland Community Angeles
Becky Ball, Arizona State University at the University College, Sylvania Campus Emmanuel Iyiegbuniwe, Western Kentucky
West Campus Dominic Chaloner, University of Notre Dame Nicholas Frankovits, University of Akron University
Deniz Ballero, Georgia Perimeter College Linda Chamberlain, Lansing Community Sabrina Fu, UMUC Kazi Jaced, Kentucky State University
Teri Balser, University of Wisconsin–Madison College Elyse Fuller, Rockland Community College Morteza Javadi, Columbus State Community
Barry Barker, Nova Southeastern University Karen Champ, College of Central Florida Karen Gaines, Eastern Illinois University College
Morgan Barrows, Saddleback College Fu-Hsian Chang, Bemidji State University Danielle Garneau, SUNY Plattsburgh Richard Jensen, Hofstra University
Brad Basehore, Harrisburg Area Community Ron Cisar, Iowa Western Community College Carri Gerber, OSU-ATI Mintesinot Jiru, Coppin State University
College Lu Anne Clark, Lansing Community College Phil Gibson, University of Oklahoma Alan Johnson, Clemson University
Damon Bassett, Missouri State University Reggie Cobb, Nash Community College Paul Gier, Huntingdon College Kevin Johnson, Florida Institute of
David Baumgardner, Texas A&M University Marlene Cole, Boston College Kristin Gogolen-Wylie, Macomb Technology
Ray Beiersdorfer, Youngstown State University Elena Colicelli, College of Saint Elizabeth Community College Gina Johnston, California State University,
Timothy Bell, Chicago State University Beth Collins, Iowa Central Community Michael Golden, Grossmont College Chico
Tracy Benning, University of San Francisco College Julie Gonzalez, Des Moines Area Community Seth Jones, University of Kentucky
David Berg, Miami University David Corey, Midlands Technical College College Elizabeth Jordan, Santa Monica College
Leonard Bernstein, Temple University Douglas Crawford-Brown, University of Rachel Goodman, Hamdpen-Sydney College Stan Kabala, Duquesne University
David Berry, California State Polytechnic North Carolina at Chapel Hill Pamela Gore, Georgia Perimeter College Charles Kaminski, Middlesex Community
University Joan Curry, University of Arizona College of Karl Gould, Webber International Univ. College
Susan Berta, Indiana State University Agriculture Gail Grabowsky, Chaminade University Ghassan Karam, Pace University
Joe Beuchel, Triton College Angela Cuthbert, Millersville University Ann Gunkel, Cincinnati State College John Kasmer, Northeastern Illinois
Cecilia Bianchi-Hall, Lenoir Community Sanhita Datta, San Jose City College Maureen Gutzweiler, Harrisburg Area University
College James Dauray, College of Lake County Community College Jennifer Katcher, Pima Community College
Jennifer Biederman, Winona State University Tom Davinroy, Metropolitan State University Edward Guy, Lakeland Community College Dawn Kaufman, St. Lawrence
Andrea Bixler, Clarke University of Denver Sue Habeck, Tacoma Community College Jerry Kavouras, Lewis University
Kim Bjorgo-Thorne, West Virginia Wesleyan Elizabeth Davis-Berg, Columbia College Charles Hall, State University of New York Reuben Keller, Loyola University Chicago
College Chicago College of Environmental Science and Kiho Kim, American University
Brian Black, Penn State Altoona Robert Dennison, Heartland Community Forestry Myung-Hoon Kim, Georgia Perimeter
Brent Blair, Xavier University College Robert Hamilton, Kent State University College
Steve Blumenshine, California State Michael Denniston, Georgia Perimeter College Robert Harrison, University of Washington, Andrea Kirk, Tarrant County College
University, Fresno Frank Dirrigl, The University of Texas– Seattle Elroy Klaviter, Lansing Community College
Ralph Bonati, Pima Community College Pan American Stephanie Hart, Lansing Community College Kristie Klose, University of California, Santa
Emily Boone, University of Richmond Jan Dizard, Amherst College Susan Hartley, University of Minnesota Barbara
Polly Bouker, Georgia Perimeter College Melinda Donnelly, University of Central Duluth Leah Knapp, Olivet College
Michael Bourne, Wright State University Florida Alyssa Haygood, Arizona Western College Ned Knight, Linfield College
X X III
Miriam Kodl, California State University, Karen McReynolds, Hope International Jennifer Purrenhage, University of New Melanie Szulczewski, University of Mary
Monterey Bay University Hampshire Washington
John Koprowski, University of Arizona Patricia Menchaca, Mount San Jacinto Ann Quinn, Penn State Erie, The Behrend Ryan Tainsh, Johnson & Wales University
Janet Kotash, Moraine Valley Community Community College: Menifee Campus College Michael Tarrant, University of Georgia
College Michael Mendel, Mount Vernon Nazarene Jodie Ramsay, Northern State University Franklyn Te, Miami Dade College
Elaine Kotler, Manchester Community College University Dan Ratcliff, Rose State College Melisa Terlecki, Cabrini College
Jean Kowal, University of Wisconsin– Heather Miceli, Johnson and Wales University James Reede, California State University, David Terrell, Warner Pacific College
Whitewater Chris Migliaccio, Miami Dade College Sacramento William Teska, Pacific Lutheran University
George Kraemer, Purchase College Donald Miles, Ohio University Daniel Ressler, Susquehanna University Donald Thieme, Valdosta State University
Paul Kramer, Farmingdale State College William Miller, Temple University Marsha Richmond, Wayne State University Nathan Thomas, Shippensburg University
William Kroll, Loyola University of Chicago Dale Miller, University of Colorado–Boulder Jennifer Richter, University of New Mexico Jamey Thompson, Hudson Valley
Beth Ann Krueger, Central Arizona Kiran Misra, Edinboro University of Melanie Riedinger-Whitmore, University of Community College
College–Aravaipa Campus Pennsylvania South Florida St. Petersburg Heather Throop, New Mexico State University
James Kubicki, The Pennsylvania State Mark Mitch, New England College Lisa Rodrigues, Villanova University Tim Tibbetts, Monmouth College
University Scott Mittman, Essex County College William Rogers, West Texas A&M University Ravindra Tipnis, Houston Community
Katherine LaCommare, Lansing Community Brian Mooney, Johnson and Wales University Thomas Rohrer, Central Michigan University College SW
College David Moore, Miami Dade College Scott Rollins, Spokane Falls Community Conrad Toepfer, Brescia University
Troy Ladine, East Texas Baptist University Elizabeth Morgan, College of the Desert College Gail Tompkins, Wake Technical Community
Diane Lahaise, Georgia Perimeter College Sherri Morris, Bradley University Charles Rose, St. Cloud State University College
Megan Lahti, Arizona Western College John Mugg, Michigan State University Judy Rosovsky, Johnson State College Tak Yung (Susanna) Tong, University of
(Adjunct)/ NAU–Yuma (FT) Kathleen Murphy, Daemen College William Roy, University of Illinois at Cincinnati
Kate Lajtha, Oregon State University Courtney Murren, College of Charleston Urbana–Champaign Brant Touchette, Elon University
Susan Lamont, Anne Arundel Community Carole Neidich-Ryder, Nassau Community John Rueter, Portland State University Jonah Triebwasser, Marist and Vassar Colleges
College College Dennis Ruez, University of Illinois at Chris Tripler, Endicott College in
Gaytha Langlois, Bryant University Douglas Nesmith, Baylor University Springfield Massachusetts
Andrew Lapinski, Reading Area Community Todd Nims, Georgia Perimeter College Jim Sadd, Occidental College Mike Tveten, Pima Community College–
College Ken Nolte, Shasta College Eric Sanden, University of Wisconsin– Northwest Campus
Kim Largen, George Mason University Fran Norflus, Clayton State University River Falls Richard Tyre, Valdosta State University
Grace Lasker, Lake Washington Institute of Leslie North, Western Kentucky University Shamili Sandiford, College of DuPage Janice Uchida, University of Hawaii
Technology Kathleen Nuckolls, University of Kansas Robert Sanford, University of Southern Maine Lauren Umek, DePaul University College of
Joyce Ellen Lathrop-Davis, Community Kathleen O’Reilly, Houston Community Karen Savage, California State University, Health and Science
College of Baltimore County College Northridge Shalini Upadhyaya, Reynolds Community
Jennifer Latimer, Indiana State University Mary O’Sullivan, Elgin Community Timothy Savisky, University of Pittsburgh at College
Kathy Lauckner, Community College of College Greensburg Quentin van Ginhoven, Vanier College
Southern Nevada Mark Oemke, Alma College Debora Scheidemantel, Pima Community Thomas Vaughn, Middlesex Community
George Leddy, Los Angeles Valley College Victor Okereke, Morrisville State College College College
Hugh Lefcort, Gonzaga University John Ophus, University of Northern Iowa Douglas Schmid, Nassau Community Robin Verble, Texas Tech University
Marcie Lehman, Shippensburg University Natalie Osterhoudt, Broward Community College Elisheva Verdi, Sacramento City College
Norman Leonard, University of North College Nan Schmidt, Pima Community College Nicole Vermillion, Georgia Perimeter College
Georgia William Otto, University of Maine at Machias Jeffery Schneider, SUNY Oswego Eric Vetter, Hawaii Pacific University
Jennifer Lepper, Minnesota State University Wendy Owens, Anne Arundel Community Andrew Scholl, Kent State University at Stark Paul Vincent, Valdosta State University
Moorhead College Kimberly Schulte, Georgia Perimeter College Caryl Waggett, Allegheny College
Kurt Leuschner, College of the Desert– Phil Pack, Woodbury University Bruce Schulte, Western Kentucky University Daniel Wagner, Eastern Florida State College
Applied Sciences Raymond Pacovsky, Palm Beach State College Joel Schwartz, California State University, Meredith Wagner, Lansing Community
Stephen Lewis, California State University, Chris Paradise, Davidson College Sacramento College
Fresno William Parker, Florida State University Peter Schwartzman, Knox College Xianzhong Wang, Indiana University–
J. D. Lewis, Fordham University Denise Lani Pascual, Indiana University– Andrew Sensenig, Tabor College Purdue University Indianapolis
Yanna Liang, Southern Illinois University Purdue University Indianapolis Lindsay Seward, University of Maine Deena Wassenberg, University of Minnesota
Matt Liebman, Suffolk University Boston Ginger Pasley, Wake Technical Community Cindy Seymour, Craven Community College John Weishampel, University of Central
Theo Light, Shippensburg University College Rich Sheibley, Edmonds Community College Florida
Tatyana Lobova, Old Dominion University Elli Pauli, George Washington University Brian Shmaefsky, Lone Star College–Kingwood Edward Wells, Wilson College
Eric Lovely, Arkansas Tech University Daniel Pavuk, Bowling Green State University Kent Short, Bellevue College Nancy Wheat, Hartnell College
Jia Lu, Valdosta State University Clayton Penniman, Central Connecticut Joseph Shostell, Penn State University– Van Wheat, South Texas College
Anthony Lupo, University of Missouri State University Fayette Deborah Williams, Johnson County
Quen, Lupton, Craven Community College Barry Perlmutter, College of Southern Nevada William Shoults-Wilson, Roosevelt University Community College
Jonathan Lyon, Merrimack College Joy Perry, University of Wisconsin Colleges Abert Shulley, CCBC Frank Williams, Langara College
Jeffrey Mahr, Georgia Perimeter College Dan Petersen, University of Cincinnati Douglas Sims, College of Southern Nevada Justin Williams, Sam Houston State University
Steven Manis, MGCCC Chris Petrie, Eastern Florida State College David Skelly, Yale University Kay Williams, Shippensburg University
Nancy Mann, Cuesta College Linda Pezzolesi, Hudson Valley Community Sherilyn Smith, Le Moyne College Shaun Willson, East Carolina University
Heidi Marcum, Baylor University College Rolf Sohn, Eastern Florida State College Angela Witmer, Georgia Southern University
Nilo Marin, Broward College Craig Phelps, Rutgers, The State University of Douglas Spieles, Denison University Mosheh Wolf, University of Illinois at
Tamara Marsh, Elmhurst College New Jersey Dale Splinter, University of Wisconsin– Chicago
Rob Martin, Florida State College Neal Phillip, Bronx Community College Whitewater Janet Wolkenstein, Hudson Valley
Patrick Mathews, Friends University Frank Phillips, McNeese State University Clint Springer, Saint Joseph’s University Community College
Terri Matiella, The University of Texas San Linda Phipps, Lipscomb University Alan Stam, Capital University Kerry Workman Ford, California State
Antonio Scott Pike, Willamette University Craig Steele, Edinboro University University, Fresno
Eric Maurer, University of Cincinnati Greg Pillar, Queens University of Charlotte David Steffy, Jacksonville State University David Wyatt, Sacramento City College
Costa Mazidji, Collin College Thomas Pliske, Florida International Michelle Stewart, Mesa Community Joseph Yavitt, Cornell University
DeWayne McAllister, JCCC University College Marcy Yeager, Northern Essex Community
Charles McClaugherty, University of Mount Gerald Pollack, Georgia Perimeter College Julie Stoughton, University of Nevada Reno College
Union Gary Poon, Erie Community College, City Peter Strom, Rutgers University Jeff Yule, Louisiana Tech University
James McEwan, Lansing Community College Campus Robyn Stroup, Tulsa Community College Natalie Zayas, CSU Monterey Bay
Dale McGinnis, Eastern Florida State Shaun Prince, Lake Region State College Andrew Suarez, University of Illinois Caralyn Zehnder, Georgia College & State
College Carol Prombo, Washington University in Keith Summerville, Drake University University
Colleen McLean, Youngstown State University St. Louis Karen Swanson, William Paterson University Lynn Zeigler, Georgia Perimeter College
Dan McNally, Bryant University Mary Puglia, Central Arizona College of New Jersey Michael Zito, Nassau Community College
Central Question: How do science and Explain what makes up the environment, what
science is, and how science can address uncertainty.
values help address environmental issues?
H O W CAN
(Kelli-Ann W E ACHIEV E SUSTA I NA B LE HUMA N POP ULATIONS ?
Bliss/NOAA) SCIENCE
C H A P T ER 1
Introduction
Analyze the global environmental Discuss how personal views affect how we address
impact of humans. environmental problems and the goal of sustainability.
ISSU EEN
S CI S CE ISSUES SO LU
S OLUT TIONS
IONS
2 C HAPTER 1 IN TRODUC TI ON
OZONE LAYER INTACT OZONE LAYER DEPLETED
50 km Incoming UV light
(UV-B)
Incoming UV light
Stratosphere UV light only slightly reduced (UV-B)
Density of ozone highest
by depleted ozone layer.
in lower stratosphere.
Ozone layer Depleted

ozone layer
10 km Troposphere
UV light filtered by ozone layer Earth’s surface exposed to more

Mt. Everest Earth’s surface damaging ultraviolet light.
The protective effects of the stratospheric ozone layer and the effects of ozone depletion.
A Growing Impact
With the discovery of a hole in the ozone layer, the impact of a growing
human population became more apparent than ever.
P olar bears are drowning in the Arctic Ocean! The

Amazonian rain forest is being cleared for soybeans
and cattle ranches! Another oil well has blown out in
do environmental activists ever consider the impact that
restrictive environmental regulations would have on the
economy and the livelihoods of people?
the Gulf of Mexico! It seems that every day a new and As we shall learn in this text, such controversies and
shocking environmental tragedy appears in the headlines. philosophical dilemmas over environmental issues are nothing
Environmental activists argue that we’re one step away new. In fact, it may be easier to understand the current debates
from apocalypse, while politicians and businessmen hem around climate change and offshore oil drilling by looking
and haw about the true impact of these kinds of events and deeply at one of the most frightening news headlines in the
who bears responsibility. recent past: “Hole Found in Earth’s Atmosphere!” The year
Amid heated debates over the most pressing was 1985 and British researchers working in the Antarctic
environmental issues of the 21st century, it’s sometimes had measured a major reduction in ozone levels in the upper
difficult to separate the science atmosphere. Ozone, a molecule made up of three oxygen
ozone A molecule made up of from spin. Are people who deny atoms, is considered a pollutant in the lower atmosphere,
three oxygen atoms; considered a that humans are changing the but it performs a critical role in the
pollutant in the lower atmosphere, ultraviolet (UV) light Shorter-
climate honestly questioning upper atmosphere, shielding against wavelength, higher-energy rays
but in the upper atmosphere it
shields against potentially harmful the evidence or are they potentially harmful ultraviolet, or from the Sun that can damage
rays from the Sun. seeking to delay action? And UV, light from the Sun. living tissue.
H O W D O SCIEN CE AN D VALUES HELP A DDR ESS ENVIR ONMENTA L I S S UE S ?

3
action to solve the problem. The ozone hole tapped into

“Science cannot resolve moral deeper fears about how the activities of humans may be
impacting the environment, foreshadowing many of the
conflicts, but it can help to more challenges we’re faced with today.
accurately frame the debates about The depletion of Earth’s ozone layer was not the first
those conflicts.” sign of human impact on the environment. However, it was
a clear and dramatic indication that human impact had
Heinz Pagels, physicist and science writer, Dreams of achieved truly global proportions. Immediately, questions
Reason: The Computer and the Rise of the Sciences of swirled around the discovery. What had produced the hole
Complexity (1988) in Earth’s protective shield? How serious was the situation
and could anything be done to repair the protective
Ultraviolet light, which has shorter wavelengths ozone layer? Addressing these questions would require
and higher energy than visible light, can damage living contributions from the fields of science, medicine,
tissue, as anyone who has ever been sunburned knows. communication media, politics, international diplomacy,
Consequently, an ozone hole would lead to problems in national and international law, and many more. Addressing
human health, such as increased incidence of skin cancer the unresolved environmental issues in the early 21st
and cataracts, agricultural problems, such as damage century will inevitably require the application of not only
to crops, and ecological problems, such as harm to the science, but also human values. As we explore the central
abundant marine life around the Antarctic. Although question of Chapter 1, we’ll return repeatedly to the example
the evidence for the ozone hole was debated for years, of the ozone hole because it reveals the entire process of how
the science was eventually settled, and governments took science shapes our societies.
Central Question
How do science and values help
address environmental issues?
S CIE NCE ISSU E S SO L U T IO N S

(Kelli-Ann Bliss/NOAA)
1.1–1.4 Science
B ecause of our origins as hunters and subsistence of water, with its dissolved oxygen, minerals, and
?
farmers, humans have long been interested in the pollutants, you are ingesting a piece of the chemical
relationship between organisms and their environment. environment. The chemical environment includes the
Even, today, with a larger fraction of the world’s population composition of air, water, and soil. The number, kinds,
Is food a chemical living in cities and working in jobs as diverse as driving a and concentrations of pollutants the air may contain, as
factor in the taxi or programming computer software, we recognize that well as the odors in your surroundings, are part of your
environment, a our impact on the environment extends to the entire planet chemical environment, as are the nutrients in the food
biological factor, or and those historical interests assume a new urgency. But you eat (Figure 1.2). A plant’s chemical environment
just what is “environment”? includes all the nutrients in the soil or surrounding water,
both? What does your
as well as the gases in the surrounding air and soil.
answer imply about Chemical and physical factors are often closely
the classification of 1.1 Environment is intertwined, and these relationships are at the center of
environmental factors? everything many of today’s environmental problems. For example,
The environment consists of both the biotic and abiotic scientists discovered that when we released refrigerant
factors that affect an organism. Biotic factors are the chemicals known as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) into
living components of the environment. Abiotic factors the environment, we thinned stratospheric ozone. This,
include the physical and chemical components of the in turn, changed the physical environment at the Earth’s
environment The environment. In environments where humans have surface by permitting more UV light to pass through the
physical, chemical, and significant influences, we must also consider cultural atmosphere. Conversely, altering a physical factor can
biological conditions that
components (Figure 1.1). change important aspects of the chemical environment.
affect an organism.
Think of the “feel” of a misty morning compared to For instance, increasing the temperature of a pond will
biotic Living components the direct rays of the summer Sun. That’s your physical, reduce the concentration of oxygen that the pond water
of the environment. abiotic environment, which includes factors such as can hold. Chemical and physical factors have direct and
temperature, humidity, and cloud cover, which affects indirect influences on the biological environment.
abiotic Physical and chemical
the intensity of sunlight. The physical environment also A scientific study of the New York City subway system
components of
the environment. includes factors that play themselves out over time, such that began in 2013 mapped out species of bacteria found
as seasonal changes in temperature or day length. It on everything from the turnstiles to the benches to
biological environment also includes noise, such as the cock-a-doodle-doo of a the garbage cans. Pathomap, as the study is called, is a
The kinds and diversity rooster, the roar of a freeway at rush hour, or the pinging partial record of the biological environment faced by
of pathogens, predators,
of underwater sonar. commuters each and every day. More generally, your
parasites, and competitors
with which an organism Furthermore, abiotic factors include the chemicals biological environment will include all the viral or
interacts. found in the environment. When you drink a glass bacterial diseases you’ve contracted during your life and

5
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN ORGANISMS AND THE ENVIRONMENT
PHYSICAL and CHEMICAL FACTORS

Temperature, humidity, day length, visible
light, UV light, oxygen, CO2, water availibility,
(gillmar/Shutterstock)
chemical toxins, wind, soil nutrients. . .
CULTURAL FACTORS BIOLOGICAL FACTORS

Religion, arts, tradition, Viruses, bacterial pathogens,
philosophy, political system, predators, crops, pollinators. . .
law, education. . .
FIGURE 1.1 The environment includes physical, chemical, biological, and cultural factors. While humans are the only species with
complex cultures, other species are profoundly affected by the human cultural system in the region where they live.
the frequency with which you are exposed

A CHEMICAL FEAST OF BIOLOGICAL ORIGIN to new pathogens, plants, and animals
(Figure 1.3). The biological communities
inhabiting the waters and lands from which
that food is extracted, the insects that pollinate
crop plants, and the microorganisms that
help sustain the fertility of soils represent an
extended biological environment. We respond
to our biological environment as we choose
to eat particular foods and avoid others, when
we wash our hands, or attempt to control the
insects that intrude into our lives.
Culture makes human interaction with
?
Are all environmental
the environment even more complex than
that of other species. Cultural factors such problems facing
as religion, philosophy, and the educational humans ultimately
system influence how we view and interact cultural?
(Joe Gough/Shutterstock)
FIGURE 1.2 Though we generally do not think

of food this way, the food that we eat, including
the nutrients and spices it contains along with any
chemical contaminants, makes up a part of our
chemical environment.
S CI EN CE ISSUES S OLUT IONS

types of interactions we have or do not have with those

ANNUAL FLU SHOT: DEFENSE IN THE FACE OF
individuals.
BIOLOGICAL CHALLENGE
! Think About It
1. In developed countries, it is often said that we are
insulated from the physical and biological forces of
nature. Do you think this statement is true? Why or
why not?
2. How does ozone thinning demonstrate the
interaction of physical, chemical, and cultural
(Pamela Moore/Getty Images)
aspects of the environment?
1.2 Science uses a formal

FIGURE 1.3 Some of the clearest examples of the human method to gather evidence
biological environment include disease-causing viruses,
bacteria, and fungi.
about how nature works
The first step toward understanding and evaluating
environmental issues is through science, a formal process
with the environment. Culture affects everything from of gathering evidence using observations, experiments,
how we view wild and domestic species and the way we and models. Environmental science examines how
dispose of trash to our attitude toward birth control. humans have changed and are changing the environment
The economic and political systems and the laws of the from local to global scales. Environmental science is
community and nation where we reside can have major also a practical discipline that goes beyond academic
effects on how environmental questions are addressed, studies to find ways of reducing human harm to the
how the environment is managed, and how citizens view environment. Scientific knowledge is put to use through
environmental regulation. On a more personal scale, our technology, such as developing alternatives to CFCs or
cultural environment affects how many and with which improved methods of treating wastewater, and through
people we come into contact on a daily basis and the new laws and regulations, which are developed based
A STRIKING SIMILARITY
science A formal process

used to study nature, and the
body of knowledge resulting
from that process.
environmental science
Study of the influence of
(@ ARCO/C Heusler/age fotostock)
humans on the environment

(NaturePL/NaturePL/Superstock)
and the effects of the

environment on humans;
also attempts to find ways of
reducing human harm to the
environment.
technology Practical
Przewalski’s horse Painting of horse in Chauvet Cave, France
application of scientific
knowledge and methods FIGURE 1.4 Przewalski’s horse (left), the last true wild horse of Eurasia, would be extinct today if some had not been captured in
to create products and Mongolia and taken back to Europe in the early 20th century. Artists working in Chauvet Cave over 31,000 years ago painted this
processes. horse (right), producing an image strikingly similar to living Przewalski’s horses.

7
SCIENTISTS STUDY NATURE AT MANY SCALES
(NASA,ESA, CXC and the University of Potsdam, JPL-Caltech, and STScl)

(Eye of Science/Science Source)
(Steve Byland/Getty Images)
Gopher tortoise Leg of a silkworm The Small Magellanic Cloud
FIGURE 1.5 Scientists can study some subjects, such as this tortoise (left), with unaided senses. However, the study of other subjects that are very small, such as
the microanatomy of an insect (center), or very large or distant, such as stars and planets (right), require instruments that extend the human senses.
on society’s value systems. You may think about science subatomic particles to distant galaxies (Figure 1.5).
as something outside your typical experience, but it Modern instruments such as chemical sensors,
simply formalizes what people everywhere have done microscopes, and telescopes give scientists access to
throughout history: learn about the world through information about nature that was inaccessible to
observation and experience. earlier humans. For example, the invention of an ozone
detector by Gordon Dobson in 1924, now called the
Ancient Observations Dobsonmeter, allowed the British Antarctic Survey
In 1994 a group of French cave explorers discovered team to measure the ozone hole over Antarctica in 1984.
one of the most richly painted caves in southwestern However, the process of science is basically the same
Europe, Chauvet Cave. It featured remarkably detailed whether it involves technically sophisticated instruments
images of a wild horse with a short, brushlike mane. The or not. The core of science consists of gathering evidence
horse looked strikingly similar to Przewalski’s horse, using observations, experiments, and models to test
but that animal lives some 5,000 miles away on the hypotheses (Figure 1.6).
grassy Mongolian Steppe. When scientists analyzed the
pigments in the cave, they discovered that the paintings Hypothesis
had been made some 31,000 years earlier, before wild A hypothesis is an explanation of an observation, or
horses had become extinct in Europe. Although fossil a set of relationships, based on a limited amount of
remains of wild horses had been found in Europe information. Once a scientist or team of scientists decides
before, the cave paintings captured the horse’s pigment on a question to study, they will propose a hypothesis or
and fur, giving scientists further confirmation of how a number of alternative hypotheses as tentative answers
similar these extinct European horses were to the living to the question. For example, a scientist observing the
Przewalski’s horse (Figure 1.4). Most important to our resemblance of Przewalski’s horse and the paintings of
discussion, those paintings demonstrate clearly that ancient horses in Chauvet Cave might ask, “Are living
careful observation, the basis of all science, was well Przewalski’s horses closely related genetically to the
developed among our Ice Age ancestors. Modern science horses roaming western Eurasia during the time that
has gone far beyond these ancient people, as it has the Chauvet paintings were made”? Once scientists have hypothesis An explanation
developed as a formal process. proposed a hypothesis, they devise procedures to test of an observation, or a set
it. The methods appropriate for a particular scientific of relationships, based on a
The Scientific Process limited amount of information;
investigation—observation, experimentation, modeling, hypotheses are used to
The domain of science includes anything that can be or some combination of these sources of information— guide scientific experiments,
observed by the senses or by extensions of them, from depend on the nature of the hypothesis. observation, and modeling.

THE PROCESS OF SCIENCE
OBSERVATION
Observations can come from
the natural world, a laboratory
setting, or the publications of
other scientists.
COMMUNICATION HYPOTHESIS
Scientists discuss their findings Formulating clear, interesting,
with colleagues and at professional and testable hypotheses to
meetings, and publish their work in answer questions or explain
journals. This all adds to the pool of observations is one of the most
scientific knowledge. creative parts of science.
Peer review
THE
SCIENTIFIC
PROCESS
ANALYSIS TEST OF HYPOTHESIS
Scientists accept or reject a Designing appropriate tests,
hypothesis based on analysis. experiments, or models that
If it is rejected, they may test hypotheses is another
modify the original hypothesis part of science requiring
and retest. imagination and creativity.
DATA COLLECTION
Propose alternate
Gathering data in a careful way
hypothesis to test is fundamental to all science.
original observation. Initially recorded by hand on
paper, data can now be collected
by computers and instruments.
FIGURE 1.6 Scientific understanding of nature grows out of a formal process that draws as much from intuition and creativity
as it does from established procedure. Science is sometimes equated with the body of knowledge it produces. The more similar
findings accumulate for a particular question, the less uncertainty there is regarding the question. However, in science, all findings
or questions are open to further investigation, which is why scientists never say that something has been “proven.”
Observation important information as scientists evaluated hypotheses

concerning possible global warming. Where possible,
As you have seen, one of the most basic sources of
scientists will go beyond observing nature and conduct
information about the material world is observation.
experiments.
Observation is either qualitative or quantitative
observation Qualitative information gathered systematically from the natural
Experiments
or quantitative information world. Making and recording observations can be used to
gathered systematically from test many hypotheses; in fact, observations often precede Experiments are studies in which one or more physical,
the natural world.
and lead to hypotheses. Modern observations, once chemical, or biological factors are controlled and
laboratory experiments recorded in paper notebooks, are now recorded in digital other factors are allowed to vary among study systems.
Experiments in which format by computers or other instruments. Familiar There are two major types of experiments important to
scientists attempt to control, examples of routine observations include the temperature environmental science: laboratory experiments and field
or keep constant, all factors records made at weather stations. Daily temperatures experiments.
that may influence their study
have been recorded at some weather stations for more In laboratory experiments, scientists attempt to
system, while they vary the
factor of interest and observe than a century and a half (Figure 1.7). Though these control, or keep constant, all factors that may influence
the effect of the variation on long-term temperature observations were not originally their study system, while they vary the factor of interest
the study system. made to test a particular hypothesis, they have provided and observe its effect. For instance, an environmental

9
LONG-TERM GLOBAL TEMPERATURE RECORD
0.6

0.4
?
0.2
0.0
What are some

−0.2 other questions and
hypotheses related
−0.4
to how increased
−0.6
atmospheric CO2 might
1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 affect forests?
YEAR
FIGURE 1.7 Scientific observations, such as carefully made temperature measurements, have revealed much about Earth’s
environment. Long-term records indicate that the climate has warmed during the past 150 years. Temperature anomalies are relative
to the average global temperatures during the period of 1961 to 1990. (Data from Jones, 2012)
scientist studying the accumulation of a pesticide in a increase tree growth? The hypothesis associated with this
field experiments
population of fish may start with the hypothesis that the question was, “Tree growth will be higher on plots with Experiments in which the
rate at which fish absorb the pesticide increases with elevated CO2” (Figure 1.8). Another research question experimenter generally
water temperature. A laboratory experiment designed was: Will increased atmospheric CO2 concentrations controls or manipulates a
to test the influence of temperature on uptake of the increase the amount of carbon stored in forest soils? single factor, the factor of
pesticide would establish test populations of fish in Over the 10 years of the Duke field experiment, the interest, while allowing all
other factors to vary normally.
the laboratory, all living in water from the same source researchers answered some of their questions. They found
containing the same concentration of the pesticide, that the production of organic matter—a measure of control group A baseline
equal concentrations of oxygen, the same rates of water tree growth—was 22% to 30% higher on experimental for comparisons.
circulation, the same number of hours of darkness and
light of the same intensity, and so forth. The one factor
that the laboratory scientist would vary across study
populations would be temperature. LARGE-SCALE FIELD EXPERIMENT
In field experiments, there is much less control over
the environment than in laboratory experiments. As a
consequence, the experimenter generally manipulates
a single factor, the factor of interest, while allowing all
other factors to vary normally. For instance, scientists at
Duke University were interested in how the increasing
atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide, CO2,
might affect temperate forests. Because they could not
take several large tracts of intact forest into a laboratory,
they designed a field experiment: They brought in large
tanks of CO2 and continuously released the gas in their
(Chris Hildreth/Duke Photography)
experimental plots, increasing its concentration in the air.

All other factors, such as temperature, precipitation, wind
speed, and wind direction, were outside the control of the
experimenters and varied normally.
The experimental sites were compared to similar sites
in which CO2 was not elevated. These sites served as a
FIGURE 1.8 A research project at the Duke University Forest was designed to
control group, providing a baseline for comparisons. One explore the response of a forest to increased levels of atmospheric CO2. During
of the questions the Duke study was designed to answer the experiment, carbon dioxide concentration was raised in forest study plots by
was: Will increased atmospheric CO2 concentrations releasing CO2-rich air from towers arranged in 30-meter-diameter rings.

plots, compared with control plots. They also found an

MODEL OF HOW CHLORINE FROM CFCs BREAKS
increase in plant litter (fallen leaves, twigs, etc.) and root
DOWN OZONE IN THE STRATOSPHERE
production, which meant that more carbon was stored in
the soils of the experimental plots. However, most forest
trees live for a very long time, some for many centuries,
meaning that even a decade-long experiment is only a
1 UV light breaks down 1 F UV light
snapshot of the natural world. To make predictions about Cl
chlorofluocarbon C
long-term processes, scientists often turn to models. molecules, releasing F Cl
Cl
chlorine. C
Cl
Cl
Models 2 Chlorine reacts with
Cl
CFC molecules
ozone, producing oxygen
Models are simplified representations of reality that and chlorine monoxide.
scientists use to better understand or explain a natural Cl 2 chlorine atoms
3 Chlorine monoxide Cl
phenomenon. For instance, a map of your hometown molecules combine to
is a simplified representation of the street system, produce chlorine peroxide. 2 oxygen
scaled down in size. Conversely, one might build a molecules
4 UV light breaks down 2
O O
scaled-up physical model of a virus to better see how chlorine peroxide to
O
O O
yield oxygen and
its components fit together. Models can also be more chlorine.
O O O
O O
abstract in order to understand how complex processes
unfold over time. For instance, a model of Earth’s climate Cl 2 ozone molecules
might consist of a series of mathematical equations or O O Cl
many lines of computer code. Scientists can then run 1 oxygen 2 chlorine atoms
simulations with these models to test hypotheses where molecule
experiments with the actual system would be impossible, 4 3

impractical, or not permitted for legal or ethical reasons. O O Cl O
A decade before the discovery of the ozone hole Cl Cl Cl O
over the Antarctic, the chemists Mario Molina and UV light
Sherwood Rowland developed a model predicting that Chlorine 2 chlorine
the release of CFCs into the atmosphere would lead to peroxide monoxide
the breakdown of ozone in the stratosphere, a layer of molecules
Earth’s atmosphere extending from 10 to 50 kilometers FIGURE 1.9 In 1974, Mario Molina and Sherwood
(6.2 to 31.1 miles) above sea level. Their model proposed Rowland published a detailed model illustrating how releasing
that chlorine released from CFCs would strip an oxygen CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons) would lead to the breakdown of
stratospheric ozone.
atom from ozone, producing oxygen and forming
chlorine monoxide in the process (Figure 1.9). Chlorine
monoxide would then break down, free chlorine atoms
would go on to convert more ozone into oxygen, and the 3. What are some natural phenomena that would
process would run again. A decade later, theoretical and be best studied by laboratory experiments, by field
observational studies by Susan Solomon showed that experiments, or by models? What phenomena might
the key chemical reactions involved in ozone depletion be realistically studied using all three approaches?
occur on the surface of stratospheric clouds. Molina and
Roland cautioned that if the production of CFCs were not
reduced, Earth’s ozone shield could be lost. While models 1.3 Scientific evidence can
do not perfectly match the actual system, information reduce uncertainty about
models In science, gathered from them can yield important insights.
simplified representations natural phenomena
of a system, constructed on
a scale more convenient for ! Think About It Even after conducting a successful experiment to test
a hypothesis, scientists may still have an incomplete
study than the actual system
of interest.
1. How are the observations of the artists of picture of a natural phenomenon. For example, the
Chauvet Cave and those of modern scientists scientists at the Duke experimental forest proposed
stratosphere The layer similar? How are they different? that higher levels of atmospheric CO2 would increase
of Earth’s atmosphere growth of forest vegetation. Indeed, they found that
beginning at an elevation of 2. Why are hypotheses critical to the improvement root growth increased in their experimental plots. Case
10 kilometers and extending
of scientific understanding of nature? (Hint: closed, right? Not exactly. While one well-conducted
outward to 50 kilometers
(6.2 to 31.1 miles) above Imagine observations and experiments in the experiment can provide scientific evidence in support
sea level. absence of hypotheses.) of or against a hypothesis, uncertainty will remain in

11
experimentation, and modeling of specific hypotheses.

EMERGENCE OF A THEORY FROM A BODY
Some of the most famous and well-established theories
OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
have names such as the theory of evolution by natural
selection or the germ theory of disease, both of
A hypothesis is
elevated to the status which have been developed over the course of testing
of a theory, following
a significant period of hypotheses about a wide variety of species and diseases.
support by research. More recently, when we talk about human-caused
climate change as a scientific theory, we mean that the
overwhelming majority of evidence supports the view
THE that Earth’s climate is changing due to human activity.
SCIENTIFIC THEORY
PROCESS Sources of Scientific Uncertainty
There are many sources of scientific uncertainty. Looking
Additional research
back at the story of the discovery of the ozone hole,
can further reduce we can see how science gradually reduced uncertainty
the uncertainty
regarding a theory about this phenomenon. The first source of scientific
but cannot eliminate
uncertainty entirely. uncertainty is simply how much we already know about
a system. In building their model of CFCs, the chemists
Molina and Rowland acknowledged a number of areas
FIGURE 1.10 What constitutes sufficient research to
of uncertainty, including a lack of knowledge of the rates
elevate a hypothesis to a theory varies widely among fields
of scientific inquiry. at which molecules moved through the stratosphere and
the rate at which chlorine produced in the stratosphere
would be removed. Because of these uncertainties and
others, Molina and Rowland could not predict when
regard to its generality. For example, would an increase in environmental problems due to depletion of stratospheric
atmospheric CO2 result in increased root growth at other ozone might begin.
forests? With additional research using different types of A second potential source of uncertainty is
experiments under different conditions, the information measurement error, as a result of either human or
supporting a particular hypothesis may increase. instrument error. For instance, when the British Antarctic theory A scientific hypothesis
At some point in the history of the investigation of a Survey first began recording low levels of stratospheric that has withstood sufficient
testing—through observation,
phenomenon, scientists may develop a theory (Figure ozone with their Dobsonmeter (Figure 1.11), they experimentation, and
1.10). A theory is a general explanation of a phenomenon considered the possibility that the machine was modeling—so it has a high
that has been supported by repeated observation, malfunctioning. To eliminate this possibility and reduce probability of being correct.
INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASURING STRATOSPHERIC OZONE

(©SSPL/The Image Works)
FIGURE 1.11 The ground-based Dobsonmeter (left) is

capable of making accurate measurements of stratospheric
ozone concentrations—but over a limited area. In contrast,
the satellite-based Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer, or
(NASA)
TOMS (right), is capable of measuring concentrations of

Dobsonmeter Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) stratospheric ozone over large areas.
S CIE NCE ISSU E S SOLUTIONS

uncertainty, the team sent for a backup Dobsonmeter, invalid? What do scientists generally do when faced
which confirmed the first set of results. with conflicting results such as these?
The level of certainty can also be limited by the
methods used in a scientific study. The original report 2. What criteria should be used to determine when
on ozone depletion was limited to the area of the to follow the precautionary principle? Are there
atmosphere that could be sampled by a Dobsonmeter situations in which the precautionary principle
from the Antarctic base. Consequently, the extent of the should not be followed?
atmosphere that was depleted of ozone was uncertain
until NASA conducted satellite-based measurements
the following year (Figure 1.11). Because of the nature
of scientific inquiry, there will always be some degree of
1.4 The integrity of science
uncertainty in our understanding of natural phenomena. depends on following a strict
code of ethical conduct
Precautionary Principle
The scientific process depends critically on the
Because uncertainty is characteristic of science, scientists competence and honesty of scientists. If scientists engage
must cultivate a critical view of their disciplines, their in unethical research practice, their findings cannot be
hypotheses, prevailing theories, and scientific trusted, leaving society with no sound basis for making
understanding in general. This skepticism, however, decisions regarding environmental issues.
is a double-edged sword in environmental science.
While it drives the process of science, it can also slow Data Treatment
action on global environmental problems. Ozone
The measurements and other information gathered
depletion, for instance, is a situation in which there is a
during a scientific study are generally referred to as data.
significant probability of environmental damage. Though
Because of their fundamental importance to science and,
uncertainties remained, particularly in the early days of
increasingly, to society at large, data must be gathered
ozone depletion research, would it have been wise to take
?
and managed very carefully (Figure 1.12). The most
no action?
important obligation of the scientist is to be as accurate
Science cannot eliminate uncertainty about
as possible in the recording, reporting, and sharing of
nature entirely, which is why we often fall back on
How should the precautionary principle. At a 1998 conference
data with other researchers. If research results cannot
environmental be verified, they are generally eventually discarded as
at the Wingspread Conference Center in Racine,
regulation based on “unsupported by further study.”
Wisconsin, 32 environmental scientists expressed the
the precautionary principle as follows: “Where there are threats of harm
principle be influenced to human health or the environment, precautionary RECORDING AND MANAGING DATA:
by potential harm to measures should be taken even if some cause and effect FUNDAMENTAL PROCESSES IN SCIENCE
health and environment relationships are not fully established scientifically.” You
and level of scientific may have heard the precautionary principle as a piece of
uncertainty? folk wisdom: “Better safe than sorry.”
The precautionary principle shifts the burden of proof
from those supporting environmental protection to those
recommending actions that may be harmful or may result
in harm if no action is taken. However, because such
a position may hurt businesses or other stakeholders,
it often receives significant opposition. For instance,
(Scott Bauer/Agricultural Research Service/USDA)
measures to control ozone-depleting CFCs were initially

met with strong resistance from those in the industry.
precautionary principle
! Think About It
Advises that precautionary 1. A study similar to the one at the Duke
measures should be taken to
protect human or environmental
experimental forest was done at the Oak Ridge
health, even if some potential National Laboratory in Tennessee. The Oak Ridge
threats are not fully understood study also resulted in higher root growth rates
scientifically. FIGURE 1.12 No aspect of research is more important
in response to elevated CO2 concentrations, but
to the integrity of science than careful data gathering and
data The measurements made another study done in Switzerland did not. Do management. Here, Dr. Eton Codling records data on corn
during a scientific study. the differences in results make any of the studies growing on soil treated to reduce nutrient losses.

13
Research Misconduct
No violation of scientific ethics is more serious than
! Think About It
research misconduct, which goes beyond sloppy data 1. Why is it important to avoid conflicts of interest
collection into purposeful deception. This sin generally as much as possible throughout a scientific
falls into three categories: fabrication, falsification, and investigation? Is it possible to avoid all conflicts of
plagiarism. Fabrication occurs when a scientist simply interest?
makes up data or results. Falsification involves tampering
with research materials or equipment or changing data, 2. How does peer review help to keep researchers
such that it alters the outcome of the research. Plagiarism honest and promote research ethics?
is using the ideas, procedures, or research results of
others without giving them proper credit. Research
misconduct can destroy the careers of individual
scientists and undermine the role of science in informing 1.1–1.4 Science:
policy decisions. Fortunately, there are checks on the
Summary
scientific process.
Publishing and Peer Review

Early scientists, such as the physicist Isaac Newton,
The environment consists of a great number
of physical, chemical, biological, and cultural
factors that interact in complex ways. Science
?
Why is being “open-
is both a formal process used to study these
often kept the results of their work secret, fearing that minded” such a critical
interactions and the body of knowledge
others would steal the credit. Scientific publishing came quality to being
resulting from that process. The domain of
into being in the 17th century, under the sponsorship
science comprises anything in the material successful in scientific
of the Royal Society of London, as a way of ensuring
world that can be observed by the senses or by research?
that scientists received credit for their discoveries.
extensions of them, from subatomic particles
Heirs to that early effort are the many current research
to distant galaxies. The core of the scientific
journals, such as Nature, one of the world’s most
process consists of gathering evidence through
prestigious scientific journals. A key element in modern
observations, experiments, and models to test
scientific publishing is peer review, in which experts
hypotheses. A theory is a scientific hypothesis
in the field of research review scientific studies prior to
that has withstood sufficient testing—
publication for originality, soundness of the methods and
through observation, experimentation, and
analyses, significance of the results, and accuracy of the
modeling—indicating it has a high probability
conclusions.
of being correct. However, even after extensive
testing and support for a theory, a certain
Conflict of Interest
level of uncertainty will remain. In the face
One factor that can interfere with the integrity of the of uncertainty, the precautionary principle peer review As part of
scientific process is conflict of interest. Conflict of advises taking steps to avoid harm to humans the process of publishing
scientific papers, experts in
interest refers to competing interests, including personal, or the environment, even if some cause-and-
the field of research covered
philosophical, and financial interests, which may interfere effect relationships are not fully established by a prospective scientific
with the judgment of a researcher or reviewer of scientific scientifically. paper review the research
work. Studies have shown that when a company funds For science to be useful, scientists must prior to publication; they
research on a topic it has a financial interest in, such as commit to a strict code of research ethics, taking check for soundness of the
methods, analyses, results, and
the safety of a new drug or the environmental impact care in gathering and managing data. Scientists
coverage of the relevant prior
of a construction site, the results are more likely to be should make their data available to other publications on the subject.
favorable to the company than if the research had been researchers to root out conflicts of interests,
conducted independently. Personal relationships between fabrication of data, falsification of procedures conflict of interest
researchers, both positive and negative, can encourage and results, and plagiarism. The peer review Competing interests, including
personal, philosophical, and
poor judgment and even research misconduct. Similarly, process helps assure the quality of published
financial interests, that may
strongly held philosophical positions or beliefs can also papers and the ethical behavior of scientists. interfere with an objective
lead to improper manipulation of the scientific process. judgment.

1.5–1.6 Issues
A ll species influence the environment in which they

live, but human impact on the environment dwarfs
that of other species. Earth is now home to 7 billion
1.5 Human impact and
environmental awareness
people. Farms have replaced natural vegetation, covering began long ago
nearly 40% of Earth’s land surface. In the oceans, we have When considering the environmental issues we face
removed more than 90% of large fish over the last half- today, it is important to recognize that significant,
century. The burning of coal, oil, and natural gas spews society-changing environmental impacts by human
36 billion metric tons of climate-warming carbon populations began long ago (Figure 1.14).
dioxide per year. Some of the most pressing issues for Because people everywhere were once connected very
environmental scientists are achieving a sustainable closely with the environment around them, it is likely
human population trajectory, maintaining the productivity they recognized environmental changes as those events
of farmlands and aquatic ecosystems, protecting the happened. However, we can only know for certain where
biodiversity and natural ecosystems on which human observations of environmental change have been recorded
welfare depends, and addressing rapid climate change in pictures or in words. Those records reveal that the first
(Figure 1.13) These impacts did not begin overnight, so it’s indications of environmental awareness, the forerunner to
worth turning back the clock and exploring the history. environmental science, began thousands of years ago.
Ancient Records of Environmental Impact

ENGAGING ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES AND EXPLORING SOLUTIONS USING The first written records of environmental impact by
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE human populations are over 2,000 years old. The early
history of Greece includes numerous references to
Reducing
environmental impacts and recommendations on how
Atmospheric environmental to avoid damage to the environment. Wood was in great
and climate impact of
change economic demand for building ships, for cooking and heating homes,
activity
Air, water, (Ch. 14) (Ch. 2) Conservation
and for the charcoal used in smelting metal ores and firing
and soil of endangered pottery. Consequently, the forests around Athens, one of
pollution species
the main cities of ancient Greece, were gone between 500
(Ch. 13) (Ch. 3)
and 400 bce. Both Plato and Aristotle—a natural scientist
Managing
Sustaining as well as a philosopher—recommended regulating the use
community,
solid and ecosystem, and of forests and grazing lands and establishing foresters and
hazardous ENVIRONMENTAL landscape
waste
SCIENCE diversity wardens to monitor forests and woodlands and to enforce
(Ch. 12) (Ch. 4) environmental regulations.
In China, the philosopher Mencius, who lived in the
Achieving 4th century bce, was a skilled observer of the world
Environmental
risk and
sustainable
human
around him. He also recorded examples of deforestation:
health populations “Bull Mountain was once beautifully wooded. But,
(Ch. 11) (Ch. 5) because it was close to the city, its trees all fell to the axe.”
Energy Mencius recognized that the vegetation on Bull Mountain
development
with low
Managing
freshwater
had the potential to recover, but it was prevented from
environmental
impact
supplies doing so because of overgrazing by livestock: “However,
(Chs. 9 & 10) Sustaining Sustaining (Ch. 6) as the days passed things grew and with the rains and
farms, forests,
fisheries and
aquaculture and the dews it was not without greenery. Then came the
rangelands
cattle and goats to graze. That is why, today, it has that
(Ch. 8) (Ch. 7)
scoured-like appearance.” Severe deforestation continued
FIGURE 1.13 The remainder of this book will examine major contemporary environmental in China until modern times, with devastating impacts
issues and review potential ways to address them through the lens of environmental science. on the environment (Figure 1.15). Deforestation was

15
ENVIRONMENT AND THE RISE AND FALL OF A CIVILIZATION DEFORESTATION IN CHINA
(Jim Richardson/National Geographic Creative)

(De Agostini Picture Library/Getty Images)
FIGURE 1.14 The Sumerian civilization was one of the first to build cities. The FIGURE 1.15 Deforestation and resulting soil erosion were noted and
Sumerians depended on irrigated agriculture in the deserts of Mesopotamia, but recorded by Chinese scholars over 2,000 years ago. Today, China is
salt buildup eventually rendered their soils unproductive. Today, the once thriving attempting to reverse these losses through massive campaigns to restore
Sumerian cities are reduced to ruins surrounded by desert once forested lands.
also a problem in parts of pre-Columbian North America the 18th through 20th centuries as human populations
(Figure 1.16), medieval Britain, as well as North America grew and economic activity increased. The history of
during the Colonial period. environmental awareness and the conflict between
opposing positions over environmental issues can help us
Growing Environmental Awareness understand the challenges we face today.
Concern for the health of the environment emerged
Benjamin Franklin and Environmental Protection
wherever societies faced environmental limits—for
example, in response to deforestation in ancient China Benjamin Franklin (1706–1790) may be best known for
and Greece. Those concerns multiplied rapidly from his political and scientific accomplishments in the 18th
century, such as helping craft the United
States’ Declaration of Independence or
studying the electrical nature of lightning.
CHACO NATIONAL MONUMENT, NEW MEXICO
However, Franklin was also an early
American environmental activist, leading
the struggle, for instance, to reduce
industrial pollution in his adopted home, the
city of Philadelphia. In 1739 Franklin and his
neighbors petitioned the local government
to move leather-tanning operations, or
tanneries, to locations away from the city
center, where they were discharging wastes
FIGURE 1.16 When the Anasazi (a civilization

that lived in the American Southwest from 200 CE
(Radoslaw Lecyk/Shutterstock)
to 1300 CE) constructed Pueblo Bonito, the

building site was surrounded by productive
woodland. Woodcutting and drought gradually
converted the woodland into a desert shrubland,
exhausting the Anasazi’s sources of wood for
fuel and building.

academic interests, including the work for which he is

IN 1739 PHILADELPHIA USED DOCK CREEK FOR WASTE DISPOSAL best known: the principles governing human population
growth. Malthus was skeptical of the writings of a
Market St. number of authors of his time, who predicted a future
utopian world of healthy thriving human populations
Benjamin Franklin’s House
free from historical wants and afflictions, such as hunger,
disease, and war. He had observed that there were no
perfect human societies in his time, nor did historical
records suggest that one had ever existed. Malthus
Chestnut St. proposed that human populations had the capacity
to grow faster than society could increase its capacity
2nd St.
to serve them, especially when it came to food supply
Delaware River
(Figure 1.18). He predicted that a human population
would grow past the capacity of the environment to
Front St.
Walnut St. support it even if all potential lands were converted to
producing food for the population.
Dock Creek George Perkins Marsh: Human Populations

and Nature
3rd St.
4th St.
5th St.
George Perkins Marsh (1801–1882) is mainly

remembered for Man and Nature, the first environmental
Spruce St.
Tannery locations science book written by an American, which he
published in 1864 (Figure 1.19). However, this was just
FIGURE 1.17 Leather-tanning yards were built along Dock one facet of Marsh’s varied life work. Born in Vermont in
Creek, where they disposed of their wastes, creating a stench 1801, Marsh practiced law but he also worked as a sheep
that permeated the surrounding neighborhoods—including the farmer, businessman, lecturer, U.S. congressman, linguist
one where Benjamin Franklin lived. (he spoke 20 languages), and diplomat. Marsh traveled
extensively in the Middle East through places that were
into Dock Creek (Figure 1.17). In addition to reducing
the value of properties in the area, the presence of the
tanneries made moving through the city center slow,
thereby making fire-fighting difficult. During the conflict,
COMPARISON OF GROWTH IN A HUMAN
Franklin used the paper he ran, the Pennsylvania Gazette,
POPULATION WITH GROWTH IN FOOD SUPPLY
to argue that by creating a public nuisance, the activities
?
of a few businesses were harming the daily lives and 300
economic well-being of large numbers of Philadelphians.
In the end, however, the power and influence of the Population size
250 Food supply
What are some ways tanners prevailed and Dock Creek would continue to be
used as an open sewer until it was covered over in the early
in which economic and
19th century.
environmental interests 200
Franklin also wrote extensively about the influence
might have found of environmental conditions on disease, especially
common ground in yellow fever, which killed 500 residents and visitors to 150
Colonial Philadelphia? Philadelphia just two years after the tannery petition.
Always thinking about the welfare of his fellow 100
Philadelphians, Franklin included in his will plans for the
building of a water system that would deliver clean water
50
to the city, as well as the money to pay for that system. In
one essay, Franklin also outlined his ideas about the main
controls on human population growth. 0
0 50 100 150 200
Thomas Malthus, Population Growth, YEARS
and Resources FIGURE 1.18 Malthus used mathematics to show that a

human population doubling every 25 years would soon outpace
Born in England, Thomas Malthus (1766–1834), a growth in the food supply, even if the food supply was increased
member of the Anglican clergy, pursued a number of every year by the total production capacity in year 1.

17
the protection of natural ecosystems in their original

GEORGE PERKINS MARSH, FIRST AMERICAN
unspoiled states. His evocative, poetic writings and
AUTHOR OF AN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE BOOK
his long-term advocacy for land preservation made
him a central figure in the environmental movement,
which was advanced by Muir’s founding of the
Sierra Club.
The second of the three figures linked to Marsh’s
book was Gifford Pinchot (1865–1946), first chief of
the U.S. Forest Service. Pinchot was born to a wealthy
family that had made its fortune through lumbering.
His father, regretting some of the damage that preservation ethic
lumbering was doing to the land, endowed the Yale An environmental ethic
emphasizing the protection
School of Forestry and encouraged his son to pursue
of natural ecosystems in their
a career in forestry management. Pinchot’s ideas original unspoiled states.
centered on his conservation ethic, which promoted
(Matthew Brady/Library of Congress; inset: Library of Congress)
the efficient use of natural resources, a philosophy conservation ethic

that put him on a collision course for conflict with A philosophy of resource
management that promotes
John Muir. In Pinchot’s words, “When conflicting
the efficient use of natural
interests must be reconciled, the question will always resources to provide the
be decided from the standpoint of the greatest good of greatest good to the greatest
the greatest number in the long run.” number of people.
UNITED BY HISTORY: JOHN MUIR, GIFFORD PINCHOT, AND THEODORE

ROOSEVELT
FIGURE 1.19 Marsh’s 1864 book, which included topics such
as deforestation, extinction of animals, desertification, destruction
of wetlands, and climate change, now seems eerily prophetic.
(Holt-Atherton Special Collections,
(Grey Towers/US Forest Service)

University of the Pacific Library)
stark deserts, though they were described in the Bible as

lush and productive.
These experiences, combined with the changes he had
observed during his early life in Vermont, convinced
him that environmental impact by humans could change JOHN MUIR GIFFORD PINCHOT
productive land into desert wastes. Marsh’s writings about Dedicated his life to preserving Promoted the efficient use of
wild places, such as California’s natural resources for the benefit
nature and its uses and abuses were widely read and came giant sequoias of the most people possible
at a critical time, when massive industrialization was
occurring around the world.
(Moffett Studio/Library of Congress)
Land Conservation and Preservation

in the United States
Marsh’s writings inspired three early leaders of land
protection in the United States (Figure 1.20). One of
those leaders was John Muir (1838–1914), a Scottish-
born American naturalist. Muir’s family immigrated
to Wisconsin, where he eventually attended the THEODORE ROOSEVELT
University of Wisconsin, an experience that deepened Used the power of the U.S.
his appreciation for nature, particularly for botany presidency to protect massive
areas of land from overexploitation
and geology. In 1868 Muir moved west to California,
where he began promoting the preservation of Yosemite FIGURE 1.20 With the writings of George Perkins Marsh serving as their inspiration,
Valley and other lands. Muir was an early advocate of a John Muir, Gifford Pinchot, and Theodore Roosevelt worked tirelessly throughout their lives
preservation ethic, an environmental ethic emphasizing to protect the natural heritage of the United States.

This philosophy guides the management of the junior year. After obtaining a master’s degree at Johns
U.S. Forest Service to this day. During the course of Hopkins, she found work as a writer and editor for
his professional life, Pinchot worked with several U.S. the U.S. Bureau of Fisheries, where she began writing
presidents, including Theodore Roosevelt (1858–1919). magazine articles and books (Figure 1.21). In 1962 she
Roosevelt, a legendary outdoorsman who was president published what would become her best-known book,
from 1901 to 1909, was deeply moved by Marsh’s book. Silent Spring, which warned of the potential dangers
In a speech on October 4, 1907, he asserted, “The of indiscriminate use of chemical pesticides, a practice
conservation of natural resources is the fundamental that became common following World War II. DDT
problem. Unless we solve that problem, it will avail (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) was first widely used
us little to solve all others.” Conservation includes during the war as an insecticide to control malaria,
the preservation, wise use, or restoration of species, and several other insecticides were created during the
ecosystems, or natural resources. He created 150 national late 1940s and 1950s. Hailed as the ultimate weapon in
forests, 5 national parks, and 18 national monuments, the fight against insect pests, the application of these
along with numerous other protected areas. In total, chemical poisons was killing far more than the targeted
Roosevelt protected over 930,000 square kilometers insects, including birds and fish.
(360,000 square miles), an area equal to the combined As a result, Carson and many others became concerned
territories of California, Oregon, Washington, and Ohio. about their potential to harm the environment. They were
While the environmental harm that Roosevelt, Pinchot, also alarmed that heavy spraying of chemical insecticides
and Muir campaigned to avoid on the landscape is threatened humans, since some of them, including DDT,
visually obvious, other, less visible human threats to the had been classified as chemical carcinogens. In her book,
environment were still on the horizon. Carson urged caution in our application of chemical
insecticides. She warned that we might inadvertently
Rachel Carson’s Warnings destroy the birds that for millions of years had greeted the
day with a “dawn chorus,” producing, in our attempts to
Born in the Allegheny Valley, Rachel Carson
control insects, a “silent spring.”
(1907–1964) was a child of the countryside. Carson
The chemical industry that made the pesticides, and
entered the Pennsylvania College for Women as an
the agricultural entities that made use of the pesticides,
English major, changing her major to zoology in her
quickly went on a campaign to vilify Carson and other
concerned environmentalists. They led organized attacks
on Silent Spring, attempting to discredit both the book
and its author. Carson was portrayed as a “hysterical
RACHEL CARSON, SCIENTIST, AUTHOR, AND
ADVOCATE FOR PRECAUTION IN THE USE OF
woman,” a “liar,” and a promoter of “junk science.”
CHEMICAL PESTICIDES Her opponents also asserted that she was not qualified
to write the book. Carson’s position, however, was
vindicated in 1963 by President John F. Kennedy’s Science
Advisory Committee, which agreed that pesticides had
been abused and represented a threat to the environment.
Carson didn’t live to see the passing of the Clean Water
Act in 1972 or the banning of DDT in the United States
that same year. But, as a consequence of the DDT
ban, the peregrine falcon recovered from the brink of
extinction and the bald eagle, the symbol of the nation, is
(Alfred Eisenstaedt/The LIFE Picture Collection/Getty Images)
common once again across the lower 48 states and off the
endangered species list (Figure 1.22).
! Think About It
1. What do early human impacts on forests, which
began more than 2,000 years ago, suggest about
the historic relation of economic activity and
environmental impact?
conservation The
preservation, wise use, 2. At the scale of the entire globe, the huge
or restoration of species, FIGURE 1.21 Rachel Carson likely did more to alert people
ecosystems, or natural to the potential dangers of chemical pesticides than anyone in mismatch between food production and the
resources. history. human population that Malthus predicted has

19
FIGURE 1.22 Before the ban on

THE BALD EAGLE: SYMBOL OF A NATION AND IMPRESSIVE BENEFICIARY DDT use, accumulation of DDT in
OF THE DDT BAN the prey of bald eagles had reduced
reproduction by the eagles, driving
them to near extinction in the
contiguous United States.
(Dennis W. Donohue/Shutterstock)
not yet occurred. What does this suggest about promoting the idea of a day to celebrate the environment
the assumptions made by Malthus? Since his dire and inform people about environmental issues in the
predictions failed to materialize, can we safely early 1960s. The first Earth Day celebration was held
ignore the ideas he developed? on April 22, 1970. On that day, grassroots organizations
across the United States organized events in which
3. How might the destruction of the great bison herds 20 million people participated, fully 10% of the U.S.
of North America and the near extirpation of many population. In his speech in Denver on the first Earth Day,
other wildlife species, all of which occurred within
the lifetimes of John Muir, Gifford Pinchot, and
Theodore Roosevelt, have affected the development of EARTH DAY: A GLOBAL EVENT
the conservation movement in the United States?
4. How might the precautionary principle have
influenced Rachel Carson’s recommendations for
pesticide use?
1.6 Human impact on the

environment has become a
global issue
For much of human history, environmental impacts were
local or regional. With the rapid growth of the human
(Andy Newman/MCT/Landov)
population during the past two centuries, however, our

effects on the environment have extended to the entire
planet.
Earth Day
FIGURE 1.23 The Earth Day celebration, which has grown from an event
The change to a broader environmental perspective centered on the United States to one including almost all nations on Earth
is reflected in the history of Earth Day (Figure 1.23). and involving over 1 billion participants, helps sustain awareness of major
Gaylord Nelson, U.S. senator from Wisconsin, began environmental issues.

Ecological Footprint
CONTRIBUTORS TO ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT
One measure of human impact on the environment is
CARBON called the ecological footprint, developed by Mathis
The area of forest needed to absorb Wackernagel of the Global Footprint Network and
and store CO2 produced by burning
of fossil fuels, minus the amount William Rees of the University of British Columbia. An
absorbed by the oceans. ecological footprint represents the environmental impact
?
How do you explain
CROPLAND
Area of land for growing crops for human
use and for feeding domestic animals.
of a human population as the area of land and sea needed
to produce the resources it consumes, the area covered by
infrastructure, such as buildings and roads, and the area
of forest needed to absorb carbon dioxide emissions.
the rapid growth in As shown in Figure 1.24, this index of environmental
participation in Earth impact is based mainly on a population’s use of
GRAZING LAND
Day celebrations? Area of land used for grazing of livestock renewable resources, such as wood, crops, forage for
raised as sources of milk, cheese, meat,
wool, and other products.
animals, fish for human consumption, and forests for
absorbing carbon dioxide. In principle, renewable
resources can last indefinitely, since they are replaced
FOREST through natural processes on relatively short timescales.
?
Forest area required to produce
timber, firewood, wood pulp, and The ecological footprint does not take into account a
other wood products. population’s use of nonrenewable resources, such as
minerals or fossil fuels, except where their use impacts
How do the human BUILT-UP LAND renewable resources and CO2 emissions.
impacts on the Area of land covered by houses, roads, The Global Footprint Network has estimated that there
factories, water reservoirs, and other
environment not forms of human infrastructure. were approximately 12 billion hectares of productive
included in ecological Earth surface in 2008, while the ecological footprint
footprint calculations of the global population required 18.3 billion hectares
FISHING GROUNDS
affect our actual Area of freshwater and marine (Figure 1.25). In other words, human use of natural
footprint? ecosystems needed to support
harvests of fish and shellfish.
resources was approximately 50% higher than Earth’s
capacity to replace them. As a result, it took one and a
half years for Earth to replace the resources consumed,
and to absorb the CO2 emissions of the global population
ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT
OUR GROWING ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT
ecological footprint 3
THE DEMANDS OF THE HUMAN POPULATION
The environmental impact of FIGURE 1.24 The human ecological footprint, which can be
NUMBER OF EARTHS NEEDED TO MEET
a human population as the scaled from individuals and national populations to the entire
area of land and sea needed global population, is calculated based on six factors. (After
to produce the resources it WWF [World Wide Fund for Nature], 2012)
consumes and to absorb the 2
wastes it produces.
renewable resources
Natural resources, such as
wood, forage, or fish, that Nelson revealed that he was thinking broadly about what
1
are replaced through natural makes an environment healthy when he said, “Our goal is
processes on relatively short not just an environment of clean air and water and scenic
timescales and thus can last
indefinitely under careful
beauty. The objective is an environment of decency,
management. quality and mutual respect for all other human beings
and all other living creatures.” By 2009 Earth Day was 0
nonrenewable resources 2008 2030 2050
celebrated in 174 countries through more than 15,000
Natural resources, such as YEAR
organizations, involving more than 1 billion people, or
fossil fuels, that exist in a FIGURE 1.25 At present rates of growth in resource use, the
limited supply and are not
nearly 15% of the global population. As the Earth Day productive capacity of nearly three Earths will be required to
renewed on timescales celebration grew, so did our sophistication in measuring meet the demands of human populations in 2050. (Data from
meaningful to humans. our influence on the environment. WWF [World Wide Fund for Nature], 2012)

21
in just one year. According to the 2012 Living Planet

Report, our ecological overdraft will rise to a bit over 1.5–1.6 Issues:
100% by 2030 and to nearly 200% by 2050. At that point,
if present trends continue, the productive capacity of
Summary
three Earths will be needed to meet our single Earth’s Human impact on the environment has
human demand. gradually increased through the course of
Ecological footprints can also be calculated for our history. Awareness of the environmental
individuals and countries. For instance, individuals harm caused by human populations increased
in rich, highly developed nations, in general, have a substantially in the 18th through 20th centuries
much larger ecological footprint than do individuals as a result of the work of Benjamin Franklin,
in developing nations. If each of the 7 billion humans Thomas Malthus, George Perkins Marsh, and
on Earth in 2012 had the ecological footprint of an others. John Muir, Gifford Pinchot, and U.S.
average person in the United States, approximately four President Theodore Roosevelt were active in
Earths would be required to support them. Calculations land preservation and conservation. Rachel
of humanity’s ecological footprint demonstrate that Carson warned of the potential dangers of
concerns over our impact on the environment are indiscriminate use of chemical pesticides
justified. The growing impact of humans on the in her book Silent Spring. Awareness of
environment presents one of the greatest challenges ever environmental issues has grown beyond local
faced by our species. What do you think we should do and regional perspectives to include the entire
in the face of this challenge? How can we address the Earth. The global extent of environmental
immense problems that we face? concern is reflected in the growth of the Earth
Day celebration. The impact of the human
! Think About It population can be measured by the ecological
footprint, which indicates that human pressures
1. What is the value of a movement such as the have grown rapidly beyond the capacity of
Earth Day celebrations? What is the significance of Earth to supply renewable natural resources
the massive participation in Earth Day celebrations and absorb carbon dioxide.
around the world?
2. How does the ecological footprint approach to
estimating the mismatch between human needs
and Earth’s productive capacity differ from that of
Malthus?
1.7–1.9 Solutions
S cience has taught us much about the natural world,
the environment, and the challenges that we face
in managing our resources. Science can also lead
should place on the natural world. For answers to questions
such as these, we need to look elsewhere.
to technologies and policies used to avoid or repair 1.7 Environmental ethics

environmental harm. However, science is silent about
the environmental decisions you and I need to make as a
extends moral responsibilities
society, which can have economic consequences, and about to the environment environmental ethics
The branch of philosophy
those things we call truth, beauty, right, and wrong. It does The area of philosophy that concerns the moral relationship
that concerns the moral
not instruct us on how we should treat living systems, as of humans to the environment, including all of its human responsibilities of humans with
individuals or societies, nor does it tell us what value we and nonhuman parts, is called environmental ethics. Our regard to the environment.

?
In his push for
ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS PERSPECTIVES AND MORAL RESPONSIBILITIES
relocating tanneries,
which ethical view was
Benjamin Franklin
reflecting: ecocentric, ANTHROPOCENTRIC BIOCENTRIC ECOCENTRIC
biocentric, or ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS
anthropocentric? Evaluates the impact of environmental Extends moral responsibility to all living Extends moral responsibility to entire
change by its potential effects on humans. organisms. natural systems, including the organisms
and nonliving parts of the system.
FIGURE 1.26 Anthropocentric, biocentric, and ecocentric ethics specify areas of moral responsibility to the environment, ranging
from a human-centered perspective to one that includes all parts of the natural world, both biotic and abiotic.
anthropocentric Human-
centered; for example, human-
centered environmental
ethics emphasizes impacts on views about the gravity of environmental problems and philosophers have argued that causing a species
humans. the need for solutions to them will emerge from ethical extinction is wrong because it may lead to the harming of
biocentric Centered on life
worldviews (Figure 1.26). humans as well.
in all its forms; for example, By contrast, the biocentric view emphasizes the effects
biocentric environmental Worldviews of actions on all living organisms. From a biocentric
ethics extends moral Perspectives on nature that place humans at the center perspective, cruelty to animals, needless destruction of
obligation to all life. are called anthropocentric, or human-centered. plants, and, by extension, extinction of species are morally
ecocentric Centered
Anthropocentric perspectives generally view humans wrong because organisms have intrinsic value. The
on entire ecosystems; not as part of nature but as owners of nature, which ecocentric environmental ethic extends moral obligation
for example, ecocentric exists for our benefit. With such a worldview, it may be beyond organisms to the nonliving components of the
environmental ethics extends completely permissible to cause the extinction of species environment and emphasizes the integrity of whole natural
moral obligation to the if the actions associated with those extinctions directly systems. For example, a biocentric view would posit that
nonliving components of the
environment, emphasizing
or indirectly benefit humans. It has been suggested if a site is disturbed by mining, the native species that
the integrity of whole natural that anthropocentric worldviews are the cause of most had occupied the site before the disturbance should be
systems. environmental harm. However, some anthropocentric restored. By contrast, an ecocentric position would be that
HETCH HETCHY VALLEY: THE FOCUS OF MORE THAN A CENTURY OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONFLICT
(Isaiah West Taber/Courtesy of the Sierra Club)
(Geri Lavrov/Getty Images)
Hetch Hetchy Valley before damming Hetch Hetchy Valley after damming
FIGURE 1.27 The controversy centered on the Hetch Hetchy Valley pitted Muir’s preservation ethic against Pinchot’s conservation ethic.

23
?
the entire landscape should be restored to its original form, Battle lines were drawn. Muir and the Sierra Club
including depth and texture of topsoil, patterns of drainage conducted a national campaign to defend the valley from
channels, and so forth. the damming. Muir’s ecocentric ethics represented the
Aldo Leopold (1887–1948), a major figure in management philosophy of the National Park Service, What does a person’s
environmental science, argued specifically for an which is dedicated to the goal of preserving intact wild opinion about whether
ecocentric position when he proposed a land ethic. In lands. On the other side, Pinchot’s position represented the
or not Hetch Hetchy
his most famous 1949 book A Sand County Almanac, U.S. National Forest, which is dedicated to managing the
should be restored to
Leopold wrote, “A thing is right when it tends to national forests for multiple uses, including economic gain.
preserve the integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic Pinchot won the battle, and in 1913 Congress authorized its wild state reveal
community. It is wrong when it tends otherwise.” damming the valley. However, the struggle continues to about his or her
this day as the Sierra Club hopes to remove the dam and environmental ethics?
Environmental Ethics in Action restore the Hetch Hetchy Valley to its natural state.
One of the most famous clashes of environmental ethics
Environmental Justice
involved the creation of a reservoir in the Hetch Hetchy
Valley, a part of Yosemite National Park just north of the Historically, environmental burdens, such as the
more famous Yosemite Valley (Figure 1.27). After John location of waste dumps or highway systems, have
Muir first visited Hetch Hetchy in 1872, he wrote about been borne mainly by those most disadvantaged, land ethic An ecocentric
it as a second Yosemite and campaigned relentlessly for because of socioeconomic status, race, or ethnicity. The system of environmental ethics
the preservation of both it and the Yosemite Valley on environmental justice movement arose in the United proposed by Aldo Leopold to
promote the integrity, stability,
the basis of an ecocentric environmental ethic. In 1890 States in response to these inequities.
and beauty of the biological
Yosemite National Park, which included both valleys, was The birth of the environmental justice movement is community.
established. However, James Phelan, the mayor of San generally associated with a 1982 protest against a proposed
Francisco, proposed damming the Hetch Hetchy Valley chemical landfill in poor, mainly African American, environmental justice
to create a reservoir to supply the water needs of the city. Warren County, North Carolina. During the six weeks The fair treatment and
meaningful involvement of all
He found an ally in Gifford Pinchot, the chief of the U.S. of protest against the landfill, 500 people were arrested
people in the development,
Forest Service, whose anthropocentric conservation ethic (Figure 1.28). Although the toxic waste was eventually implementation, and
emphasized the wise use of natural resources for the deposited at the proposed site, the protests sensitized the enforcement of environmental
benefit of the largest number of people. general public and policy makers, inspiring a movement laws, regulations, and policies.
A PROTEST THAT USHERED IN A MOVEMENT

(Greg Gibson/AP Photo)
FIGURE 1.28 Weeks of protests in Warren County, North Carolina, in 1982 over plans to deposit thousands of tons of soil
contaminated with toxic material in a landfill resulted in arrests of more than 500 protestors. The protest garnered national attention
and inspired an international movement with the goal of working toward environmental justice for all people.

for fairness in environmental decisions. Pressures for Religious and Cultural Perspectives
environmental justice pushed the major environmental
organizations, such as the Sierra Club, to place issues Your religious beliefs and cultural background will
arising from the siting of landfills, toxic waste dumps, and undoubtedly shape your own particular take on
other sources of pollution alongside their traditional focus environmental issues. Nevertheless, a cursory review
on preservation of wilderness and other natural areas. of belief systems around the world shows that people
Why did it take nearly a century after the founding of everywhere place value on protecting the environment
Yosemite National Park for organizations like the Sierra (Figure 1.29). If cultures have converged on the
Club to support the concept of environmental justice? conclusion that we should care for the environment,
CULTURAL AND RELIGIOUS CONVERGENCE IN ENVIRONMENTAL ATTITUDES
BUDDHISM HINDUISM
Do no harm to any Humans are
living thing. Humans dependent on both
and all aspects of animate and inanimate
nature, including aspects of nature.
water, stones, plants, There is no separation
and animals, have between humans and
intrinsic value. the rest of the world.
NATIVE AMERICAN CHRISTIANITY
Earth is alive and Humans are obligated
aware. People are to respect and protect
part of Earth, not all of God’s creation,
separate. Humans including the land,
should cultivate a water, and all its
mutualistic relation- inhabitants. Wanton
ship with Earth. harm of the environ-
ment is sinful.
ISLAM JUDAISM
Nature is an orderly, God and his creation
beautiful, and immense deserve complete
gift from Allah that respect and wonder.
should be treated ENVIRONMENT Humans are stewards
with reverence and of creation on God’s
gratitude. Humans are behalf and should take
expected to conserve care of it and not waste
the environment, resources or abuse
which is sacred. the environment.
ABORIGINAL DAOISM
AUSTRALIANS Humans should live
Humans are part simply and respect
of the land. Land the environment. Do
deserves respect, not disturb plants,
and humans must animals, or the land.
look after the land Do not fabricate
and its inhabitants. poisons. Do not
pollute water.
AFRICAN (SHONA) CONFUCIANISM
Human life is one with Intelligent manage-
all of nature. Earth is ment of nature will
alive, including rocks, lead to flourishing of
water bodies, and humans and the rest
mountains. Humans of nature. Ecology
should live in harmony should be linked to
with the land. social ethics.
FIGURE 1.29 Religions and ethical systems, which arose independently around the world, developed similar perspectives on
respect and care of the environment. (From Selin, 2003)

25
how do we explain the environmental damage that we health, because an increase in ultraviolet rays reaching
can see around the world? Earth’s surface would increase the incidence of skin
In some cases, harm to the environment may be cancer.
the result of people, with few alternatives, trying When we use resources faster than they are
to make a living or simply trying to survive. replenished, our societies and economies are not
Environmental harm may also result from incomplete sustainable. Because everything that humans need
knowledge. For example, the manufacturers of the to survive comes from the natural environment, the
CFCs that have depleted the ozone layer did not know principle of sustainability is about the wise use of
that their product would endanger this protective resources to ensure our ability to endure and live
layer. In other cases, harm to the environment results healthy lives, without compromising the welfare of
from the practice of pursuing economic gain, while future generations. For instance, rather than relying
disregarding the environmental impacts of that on nonrenewable sources of energy, such as oil and
activity. In addition, harm to one part of the gas, a sustainable strategy incorporates renewable
environment must often be weighed against the energy such as solar and wind power. When we
benefits to another part of the environment or to harvest from wild populations, as is the case in
human well-being. For instance, the potential harm fisheries and forestry, we should do so cautiously in
that chemical insecticides may cause for wildlife must order to allow these populations to reproduce. When
be weighed against the potential to increase food we use pesticides on farms, we need to ensure that they
supplies or control populations of disease-carrying do not pollute the groundwater or disrupt the pest
insects. Seldom are there simple solutions to the control services provided by other organisms. And
environmental problems that we face. when we expand cities and agriculture in dry regions,
such as the desert Southwest, we will benefit from
! Think About It technologies and policies that conserve water. In
short, sustainability is about reducing our ecological
1. What adjustments in moral responsibilities footprint in order to make sure that humans and nature
must be made in order to shift from an can coexist.
anthropocentric ethic to an ecocentric ethic? On September 16, 1987, President Ronald Reagan
Which is better for human welfare? Does taking and other world leaders made an important step
a short-term versus long-term frame of reference toward creating sustainable policies to protect the
make a difference? ozone layer. Reagan agreed to the Montreal Protocol,
which would reduce the production of CFCs and
2. What is the relationship of the environmental encourage the development of alternative refrigerants
justice movement and the various other and propellants. Reagan, who himself had been
environmental ethics perspectives? treated for skin cancer, recognized the importance of
sustainable policies in protecting human health and
3. What is the significance of values in addressing nature. In the beginning, the Protocol sought only to
environmental issues? What are the limitations? reduce the global production of the worst CFCs by 50%,
but scientists soon recognized that no level of CFC
production was sustainable; thus, CFCs were banned
1.8 Sustainability as a completely. Since that time, the Montreal Protocol has
been adjusted five times to regulate almost 100 gases,
pragmatic solution to and it is considered one of the most successful global
environmental woes environmental treaties in history, as well as a model for
As you learned earlier, scientists in the mid-1980s how countries might reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
recognized that the release of CFCs had depleted the In fact, recent research has even suggested that the
ozone layer so significantly that it was as if a hole had reduction in CFCs over the last 15 years has also slowed
formed. The amount of ozone in the stratosphere is global warming, which we will later see threatens
sustained by a balance between its formation, chemical humans and nature in other ways.
reactions initiated by ultraviolet light from the Sun, and Sustainability provides a pragmatic framework for sustainability The wise
its destruction through a variety of processes. With the use of resources to ensure
solving environmental problems. It allows us to set aside
our ability to endure and
release of CFCs, the rate of ozone destruction exceeded differences in environmental philosophies and focus live healthy lives, without
its rate formation, resulting in the ozone hole over the on the common goal of maintaining our health and compromising the welfare of
Antarctic. Ozone depletion directly threatened human prosperity, ensuring the survival of future generations. future generations.

means to communicate the human significance of

! Think About It environmental issues. For instance, without Rachel
1. Consider the damming of Hetch Hetchy. Carson’s highly developed writing skills, her influence
It flooded a valley in Yosemite, but provided on environmental policy would likely have been far less
impactful.
freshwater to the people of San Francisco. Would
How ozone depletion was addressed illustrates how
you consider it an example of sustainable or
multiple disciplines and interests contribute to solving
unsustainable development? complex environmental issues. Journalism, for instance,
played a fundamental role. In 1974 Molina and Rowland
2. Does the principle of sustainability fall
published their first paper, describing how CFCs could
?
under an ecocentric environmental ethic or an
contribute to the breakdown of the ozone layer. When
anthropocentric one? their article in Nature drew little response, they issued
a press release and held a news conference to warn the
Is any subject area public and policy makers about the potential danger to
making up the 1.9 Environmental science the ozone layer.
complex discipline of provides a comprehensive These actions went beyond the boundaries
environmental science framework for addressing of environmental science and into the realm of
more significant than environmentalism, an ideological and social movement
the others in addressing
environmental issues advocating protection of the environment from human
environmental issues? Because of the complexity of the problems it addresses, harm through political action and education. Their
environmental science is highly interdisciplinary press conference aroused intense public concern and
(Figure 1.30). It draws from all the natural sciences, more people wrote letters to the U.S. Congress than
including chemistry, physics, biology, geology, in response to any other issue in U.S. history up to
environmentalism An meteorology, and climatology. And since it addresses that point except the Vietnam War. The public outcry
ideological and social
practical problems, environmental science also created enough political pressure to move the federal
movement that advocates the
protection of the environment draws heavily from the applied sciences, such as government to action, passing legislation in 1977 to
from human harm through engineering, agricultural science, and toxicology. regulate any substances “reasonably anticipated to affect
political action and education. In addition, literature, art, and music provide the the stratosphere.”
ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE DRAWS FROM MANY AREAS OF KNOWLEDGE
NATURAL SCIENCES APPLIED SCIENCES SOCIAL SCIENCES HUMANITIES

• Astronomy • Agricultural science • Anthropology • History
• Biology • Engineering • Communication • Literature
• Chemistry • Fisheries science • Economics • Law
• Climatology • Forestry science • Law • Performing arts
• Geology • Materials science • Political science • Visual arts
• Hydrology • Medicine • Psychology • Philosophy
• Meteorology • Toxicology • Sociology • Religion
• Oceanography
• Physics
ENVIRONMENTAL
SCIENCE
FIGURE 1.30 The multidisciplinary nature of environmental science is one of the factors
contributing to the complexity of environmental science and the issues it addresses.

27
The business community generally plays a key role in

addressing environmental issues, particularly where those 1.7–1.9 Solutions:
issues collide with economic interests. Although chemical
companies eventually accepted the results, they spent a
Summary
decade trying to discredit Molina and Rowland’s research. Perspectives on nature and the environment
In the end, it was industrial chemists who developed a range from very human-centric to large-
variety of substitutes for CFCs, which pose little or no scale, natural system–centric. Throughout
threat to the ozone layer. history, these differing viewpoints have led
Where environmental impacts extend beyond national to disputes about how to manage the natural
borders, diplomacy, negotiation and international treaties environment. Though differing in details,
are essential. Discovery of the ozone hole in 1984 spurred religious and cultural traditions from all parts
worldwide concern. International regulation of CFC of the world advise protecting Earth and its
production eventually involved the United Nations and diverse inhabitants. The environmental justice
negotiations among countries around the world. The movement arose to combat historical inequities
result was the Montreal Protocol. in the extent to which people are exposed to
In the coming chapters, we will discuss the most environmental hazards.
pressing contemporary environmental issues, build the Sustainability includes developing policies,
science necessary to engage with those issues, and explore practices, and technologies to provide us with
some of the solutions to them (see Figure 1.13). We will enough clean water, food, energy, and other
necessarily draw on many subject areas as we do so. As a resources crucial to human health over the long
result of drawing from so many areas of knowledge and term. Environmental science can help us achieve
skill, environmental science can provide a path to solving this, by drawing on findings and ideas from the
environmental issues, which threaten not just nature, but natural sciences, applied sciences, social sciences,
our health and livelihoods as well. and humanities.
! Think About It
1. The environmental science framework includes
natural sciences, applied sciences, social sciences,
and humanities. What roles do each of these
areas of knowledge play in solving environmental
problems?
2. Is environmental science in fact a “science”? If
so, what type of science is it? If not, how would you
classify the subject?

28 CHAPTER 1 IN TRODUC TI ON
Answer the following questions for each chapter section and then answer the Central Question.
Central Question: How do science and values help address environmental issues?
1.1–1.4 Science 1.5–1.6 Issues
• What factors make up the environment? • How have humans’ impact and environmental
awareness changed throughout history?
• What is science and how is it useful?
• In what ways is environmental impact by
• What is uncertainty and how can we use humans a global issue?
science to address it?
• Describe ethics as they relate to science and

how can we uphold them?
Science, Environment, Values, you do so, keep track of the questions and hypotheses posed by
the researchers. Review the research methods used, including the
and You
study design. Evaluate the results obtained and consider whether
Chapter 1 explores what science is, how it works, and how science and the conclusions reached by the authors are supported by the actual
values affect the way we address environmental issues. So that you can results. Propose additional research to learn more about the subject
critically evaluate the science, issues, and solutions in the remainder of of the investigation.
the text, here are some ways to dig deeper into what was covered in this
chapter. ! Calculate your personal ecological footprint.
Use the online footprint calculator at www.footprintnetwork.org

! Practice the scientific process.
to estimate the number of global hectares required to support
Since the core of environmental science is scientific research, your particular lifestyle. Using that website’s ecological footprint
the more you get to know the process of science, the better calculator, you can also explore different living scenarios to see
you’ll be able to evaluate evidence related to environmental what you might personally do to reduce your own demands on the
issues. Ideally, you can involve yourself in scientific research at environment.
your college or university or with an independent research group.
Your environmental science instructor may know of opportunities ! Determine your personal environmental ethic.
for such work, either as a volunteer or as a paid technician. Explore the world of environmental ethics and try to determine your
Alternatively, your instructor may give you the opportunity to do a own ethical perspective on the environment. If you are a member of
research project as part of your course. an organized religion, learn more about its perspective on human
moral responsibilities to other species and to the environment as
! Familiarize yourself with the scientific literature and
a whole. Research other religious or ethical systems to learn of
practice thinking like a scientist.
similarities and contrasts in values.
Whenever you encounter an environmental issue in the news, try
to find the scientific research paper at the heart of the story. As
H O W D O SCIEN CE AN D VALUES HELP A DDR ESS ENVIR ONMEN TA L I S S UE S ?

29
1.7–1.9 Solutions Answer the Central Question:
• How do people’s personal views and ethics

affect how they value the environment?
• What is sustainability and how can it help us

address environmental problems?
• What is environmental science and how does it

address human impact?
Chapter 1 7. What eventually scuttled Benjamin

Franklin’s attempts to have the tanneries
of uncertainty, a concept that even Albert Einstein had
difficulty accepting. What are some of the implications
Review Questions moved from the center of Philadelphia?
a. A lack of interest by the majority of Philadelphians
of the inability of science to eliminate uncertainty
entirely, particularly in regard to environmental issues,
living near the tanneries such as ozone thinning, involving great risks to harm
1. When was thinning of the ozone over b. The installation of pollution-control devices on human populations and with significant potential
the Antarctic first verified? the tannery discharge pipes economic consequences following regulation?
a. 2010 c. 1974 c. The belief that the odors of the tanneries were
b. 1985 d. 1960 a source of good health 2. Exploring nature and solving complex problems are
d. Entrenched economic and political interests often important motivations for scientists choosing
2. Which of the following is part of a career path. For those successful in obtaining a
supporting the tanneries
the environment experienced by position in scientific research, what responsibilities
humans? 8. What did Rachel Carson advise regarding come with the privilege of working in this highly
a. Physical factors c. Cultural factors the use of chemical pesticides? competitive field?
b. Chemical factors d. All of the above a. Total banning of chemical pesticides in the
United States 3. Awareness of human environmental impact was
3. Which of the following is essential to b. Total banning of chemical pesticides around the first recorded in ancient China and Greece, and
any scientific investigation? world, including in the United States that awareness has only increased over time, with
a. Field observations c. A hypothesis c. Caution in the use of chemical pesticides the environment in the news nearly every day. What
b. Experiments d. Modeling d. Greater use of chemical pesticides, particularly factors have contributed to the apparent increase
for control of significant agricultural pests in impact on the environment by humans? Do these
4. A theory, as used by scientists, is contributory factors suggest potential ways to reduce
best described by which one of the 9. Which of the following is the most inclusive environmental harm?
following? ethical perspective on the environment?
a. An idea that may have no support by research a. Anthropocentric ethics c. Ecocentric ethics 4. Figure 1.24 summarizes the components of
b. An explanation for a natural phenomenon, widely b. Biocentric ethics d. Research ethics the ecological footprint. If you were to propose an
supported by research results alternative measure of ecological footprint, what
c. A tentative answer to a research question 10. Which of the following best describes components would you choose? If you conclude that
d. A proven idea with no uncertainty remaining environmental science? the existing ecological footprint index is the best one,
a. A scientific discipline concerned with controlling without modification, justify its focus.
5. Which one of the following is not a form pollution
of research misconduct? b. An interdisciplinary field that reaches beyond the 5. Why does environmental science include so many
a. Not ordering sufficient research supplies for a natural sciences to address practical environmental areas of thought and expertise in its domain? What
particular experiment problems are the relative roles played by the natural and applied
b. Making up data to yield more interesting research c. The study of the relationships between organisms sciences versus the social sciences and humanities in
c. Copying the work of others and claiming it as and the environment addressing environmental issues? Can we ignore the
your own d. A largely political field concerned mainly with humanities and social sciences and just get on with
d. Altering the calibration of scientific instruments controlling human population growth the solving of environmental problems with the tools of
to produce false positive readings the natural and applied sciences?
Critical Analysis
6. When were some of the earliest Find additional resources and links online at www.
observations of human environmental impact 1. Scientists once thought they were on a quest to macmillanhighered.com/launchpad/molles1e.
recorded in writing? discover the absolute unchanging rules governing
a. 10,000 years ago c. In the 1700s natural phenomena. Increasingly, scientists in every
b. Over 2,000 years ago d. In the 1960s discipline have had to come to terms with the concept
S CI EN CE ISSU E S SO L U T IO N S
Central Question: How can linking
ecology and economics help reduce
societies’ environmental impacts? Explain the nature and movement
of matter and energy in ecosystems
and economic systems.
(Jean Michel Labat/Ardea.com) SCIENCE

C H A P T ER 2
Ecosystems and
Economic Systems
Analyze the environmental significance of Discuss how linking environment to economics,

energy demand, economic models, and property rights, and community-based management
the Tragedy of the Commons. can affect environmental impacts.
32 C HAPTER 2 ECOSYSTEMS AND ECONOMIC SYSTEMS
(Dieter Telemans/Panos)
The Maasai people, who are descended from cattle herders that migrated southward from the Nile River Valley many centuries back, long ago
integrated with neighboring cultural groups in a traditional economic system based on bartering.
The Maasai People and the

Economy of Nature
The Maasai way of life in the savannah ecosystem
developed into a web of economic relations.
L ife on the grassy plains of East Africa, considered

the birthplace of humanity, changed dramatically
when domesticated cattle arrived. In the 15th or 16th
used as currency—to pay a family for their daughter’s hand in
marriage, for example.
Cattle, in other words, were prominent in the material
century, the Maasai people—who clothe themselves in red culture of East Africa. For thousands of generations, humans
cloth and pierce their earlobes with thorns and elephant in the region had survived by hunting wild antelope, and
ivory—brought their cattle with them from the Nile River gathering fruits and nuts. But with cattle, the Maasai
Valley in the north and settled in the savannahs of Kenya significantly modified life on the plains to better provide
and Tanzania. Cattle provided the Maasai with nearly for their needs. This new stability allowed them to develop
everything they needed: food in the form of milk, blood, a complex society that included procedures for decision
and meat; dung for plastering the walls of huts; and hides making by councils of experienced elders, division of labor,
for making shoes and other items. Cattle hold religious trade within their own and neighboring cultures, and a
significance for the Maasai and are also a symbol of wealth military system for defending their resources. For instance,
H O W CAN L IN KIN G ECO L OGY A ND EC ONOMIC S HELP R EDUC E S OC I E TI E S ’ E NVI R ONME NTA L I MPA C TS ?
33
the Maasai negotiated with neighboring people to allow similarity between how natural environments function and
movement of their herds in time of drought; Maasai the modern economic systems that sprang from human
women traded excess milk, meat, and skins for bananas, civilization. Ernst Haeckel, who coined the term ecology
maize, and sweet potatoes grown by farming neightbors. in the 19th century, said, “By ecology we mean the body
of knowledge concerning the economy of nature.” We
“We must put the ‘eco’ back into might also think of economics as the ecology of humans.
Understanding the connection between economics and
economics and realise what the ecosystems is one of the key ways that environmental
conditions and principles are for science allows us to find solutions to global challenges.
Though a modern economy may seem far different
true sustainable living.” from that of the traditional Maasai, the differences result
David Suzuki, “The Challenge of the 21st Century: Setting the mainly from the level of technological development, the
Real Bottom Line,” 2008 diversity of goods and services being traded, and the
sheer amount of goods changing hands every day. Beyond
As material culture developed, the Maasai joined those differences, however, our challenge, like that of the
with farmers and hunters in the area via an economic traditional Maasai and their neighbors, is the same: to
system. An economic system sustain the healthy economies needed for thriving human
economic system A network
of people, institutions, and
consists of a network of people, societies while protecting the environment on which
commercial interests involved institutions, and commercial we depend for survival. This goal is
in the production, distribution, interests involved in the generally referred to as sustainable sustainable development
and consumption of goods and production, distribution, and A process of development that meets
development, development that
services. the needs of the present generation
consumption of goods and meets the needs of the present without reducing the ability of future
services. These principles apply to cattle trading and generation without reducing the generations to meet their needs.
modern wealth economies alike. ability of future generations to meet Development is sustainable when it
does not, at a minimum, endanger
The Maasai livelihood continued to depend on climate their needs. This chapter’s Central
Earth’s natural life support system,
and the condition of the soil, but it was also shaped by Question reflects the core of that including the atmosphere, waters,
these social innovations. It turns out, there is a surprising challenge. soils, and biological diversity.
Central Question
How can linking ecology and
economics help reduce societies’
environmental impacts?

(Jean Michel Labat/Ardea.com)

2.1–2.4 Science
I n their traditional life on the grassy plains of

Africa, the Maasai did not have major negative
environmental impacts on the ecosystem, defined as all
distribution, and consumption of goods and services
as well as the theory and management of economic
systems.
of the organisms living in a particular place and their
interactions with each other and with the local climate
and geology (Figure 2.1). The ecosystem perspective is
2.1 Ecosystems and economic
not limited to natural environments. For instance, a farm systems are built on matter
or a city can be viewed as an ecosystem, and the study of Whether we are talking about turtles in a pond, cattle
urban ecosystems is very active and thus a growing area dung, or solar panels, the entire material universe is
of ecological research. Historically, however, the study of composed of matter. Therefore, ecosystems have a
how human-dominated systems, such as cities, function material basis. In a forest ecosystem, for example,
ecosystem The organisms has been thought of as a topic for economics. Economics matter makes up the plants, animals, fungi, and all of
living in a place and the is the social science concerned with the production, the other organisms living in a forest, along with the
biological, physical, and soils in which they grow and the water
chemical aspects of the contained in that soil. The same is true
environment with which they
interact. Ecosystem ecologists
of economic systems. In an economic
AN ECOSYSTEM
focus much of their research system, all the components, from people
on the flux and transformation and buildings to machinery and food to
of matter and energy. money itself, are made of matter.
economics A social science
that deals with the production, What’s Matter Made Of?
distribution, and consumption
of goods and services,
Matter exists in three main physical
as well as the theory and states: as a solid, liquid, or gas. Water,
management of economic which is central to life on Earth, has
systems. the rare characteristic of occurring in
(© Stock Illustrations Ltd./Alamy)
all three physical states—ice, water,

matter Anything that
occupies space and has mass;
and vapor—at temperatures commonly
matter exists in three main encountered on Earth (Figure 2.2).
physical states: as a solid, The basic building block of matter
liquid, or gas. is the atom, which we define as the
smallest particle of a pure substance that
atom The smallest particle FIGURE 2.1 Because it seems so self-contained, a pond may be one of the
of a substance that still easiest natural systems to visualize as an ecosystem. A pond ecosystem consists still retains the chemical and physical
retains the properties of the of all the organisms, from bacteria and algae to turtles, inhabiting the pond and all properties of that substance. (For a
substance. of the biological, physical, and chemical factors with which they interact. detailed outline of basic chemistry, see
35
WATER IN ITS THREE PHYSICAL STATES
(Rostislav Ageev/Shutterstock)
(Greg Epperson/Shutterstock)
(George Burba/Shutterstock)
Ice skater on solid ice SCUBA diver in liquid water Water vapor coming off a natural hot spring
FIGURE 2.2 Water exists in all three states of matter at temperatures commonly encountered in Earth’s environment:
as solid ice, as liquid water, and as gaseous water vapor.
Appendix A.) Substances composed of a single type of (P), and sulfur (S), make up approximately 99% of element A substance
atom are called elements. Just six elements, carbon (C), the mass of all organisms, ranging from bacteria and composed of a single type
of atom, such as hydrogen,
hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N), oxygen (O), phosphorus plants to humans (Table 2.1).
helium, iron, or lead, that
cannot be broken down
into simpler substances via
TABLE 2.1 THE ATOMIC STRUCTURES AND BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OF SIX chemical or physical means.
ELEMENTS
The basic structure of atoms consists of a nucleus of positively charged protons plus uncharged neutrons,
orbited by negatively charged electrons.
Symbol Name Structure Biological Importance
H Hydrogen Hydrogen, present in all organic
compounds, such as carbohydrates,
fats, and proteins and part of water,
is a major component of biological
structure.
C Carbon Carbon is central to all organic

compounds and forms the core of
biological structure. Life on Earth is
?
based on the chemistry of carbon.
N Nitrogen Nitrogen is an essential part of amino

acids and therefore of proteins.
What are the
implications of the
fact that the elemental
O Oxygen Oxygen is part of many organic
molecules, is a component of water,
composition of all life
and is critical for respiration in many
organisms.
forms is so similar?
P Phosphorus Phosphorus is an essential part of

the structure of RNA and DNA, is part
of the energy-bearing molecule ATP,
and is important to bone and tooth
structure.
S Sulfur Sulfur is a key constituent of some

amino acids, the building blocks
of proteins, and helps determine
the structure of enzymes and other
proteins.

TABLE 2.2 FOUR COMMON MOLECULES
The electron shell model shows the bonds that hold the atoms of a molecule together. Those bonds are formed by
the sharing of electrons. The covalent bonds shown here involve sharing of one (e.g., carbon to hydrogen) or two (e.g.,
carbon to oxygen) pairs of electrons.
Type of Carbon
Representation Oxygen Water Dioxide Methane
Molecular formula O2 H2O CO2 CH4
Electron shell model
Molecules and Chemical Reactions 2. How would changes in global temperature

As atoms interact, they may bind together during potentially affect the amount of Earth’s water in
chemical reactions to form substances called molecules liquid, solid, and gas phases?
(Table 2.2). For example, water is a molecule of two 3. Are all molecules compounds? Explain using
hydrogen atoms and an oxygen atom. Molecules (e.g.,
Figure 2.3.
water) that are made up of atoms of two or more
different elements are called compounds. Methane,
which is made up of carbon and hydrogen, reacts with 2.2 Energy makes matter
oxygen molecules to produce carbon dioxide and move
water (Figure 2.3). When we use natural gas, which is
In a forest, a hawk pursues a fleeing sparrow through the
mostly methane, to heat our homes or to cook food,
sun-warmed canopy, both twisting and turning in flight
we are using the energy released during this reaction.
as they avoid colliding with branches. In a nearby city,
Though atoms can combine in innumerable ways to
taxis rush headlong through streets to deliver passengers
form endless varieties of molecules, only a few types of
to their destinations. Stockbrokers walk hurriedly down
molecules, such as proteins, fats, and carbohydrates, are
the sidewalk on their way to air-conditioned buildings.
the basis for the structure, energetics, and reproduction
All this activity, whether in a forest ecosystem or as part
molecule Two or more atoms of all organisms.
of a modern economy, is fueled by energy.
held together by chemical
bonds; the constituent atoms
may be of the same or different ! Think About It Energy and Work
elements.
1. What must be true of a molecule for it to be Describing a person as having lots of energy means that
compound A substance considered a compound? he or she is vigorous or lively. Physicists use the term in a
composed of a fixed ratio of two much more precise way, defining energy as the capacity
or more elements (e.g., water, to do work. Work is the product of the amount of force
which consists of two hydrogen applied to an object and the distance the object is moved
atoms and one oxygen atom: USING MOLECULAR FORMULAS TO PICTURE A in the direction of the force. Certainly, a vigorous person
H2O). Compounds can be CHEMICAL REACTION
broken down into the elements moving his or her arms around will be performing a lot
of which they are made via of work! Similarly, the amount of work required to put a
E
chemical or physical processes. book on a shelf depends on the weight of the book and
Energy the height of the bookshelf (Figure 2.4). Consequently,
energy The capacity to do H H O
O O you burn more calories (i.e., energy) lifting a heavy
work. See work. C C
O H H book to a higher shelf than you would expend to lift a
H H O
work A description of the lighter book to a lower shelf. The same is true when it
transfer of energy; the work Methane Oxygen Carbon dioxide Water comes to a jet airliner filled with passengers and luggage
CH4 2O2 CO2 2H2O
done on an object by a force ascending from sea level to an altitude of 10,000 meters
is determined by the amount FIGURE 2.3 A molecule of methane, the main ingredient of (33,000 feet). That takes a huge amount of work and,
of force times the distance the natural gas, reacts with an oxygen molecule, producing one
object moves in the direction of molecule of carbon dioxide and two molecules of water, and
consequently, requires substantial energy in the form of
the force. See energy. giving off energy in the process. jet fuel.
37
WORK: A MATTER OF FORCE AND DISTANCE

?
Use the concept of energy
to explain how reading
the words on this page
and thinking about
the concepts discussed
qualify as work.
(Jupiterimages/Getty Images)
(Taras Vyshnya/Shutterstock)
FIGURE 2.4 Work is the product of the amount of force applied to an object and the distance the object is moved in the direction
?
How are a compressed
of the force. Placing a book on a shelf is an example of a small amount of work, requiring the application of low force over a short spring and a sugar
distance. By contrast, a great deal of force must be applied to lift a loaded jet airliner from a runway to an altitude of 10,000 meters,
which represents a great amount of work.
molecule similar?
potential energy The amount

of energy an object has due to
Forms of Energy Energy in all its forms is in action all around us. the configuration of its parts (e.g.,
The energy to perform work comes in many different For example, solar energy drives the movement of a loaded spring), its chemical
forms. Think about a battery in your desk drawer. It’s atmospheric gases that we call wind, another example makeup, or its position in a force
field (e.g., Earth’s gravitational
not performing any work, but it has the capacity to of kinetic energy. The heat radiating from a sidewalk
field).
do so, which we call potential energy. Likewise, the on a hot day is an example of radiant energy being
released by the sidewalk, which has been heated by chemical energy A form of
source of the energy we use to lift our arm and place potential energy; energy stored in
a book on a shelf is stored as chemical energy in the sunlight. Some solar energy is converted to heat
the bonds of molecules, such as
bonds of molecules, such as sugars and fats. As the energy stored in the surface water of lakes and oceans, sugars, fats, or methane.
chemical energy fuels the contraction of your muscles, causing some water to evaporate, which transforms
kinetic energy The energy of a
it is converted into kinetic energy, the energy of liquid water to gaseous water vapor. This water vapor
moving object, which is equal to
movement. When our book is placed on a shelf, the may eventually condense to form clouds, one of one-half the mass of the object
energy of placing it there is transferred to the book, as the fundamental processes in the hydrologic cycle times the square of its velocity.
gravitational potential energy, which is a consequence (see Figure 6.4, page 160). All the forms of energy
gravitational potential energy
of its position above ground. This potential energy operating at scales ranging from placing a book on a The amount of potential energy
would be released as kinetic energy (movement) if the shelf to global atmospheric processes follow a set of an object contains due to its mass
strict physical laws. and height above a reference
book were to fall off the shelf and crash to the floor. point, such as Earth’s surface.
As fuel is processed, whether in the cells of your
The Laws of Thermodynamics thermal (heat) energy A form of
body while you are exercising or in a jet engine during
kinetic energy due to molecular
takeoff, another form of kinetic energy is released: The first law of thermodynamics states that when motion in a mass of a substance,
Thermal (or heat) energy results from the motion one form of energy is transformed to other forms, such as a mass of steam.
of molecules in a substance and therefore is a form the total amount of energy in a system and its
of kinetic energy. The faster the molecules move, the surroundings remains the same. For instance, if we radiant energy The energy
hotter the substance becomes. When it’s cold, our were to measure incoming solar energy and then of electromagnetic radiation,
including visible light, infrared light,
bodies use heat released through shivering to stay add up the related energy on Earth and its surroundings, ultraviolet light, microwaves, radio
warm. Steam locomotives move trains down the track including the energy of wind or the energy absorbed waves, or X-rays.
by harnessing the thermal energy in steam to move the by trees and stored in our own bodies, we would find
first law of thermodynamics
pistons that turn their wheels. that they are the same (Figure 2.6). We call this the A physical law concerned with the
Sunlight is made up of radiant energy, which is the conservation of energy. conservation of energy: Though
energy of electromagnetic radiation, including visible However, if you were to actually measure the kinetic one form of energy may be
light, infrared light, and ultraviolet light, as well as energy of the wind turning the blades of a wind turbine transformed to other forms, the
microwaves, radio waves, and X-rays. As the radiant and then the electricity produced by the wind turbine, total amount of energy in a system
plus its surroundings is conserved;
energy from the Sun hits Earth, it drives many different you would find that there is less electrical energy than that is, the total amount of energy
energetic processes, melting snow, driving winds, and wind energy (Figure 2.7). How can this be? The first law remains the same. See second law
causing plants to grow (Figure 2.5). of thermodynamics states that the total amount of energy of thermodynamics.

SOME OF THE MANY FORMS IN WHICH WE ENCOUNTER ENERGY
KINETIC ENERGY POTENTIAL ENERGY
Why is it impossible
?
to build a mechanical
device that is 100%
(Jacek Fulawka/Shutterstock)
efficient at converting
(Coloroftime/Getty images)
(Stewart Tomlinson/USGS)
(Louise McLaughlin/NPS)
wind energy into

electrical energy?
Yellowstone Falls Sunlight filtering through Coal A drawn bow

a forest canopy
FIGURE 2.5 From a raging hurricane to the opening of a flower on a spring morning, energy, in its many forms, does the work of the world.
in the system plus the surroundings must remain the by a wind turbine, the amount of energy available to do
same. Some of the difference can be accounted for by work decreases because of the production of unusable
the production of heat by friction between the moving heat energy. The second law also states that over time,
and stationary parts of the turbine mechanism. If you entropy, or the amount of disorder in a system, increases.
were to touch the wind turbine, you would find that it And so maintaining order in a system—whether it’s a
is warm. wind turbine, the cells in your body, your room, or a
This brings us to the second law of thermodynamics, motor vehicle—requires an input of energy (Figure 2.8).
which states that with each energy transformation, such The loss of energy with each energy transformation and
as the conversion of wind energy to electrical energy the need for energy input to keep machines in working
SOLAR-POWERED ATMOSPHERE, HYDROSPHERE, AND BIOSPHERE
Radiated as heat
from atmosphere Reflected by
to space atmosphere
Heat radiated
from oceans
and land Reflected from
Earth surface
second law of
thermodynamics With Wind Absorbed by
atmosphere
each energy transformation, Absorbed
and radiated
or transfer, the amount of by oceans
as heat
energy in a system available
to do work decreases. In Evaporates Powers winds that
water transport moisture Heat radiated
other words, the quality of and drive ocean from Earth
the energy declines with currents that absorbed by
each energy transfer or transport heat, Absorbed by Absorbed atmosphere
nutrients, and organisms by land and reradiated
transformation. See first law
organisms
of thermodynamics.
entropy A measure of FIGURE 2.6 Solar energy interacting with the atmosphere, oceans, and biosphere does a wide variety of work and undergoes
the amount of disorder in a many transformations. But the total amount of energy originating as solar energy in the entire Earth system plus its surroundings
system. remains the same.
39
FIGURE 2.7 A wind turbine is a

SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS IN ACTION mechanical means of converting
the kinetic energy of wind into
electrical energy. Since the process
SOURCES OF ENERGY LOSS DURING
OPERATION OF A WIND TURBINE is subject to the second law of
thermodynamics, there are several
1 OVERCOMING AIR RESISTANCE avenues of energy loss during the
INPUT: The movement of the blades of a wind turbine conversion, and energy output is
WIND ENERGY is impeded by the gas molecules contained always lower than energy input.
within Earth’s atmosphere. The air resistance,
or drag, results in energy loss.
2 HEAT PRODUCTION DUE TO FRICTION

Heat is generated by friction between moving
mechanical parts of the wind turbine, such as
shafts rotating on ball bearings.
3 WIRE RESISTANCE TO
CONDUCTING ELECTRICITY
Electrons moving through copper transmission
lines encounter some resistance to their flow,
which results in energy loss as heat during
transmission.
OUTPUT: ELECTRICAL ENERGY
order, as predicted by the second law of thermodynamics, 3. Why is it impossible to engineer a mechanical
are also true of natural ecosystems. system, such as an automobile, capable of being
operated indefinitely with no physical maintenance?
! Think About It
1. As an engineer, what design features could you 2.3 Energy flows through
target to improve the energy efficiency of wind ecosystems, while matter
turbines?
recycles
2. Why is it impossible to build a mechanical device An influx of energy is required to maintain order in
that is 100% efficient at converting wind energy ecosystems and to sustain their physical and biological
into electrical energy? processes. For most ecosystems, the Sun is the primary
CONSEQUENCE OF THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
ORDERED STATE DISORDERED STATE
Natural tendency is to a disordered state.

(© Performance Image/Alamy)
Without maintenance
(no energy input)
(Ron Kimball/Kimball Stock)
Vintage car when new
Restoration work
(with energy input)
(Ron Kimball/Kimball Stock)
Vintage car reduced to FIGURE 2.8 Without an input

rusted wreck
of energy, the level of disorder in a
system, a property called entropy,
Maintaining or restoring order requires energy.
will increase. Consequently, work is
required to maintain or restore order
Fully restored vintage car in physical systems, which tend
naturally to a state of disorder.

SIMPLIFIED FOOD WEB FOR A FOREST EDGE-MEADOW ECOSYSTEM
food web A set of feeding
CARNIVORES
relationships among
organisms indicating the flow
of energy and materials in an
ecosystem.
trophic level A step in the

movement of materials or
OMNIVORES
energy through an ecosystem
or the position of a species in
a food web.
primary producer
(autotroph) An organism,
generally a plant or alga, that
HERBIVORES
converts the radiant energy

in sunlight to the chemical
energy in sugars through the
process of photosynthesis.
photosynthesis A
biochemical process employed
PRODUCERS
PRIMARY
by green plants, algae, and

some bacteria that uses
solar energy to convert water
and carbon dioxide into the
chemical energy in a simple
sugar called glucose.
DETRITIVORES &
DECOMPOSERS
gross primary production

The total amount of organic
matter produced by the
primary producers in an
ecosystem over some period
of time, for example, per year.
See net primary production.
FIGURE 2.9 A food web is a diagram of feeding relationships within an ecosystem, with arrows
showing the direction of energy flow between primary producers and consumers.
net primary production
The net production of
organic matter by the primary
producers in an ecosystem,
that is, gross primary
source of energy. Plants and algae convert this solar Ecologists refer to the total amount of organic
production less the organic energy into chemical energy, which then moves from matter produced by the primary producers in an
matter used by primary plant to animal to animal in the form of food. These ecosystem over some period of time as gross primary
producers to meet their own movements of energy form a web of energy transfers production. However, plants expend energy for
energy needs. See gross called a food web (Figure 2.9). Food webs show who all kinds of things besides growth: in respiration;
primary production.
eats whom in an association of coexisting organisms. in maintaining the structure of their tissues; and
consumer An organism that One of the basic elements in a food web is the trophic in defending themselves against attack by viruses,
meets its dietary needs by level of each organism, which identifies its position in bacteria, fungi, insects, and other organisms. The
feeding on other organisms or the overall movement of materials or energy through amount of energy left over after subtracting these
on organic matter produced an ecosystem. factors is called net primary production. Net primary
by other organisms. See
The primary producers, or autotrophs, always production can also be looked at as the amount of
heterotroph.
occupy the first, or lowest, level in a food web. Primary food energy available to other organisms that feed on
heterotroph An organism, producers, mostly plants on land and algae in aquatic primary producers.
incapable of producing its own ecosystems, produce the materials that form the basis The organisms occupying trophic levels above the
food, that meets its energetic of what all organisms need to stay alive. They do this producers, which feed on organic matter produced
and nutritional needs by by means of photosynthesis, a biochemical process by other organisms, are collectively referred to as
feeding on organic matter
produced by plants and other
that uses solar energy to convert water and carbon consumers, or heterotrophs. Consumers meet their
primary producers or on other dioxide into the chemical energy in a simple sugar energy needs by extracting the energy from their food
heterotrophs. See consumer. called glucose (Figure 2.10). through cellular respiration, a process that occurs
41
PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND RESPIRATION

?
Examine Figure 2.11.
Explain how this image
Sun PHOTOSYNTHESIS illustrates both the flow
Plants and algae use sunlight to power the reaction of carbon dioxide with water in their cells, of energy and transfer
forming the sugar glucose and oxygen.
of materials in an
O ecosystem?
O
O
C E
H H O
O
cellular respiration A
Carbon dioxide Water Light Glucose Oxygen
6CO 2 6H2O energy C 6H12O6 6O2 process taking place in cells
that requires oxygen. During
cellular respiration, molecules,
such as glucose, are broken
down and energy, water, and
CELLULAR RESPIRATION
carbon dioxide are released.
Respiration, which provides the energy for life’s processes, occurs in the cells of all consumers
and primary producers. During respiration, glucose in the presence of oxygen is broken down, herbivore (primary
releasing carbon dioxide, water, and energy. consumer) A consumer
whose diet consists entirely
of plants or other primary
O
O
O
producers, for instance, an
C E
O H H elephant or a grasshopper.
O
carnivore (predator) An
Glucose Oxygen Carbon dioxide Water Energy
C 6H12O6 6O2 6CO 2 6H2O animal that feeds on other
living animals (e.g., a lion or a
FIGURE 2.10 Solar energy employed by plants during photosynthesis is stored as plant biomass, including leaves, seeds, roots, spider).
stems, flowers, and fruits; consumers, such as this grasshopper, release the chemical energy present in plant biomass through
omnivore A consumer that
cellular respiration.
eats both plant and animal
material.
detritivore An organism that

feeds on dead organic matter
in the cells of all organisms (Figure 2.10). Consumers (e.g., fallen leaves on the floor
ENERGY PYRAMID FOR THE SILVER SPRINGS, of a forest). Detritivores help in
that feed on plants are called herbivores or primary
FLORIDA, ECOSYSTEM the process of decomposition;
consumers, while those feeding on other consumers are examples include many
called carnivores, predators, or secondary consumers. SILVER SPRINGS ENERGY PYRAMID insects and earthworms. See
Some consumers, called omnivores, eat both plants and decomposer.
Net Production Energy losses between
animals. Finally, a critical group of consumers in any kcal/m2/yr trophic levels decomposer An organism,
food web are the detritivores, or decomposers. These mainly fungi and bacteria, that
organisms, which feed on dead and decaying plant and TROPHIC LEVEL 6 91% breaks down dead plant and
animal material, are particularly important in the cycling animal tissues, promoting the
Secondary
process of decomposition. See
of matter in ecosystems. carnivore Energy lost in
Primary
feces and res- detritivore.
The net amount of consumer biomass, or energy, that carnivore 67 95% piration and
due to lack of secondary (consumer)
goes into growth and reproduction, is referred to as Herbivores consumption
Primary production The amount of
secondary production. producers consumer biomass, or energy,
As a result of energy losses at each trophic level 1,478 83% that goes into growth and
(thanks to the second law of thermodynamics), a reproduction, analogous to
graph of the net production by all the organisms in net primary production by
each trophic level in an ecosystem takes the form of a 8,833
photosynthetic organisms.
pyramid, broader at the base, representing net primary energy pyramid A graphic
production and narrowing progressively at higher 5,000 2,500 0 2,500 5,000
representation of the
trophic levels. Figure 2.11 gives an example of an NET PRODUCTION (kcal/m2/yr)
distribution of energy among
trophic levels in an ecosystem.
energy pyramid from the Silver Springs ecosystem in
FIGURE 2.11 On average, approximately 10% of energy is Because large amounts of
Florida. Because up to 90% of energy is lost between passed between successive trophic levels, while 90% is lost. energy are dissipated at every
trophic levels, energy makes a one-way trip through an The result is a typical pyramid-shaped distribution of energy trophic level, these diagrams
ecosystem. across trophic levels. (Data from Odum, 1957) take the form of a pyramid.

FOREST FIRE: CONSERVATION OF MASS AT THE SCALE OF A FOREST

ECOSYSTEM
?
Does the conservation
of matter mean that the
amount of matter in
the Earth system is not
subject to change?
(U.S. Department of Agriculture)
FIGURE 2.12 While the trees and other plants, along with woody litter, may be destroyed in a
forest fire, the matter that made up those plants and wood is not lost—it just changes form. Because
the atoms that made up the forest before the fire are not destroyed, they can be recycled endlessly.
The effects of the second law of thermodynamics on You can demonstrate this fact for yourself by
food webs and trophic pyramids have some practical reviewing the chemical equations in Figure 2.10 (see
consequences. For instance, carnivores will always be page 41). Count the number of atoms on the two sides
less abundant than their prey species and, consequently, of the reactions in Figure 2.10, and you will find that,
more likely to be in danger of extinction. Also, because though the atoms have been rearranged, their numbers
conservation of matter of lower production at higher trophic levels, producing are the same.
A physical law describing how enough animal protein for everyone on Earth to have a Examples of substances that get cycled include
during chemical reactions,
diet comparable to that in the United States would not be water, nitrogen, carbon, phosphorus, sulfur, and iron.
matter is neither created nor
destroyed but conserved. sustainable. The cycles of these and other substances are called
biogeochemical cycles because they involve biotic, or
biogeochemical cycle living components like plants and animals, and abiotic
The cyclic path of an Material Cycling
(nonliving) components, including Earth’s water,
inorganic substance, such
Matter, like energy, also flows through ecosystems. minerals, and atmosphere. The biological components
as phosphorus, nitrogen,
or carbon, through the According to the principle of the conservation of matter, of biogeochemical cycles include the producers,
Earth system, including the matter is neither created nor destroyed—it is conserved herbivores, carnivores, detritivores, and decomposer
atmosphere, Earth’s crust, during chemical reactions, although it may change forms. bacteria and fungi represented in Figure 2.9 (see page
oceans, lakes, and rivers; Consider a forest fire that destroys millions of tons of 40). Decomposition of organic matter releases inorganic
key biological components
wood (Figure 2.12). As the forest burns to the ground, substances, such as nitrogen, phosphorus, or carbon,
are producers, consumers,
detritivores, and decomposer the matter that made up the forest changes form—some is which are returned to soil, atmosphere, or water.
bacteria and fungi. converted to carbon dioxide gas, some to smoke, and some One molecule that has been making headlines for
to ash. However, if you could measure the process very years is carbon dioxide, an important part of the global
carbon cycle The cycling precisely, you would find that there is no change in the carbon cycle. Carbon plays a central role in the lives
of carbon through the Earth
mass of matter before and after the fire. Even in the hottest of all organisms as most of the molecules essential to
system; key biological
processes in the carbon of forest fires, not a single atom is lost. This shows us that the structure and functioning of living cells—including
cycle include photosynthesis, the movement of matter on Earth is cyclic—nothing is protein, DNA, and lipids—are built on a framework of
respiration, and decomposition. created or destroyed but can be recycled indefinitely. carbon. Carbon is also a key player in two processes
43
THE CARBON CYCLE
KEY PROCESSES
1 PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Carbon enters the cycle as CO2, drawn
from the surrounding environment
during photosynthesis by terrestrial CO2 in atmosphere
and aquatic primary producers: 5
plants, algae, and bacteria.
1 Photosynthesis by 2 Cellular respiration
2 RESPIRATION plants uses CO2 releases CO2
Carbon dioxide is returned to the Volcanoes
environment as consumers, including release CO2
herbivores, carnivores, omnivores,
decomposers, and primary producers 4
engage in respiration to meet their
energy needs.
3 DEPOSITION & SEDIMENTATION

Organic matter deposited in soils and Food chain Burning fossil
the bottom sediments of the oceans,
fuels and wood
lakes, and wetlands can result in
releases CO2
long-term removal of carbon from the
carbon cycle. Carbon dioxide is also
removed from the atmosphere and 1 Photosynthesis by
water as mollusks build their shells phytoplankton uses CO2
3 Deposition and
and coral reefs grow. sedimentation
4 COMBUSTION
Burning of organic matter—for
example, during a forest or grassland
fire or of fossil fuels—can add carbon
dioxide to the atmosphere.
5 VULCANISM CO2 in water (as HCO 3−)

Volcanic eruptions inject carbon
dioxide into the atmosphere.
FIGURE 2.13 The cycling of carbon is one of the most important biogeochemical cycles on Earth, since carbon atoms provide the
basic structure for the organic molecules, including lipids, proteins, and DNA, that make up the cells of organisms.
we’ve already learned about—photosynthesis and 2. How is the second law of thermodynamics related
respiration; carbon moves around on Earth, from the to the fact that net primary production is always
tissues of living creatures to sedimentary rocks, and from less than gross primary production?
oceans to atmosphere; and carbon trapped in the bodies
of once-living creatures is released millions of years 3. How do photosynthesis and respiration
later into the atmosphere by the burning of fossil fuels contribute to Earth’s carbon cycle?
(Figure 2.13).
Because matter cannot be created or destroyed,
biogeochemical cycles like the carbon cycle move
essential elements around Earth continuously. For more
2.4 Economic systems and
on biogeochemical cycles, see Chapter 7 (nitrogen cycle), their currencies take several
Chapter 8 (phosphorus cycle), and Chapter 13 (sulfur forms
cycle). Another cycle, the hydrologic, or water, cycle Humans depend on natural systems and resources to
plays a key role in the discussions of water-related issues support their lives and lifestyles. From ecosystems we
in Chapter 6. draw resources that feed us, keep us warm, and give us
livelihood. As we have seen, as the Maasai established
! Think About It systems for trading goods and services, they were building
an economic system. Like natural ecosystems, human
1. Why is consumer production also known as economies involve the movement of matter and energy.
secondary production? These flows are dictated not only by physical laws, such as

TWO ECONOMIC SYSTEMS
?
Scientists are learning
much about ecosystems
around the world
from people, such as
the Maasai, living in
(Dmitrijs Dmitrijevs/Shutterstock)
(© Ton Koene/age fotostock)
traditional subsistence
economies. Why
might these people be
a rich source of such
knowledge?
Traditional Maasai cattle market Modern shopping mall
FIGURE 2.14 The traditional Maasai economic system involved production of cattle and dairy products, as well as limited trading
with hunting and farming neighbors for wildlife products and crops. In contrast, a modern market economy is characterized by intense
economic activity, involving the production and consumption of a great diversity of goods and services.
the laws of thermodynamics, but also by social conventions environment are often portrayed as being in opposition
and regulations. Economics adds a new layer of complexity to each other.
atop our understanding of ecosystem principles. In a centrally planned economy, a central authority
sets prices and makes decisions about production
subsistence economy An Economic Systems and consumption of goods and services. Because
economy in which individuals centrally planned economies are slower to react than
The traditional economy of the Maasai is an example of
or groups produce or harvest market economies, they are particularly susceptible to
enough resources to largely a subsistence economy, in which individuals or groups
developing shortages and surpluses, and residents often
support themselves, with fewer produce or harvest enough resources from the natural
resort to illegal or black markets to obtain their goods.
resources gained through environment to largely support themselves, with fewer
Contemporary examples of centrally planned economies
purchase or trade with other resources gained through purchase or trade with other
groups. are those of Cuba and North Korea.
groups.
market economy An In a modern market economy, such as that of the
economy in which decisions United States, the countries of the European Union,
about the production and Canada, Japan, and other developed countries, decisions LAW OF SUPPLY AND DEMAND
consumption of goods and about production and consumption of goods and services
services are not centralized
are not made by some central governmental authority. Supply Demand
but made by businesses and
individuals, generally acting Such decisions are made by businesses and individuals,
in their own self-interest. See generally acting in their own self-interest (Figure 2.14).
centrally planned economy. In a market economy, the price of goods and services
Increased demand will result in a higher
is generally determined by their supply and demand price for a product at equilibrium.
supply and demand An
(Figure 2.15). If the demand for oranges one year
economic model stating that
remains constant, but the supply increases, we end up
PRICE
the price of a good (or service)

will reach equilibrium when with a surplus that causes their price to decline. The price Equilibria
the consumer demand for it will also drop if the demand declines but the supply stays P*
at a certain price equals the the same. A shortage can occur if either the demand goes
quantity supplied by producers.
up or the supply goes down, leading to a spike in prices.
Q*
centrally planned economy Supply and demand affects the availability of a particular
An economy in which decisions good. This is important to keep in mind, since most
about the production and of the goods we consume are either natural resources
consumption of goods and or impact the environment in some way through their
services are made by a central QUANTITY
production or sourcing. For example, drilling for oil to
authority. See market economy. FIGURE 2.15 The law of supply and demand predicts that
meet the demand for fossil fuels directly impacts the drill in a competitive market, the price of a product will eventually
black market The exchange site for that oil, as well as the atmosphere, when the fossil be determined by the relationship between the supply of that
of illegal goods and services. fuel is burned. For reasons like this, the economy and the product and the consumer demand for it.
45
the state, such as obtaining the proper permits. Examples

EVOLUTION OF MONEY of state property in the United States include national
parks and national forests, wild game animals wherever
they roam, and navigable rivers even if they pass through
private property.
Private property, by contrast, implies that the owner
has the full right to use and benefit from her property
so long as she is following all applicable laws and not
harming others. Common property is a form of private
(Atelier_A/Shutterstock)
property, but rather than being owned by an individual,

it is owned by a group. Members of the group control
access to the property and exclude those who are not
members. The last type of property, open access,
Wheat
implies that neither the government nor an individual
has the right to exclude others. In other words, it’s first
come, first served.
Money
While traditional Maasai could get by using livestock
as a form of currency, modern economies depend on
(GreenTree/Shutterstock)
money. Money is a medium of exchange for goods

and services that has evolved over thousands of years
?
(Figure 2.16). Originally, commodities such as cattle
or grain, which carry inherent value in terms of both
Cowrie shells Ancient silver Greek coin material (nutrients) and energy (calories), were used
as modes of exchange. The bartering of commodities Europeans were
eventually gave way to the exchange of other currencies. shocked when they
One of the earliest currencies, cowrie shells, which learned, in the 13th
can be gathered in shallow tropical waters, was used as century, that paper
money in China and some regions in Africa. Over time, currency was used in
(© North Wind Picture Archives/Alamy)
the minting of metal coins and use of paper money China. Why might this
rather than shells became widespread.
have seemed such a
For a time, the value of paper money was tied to
standard quantity of gold, a practice known as the gold
radical invention?
standard. The gold standard was abandoned in the 20th
century and has been replaced by complex international
regulations governing the value of money.
New York colonial era money
While we may use the flow of money to measure
FIGURE 2.16 Early in history, commodities including livestock economic activity, that flow is symbolic of the exchange
and grain were used as currencies. Later, cowrie shells were state property Property
of goods and services, which is tied to the flow and
used as a medium of exchange in China and Africa. Coins were owned by federal, state, or
transformation of matter and energy. When you buy local governments.
first minted in China and then in Persia and Greece. The use of
paper money began in China, then spread around the world. a tablet computer for a certain number of U.S. dollars,
euros, or Chinese yuan, you are exchanging your private property Property
money for the material, energy, engineering, labor, and owned by individuals.
Property proprietary information that went into the production,
common property Property
transport, and marketing of the computer. You are also
Each economic system places different limits on the owned or controlled by
paying for the service provided by the seller who makes a community, such as an
ownership of property, which has consequences for
it available for your purchase. Conversely, when you indigenous tribe.
environmental management. The term property is used
earn money, you are exchanging the energy, labor, and
to refer to land, manufactured goods, or resources such open access A property for
proprietary information that went into your work.
as freshwater, minerals, or fish stocks. Under a market which there are no restrictions
economy, we can generally identify four property regimes: about who may enter and
state property, private property, communal property, and
open access. Government-owned property is considered
! Think About It exploit its resources.
money A medium of
state property, and private individuals may be able to 1. How is money related to the movement of exchange using coins or paper
make use of it as long as they follow the rules imposed by energy and matter in economic systems? bills.

2. Why does the law of supply and demand have

thermodynamics, one form of energy may
more influence on the price of goods in a market
be transformed into other forms, but the
economy than in a centrally planned economy?
total amount of energy in a system plus its
3. What main factors likely influenced the evolution surroundings remains the same. A consequence
of money? of the second law of thermodynamics is that
the overall quality of energy declines with each
energy transformation, or transfer, reducing
the energy available to do work. During
2.1–2.4 Science: chemical reactions, matter is neither created nor
destroyed, but is conserved.
Summary In ecosystems, matter is recycled through the
The basic constituent of all matter, the atom, is biogeochemical cycles. The movement of energy
the smallest particle of a substance that retains its and materials in an ecosystem is reflected in its
properties. Substances composed of a single type food web and energy pyramid, which connect
of atom are called elements. Two or more atoms the organisms in an ecosystem through their
held together by chemical bonds form a molecule. feeding relationships. Matter and energy also
All activity on Earth, whether in an ecosystem flow through economic systems, which range
or as part of a modern economy, is fueled by from subsistence economies to market-based
energy. Energy, which comes in many forms of economies. Economies depend on various
potential and kinetic energy, is defined as the conceptions of public and private property and
capacity to do work. According to the first law of the use of money as a medium of exchange.
2.5–2.7 Issues
T he economy in the land of the Maasai has continued
to evolve over the last century. On July 7, 2000,
the East African nations of Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda,
hear that the choice is between a healthy environment
and a healthy economy. The alternative, some might say,
is to leave the people of Africa living in poverty. How did
Rwanda, and Burundi established an organization called we develop this view? In the traditional societies around
the East African Community (EAC) to further economic Earth, the relationship between a healthy productive
growth. Between 2005 and 2010, the total value of goods ecosystem and economic health was clear. When the
and services produced in the EAC increased by 70%. Maasai people first brought their cattle to East Africa,
And while agriculture remains the dominant economic they altered the existing ecosystem and established an
sector of the region, there has been substantial growth economic system atop it. Their cattle, like the native
in manufacturing and energy production. For example, wildlife, depended on the primary production of
between 2001 and 2010, the number of people employed grasslands, which meant that their early economy was
in manufacturing in Kenya, the largest country in the intricately linked to the health of the environment.
EAC, grew by 24%, and consumption of electricity in the Such clear connections are not always so obvious today,
country increased by nearly 40%. This is all good news, where people buying beef in shrink-wrapped packages
but environmentalists are also concerned that a shift from a city supermarket have little knowledge of how
from low-impact subsistence lifestyles to high-impact drought and environmental degradation are impacting
consumer economies will lead to unfettered degradation grazing lands. The relationship between economics
of some of the last wild places in Africa. and ecology receded into the background with the
When such concerns are raised about the development of modern industrial economies and of
environmental impact of economic growth, we often early economic theory.
47
ENERGY LOSSES FROM PRIMARY ENERGY SOURCE TO END USE
INCANDESCENT LIGHT BULB INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE
Energy remaining Energy losses at Energy remaining Energy losses at

at each step each step at each step each step
0.63 98% 7 86%

Light Driving car
Transmission Transport
Electricity Fermentation
Coal 31.5 10% Corn 48 2%
35 65% 49 51%
100 100
RELATIVE ENERGY UNITS RELATIVE ENERGY UNITS
FIGURE 2.17 Energy losses from a coal-fired generating station to a 60-watt incandescent light bulb. (Data from Graus et al.,
2007; Leff, 1990; Agrawal et al., 1996) Energy losses from an ethanol-producing biofuels plant, which uses corn kernels as the
feedstock, to a car driven by an internal combustion engine running on ethanol. (Data from Huang et al., 2011)
2.5 Energy fuels, and limits, be lost as heat. As a consequence of energy losses from
the point of production to use, less than 1% of the energy
the economy burned in the coal-fired power station is used to light the
Because economic systems are subject to the same desktop (Figure 2.17).
physical laws governing ecosystems, they require inputs Although less drastic, similar energy losses occur along
of energy and matter in order to keep functioning. The the energy pyramid describing the flow of energy from
energy sources important to today’s economic systems the production of corn-based ethanol fuel to driving an
include the fossil fuels and renewable energy sources internal combustion vehicle powered by that fuel. In this
used to generate electricity, run transportation networks, case, approximately 7% of the energy present in the corn
and heat and cool homes and businesses. Energy and kernels entering this flow path is used for driving the
matter also enter the economy as the food consumed by motor vehicle (Figure 2.17).
people, pets, and livestock. Economists have historically You can observe that the overall pattern of energy
considered the supply side of a market economy to be distribution along these flow paths takes the shape of
determined by human industry, such as manufacturing a pyramid, much like that observed by ecologists in
or resource extraction, but we now recognize that our ecosystems. Human economies sit at the top of the energy
resources are not unlimited and that our activities can pyramid and grow by tapping into natural ecosystems
have a wide range of impacts on our lives. and Earth’s resources. Because of energy losses resulting
Let’s take a look at how some of the physical laws we’ve from the second law of thermodynamics, both
explored impact the economy. As predicted by the second ecosystems and economic systems require continued
law of thermodynamics, the energy flowing through inputs of energy to sustain their functions. This need to
an economic system is reduced in quality with each keep energy flowing through modern economies to keep
transformation or with each bit of work done. Consider, them productive has been a source of environmental
for example, the path followed by the electrical energy disruption and loss of human lives (Figure 2.18).
powering a 60-watt incandescent light bulb in a desk
lamp. An average electrical power station using coal as a
fuel source has an efficiency of about 35%, which means
! Think About It
that of the energy contained within 100 units of coal 1. How is the flow of energy through natural
burned, 65% is lost as heat. As the 35 units of electrical ecosystems similar to energy flow through economic
energy are transmitted along power lines to the desk systems? How are they different?
lamp, approximately 10% will be lost as heat and sound
energy. At its final destination, about 2% of the energy 2. Why is the functioning of modern economies so
delivered to the 60-watt incandescent light bulb will be intimately tied to the production and marketing of
converted to light energy, while the remaining 98% will energy sources such as fossil fuels and electricity?

spend money in the economy, so as industry grows to

ENVIRONMENTAL RISK ASSOCIATED WITH FUELING ECONOMIC PRODUCTION meet demand, employment rates go up, spending goes up,
and demand continues to go up. The system is spurred
on continuously. This is an example of positive feedback
in a system, when an increase in some factor produces
additional increases in that factor within the system
(Figure 2.19).
A closed economic system leaves out several important
elements: It ignores anything that, in real life, comes
from outside the system itself—like raw materials and
exchanges of energy, such as fossil fuels or solar energy.
To be sure, leaving out these elements simplifies the
models and makes it easier to think about complex
economic systems. But meanwhile, they disregard the
limits of the physical world and its laws.
Open Economic Model

In the real world, economic systems are not closed
(AP Photo/The Canadian Press, Paul Chiasson)
but open, since they cannot function without inputs

of materials and energy. In a model that considers the
MODEL OF AN ECONOMIC SYSTEM AS A CLOSED

SYSTEM
FIGURE 2.18 Energy development associated with the energy-intensive modern economy
comes with environmental impacts, including air, water, and soil pollution. The direct human costs
can also be serious. On July 6, 2013, a train carrying crude oil from North Dakota derailed in Lac-
Mégantic, Quebec, about 10 miles from Maine. The resulting explosions and fires killed 47 people.
PRODUCERS:
PROCESSING &
2.6 How we represent MANUFACTURING
economic systems can have Processed goods
environmental consequences
When the human population was small and our
technology simple, our environmental impact was
negligible and there was little need to consider how we
might be affecting Earth at anything but the most local MARKETING &
scale. But with an ever-expanding human population, DISTRIBUTION
environmental impact by the human species has become LABOR &
Goods & Services
WAGES &
CAPITAL PROFITS
significant. In many ways, how we define our economic
systems influences our relationship to the environment.
Traditional Closed Economic Model

Western economists historically modeled an economy
positive feedback A stimulus as a closed system. In such a model, processing and CONSUMERS
in which an increase in some manufacturing industries produce goods that are marketed
factor in a system, such and distributed to consumers. When consumer spending Economic activity is sustained by positive feedbacks
as an economic system or between parts of the economic system.
on goods and services (demand) rises, this stimulates the
ecosystem, produces additional
processing and manufacturing industries to meet the new
increases in that factor within FIGURE 2.19 A closed model leaves out exchanges of
the system or in which a demand by making more goods. The industry may have to material and energy between the economic system and the
decrease in a factor causes hire new employees to help produce the goods and meet environment. Economic activity in the model is sustained by
additional decreases. the demand. People who are employed and make money positive feedbacks between parts of the economic system.
49
environment, raw materials such as oil, metal ores, and

agricultural crops must come from somewhere. These MODEL OF AN ECONOMIC SYSTEM AS AN OPEN SYSTEM
materials are then processed by the economic system
to produce goods or services that are distributed and Economic systems can harm the environment through their
discharges of waste into the environment and demand for energy
marketed to consumers using energy sources such as and raw materials, which are extracted from the environment.
fossil fuels. Along the way, each of these economic
processes will result in waste energy and waste materials
that impact the environment (Figure 2.20).
In this type of open system model, the environment is
considered to be outside or “external” to the economic PRODUCERS: ENERGY &
PROCESSING & MATERIALS
system. The environmental impacts that may occur as a MANUFACTURING
consequence of economic activity, such as the dumping Processed goods
of waste into a river or the spewing of gases into the
atmosphere, are expected to have little impact on prices
of products. That’s because historically, companies did ENVIRONMENT
not have to pay for causing such damage; those costs were
instead borne by society at large. An economic externality
is therefore a cost or benefit to the environment or to MARKETING &
society that is not included in the market price of the DISTRIBUTION
product. As we shall see in the next section, economic LABOR &
Goods & Services
WAGES &
CAPITAL PROFITS WASTE
externalities can contribute to a market failure, a situation
in which society is harmed because of the inefficiency in
how goods and services are distributed.
! Think About It
CONSUMERS
1. How might a closed model of an economic system
be useful despite its not being realistic? FIGURE 2.20 An open economic model includes exchanges
?
of materials and energy with the environment, but the
2. Under what circumstances would it be reasonable environment is treated as if it is external to the economic system.
to not include the impact of economic activity on Therefore, in this model, the effects of the economic system on
the environment are considered “externalities.”
the environment in calculating the cost of goods and What are some
services produced? potential environmental
consequences of viewing
the environment as
2.7 Unregulated use of Adding cattle will damage the commons by reducing
outside or “external” to
plant cover, increasing soil erosion, and decreasing future
resources can lead to a productivity of the grazing land. What are the costs to the economy?
“Tragedy of the Commons” the individual farmer of damaging the land? Since all the
Economists have argued that businesspeople pursuing farmers in the community share the costs of overgrazing, economic externality
their own self-interest would do what was best for the cost to each one of them is only a fraction of the total A cost or benefit to the
society and the environment. But, in his classic 1968 cost. Therefore, in this situation, profit exceeds costs, so environment or to society
resulting from the production
environmental essay “Tragedy of the Commons,” it is profitable for each individual farmer to add to his
and use of a product that is not
ecologist Garrett Hardin disputed this view. He argued or her herd. Eventually, the productivity of the pasture included in the market price of
that unregulated use of a common resource would lead is severely reduced and no one benefits (Figure 2.21). the product.
inevitably to its ruin. Hardin thus concluded in his essay that “freedom in a
Imagine a pasture available for community use—in commons brings ruin to all.” market failure A situation
in which free markets do not
other words, an open-access property on which everyone Hardin extended the logic of his analysis to the use of
allocate goods and services
in a community is free to graze cattle and cannot exclude many other so-called common-pool resources, including efficiently, such as when the price
anyone else. They all seek to maximize the number rangelands in the western United States (Chapter 7, of a product does not include its
of cattle they graze on the commons and by doing so marine fisheries (Chapter 8), and water and air into environmental impact.
maximize their own profits; for each head of cattle an which industries discharge pollutants (Chapter 13). In
common-pool resource
individual farmer adds to the commons, he or she reaps all each of these situations, unrestricted use of a community
A resource owned and utilized
the profit of eventually selling the animal. So each farmer resource leads to a market failure causing environmental in common by a community (e.g.,
will graze as many cattle as possible on the property to harm. These represent some of the greatest challenges to a community forest or grazing
maximize his or her own profits. environmental policy in the 21st century. land).

GARRETT HARDIN’S SCENARIO LEADING TO A TRAGEDY OF THE

COMMONS
2.5–2.7 Issues:
Summary
Human economies sit at the top of the energy
pyramid and grow by tapping into natural
ecosystems and Earth’s resources. Because
economic systems are subject to the same
physical laws governing ecosystems, they
require inputs of energy and matter in order
to keep functioning. Traditional closed
economic models include no interactions
between the economic system and the
environment. The environment is included in
(Peter Essick/Aurora)
open economic models, in which the economic

system exchanges energy and materials with
the environment. However, in these open
FIGURE 2.21 Hardin proposed that a common-pool resource, such as grazing lands
models, the environment has been historically
open to all, would be ruined ultimately as individual users attempt to maximize their represented as “external” to the economic
profits. The results of such unregulated use might appear like the scene in this photo, system.
showing a severely overgrazed pasture. Keeping potential environmental harm
external to the economic system fails to account
! Think About It fully for the potential costs of economic activity.
In his “Tragedy of the Commons” article, Garrett
1. What are some assumptions of Hardin’s Tragedy Hardin argued that unregulated use of
of the Commons argument? a common resource would lead inevitably to
its ruin.
2. What are some possible scenarios that would
avert a Tragedy of the Commons without
governmental intervention?
E conomic development does not have to lead to
environmental degradation. Certainly, some limited
resources will inevitably be depleted over time, but history
citizens increased. As these citizens became better off, they
demanded more regulations to protect their health and
their environment. Their governments were also in a better
shows us that improvements in resource use efficiency position to enforce their laws. Since then, sulfur-dioxide
coupled with smarter regulations can reduce the impact of pollution has decreased substantially, and acid rain has been
growing economies. Consider the story of sulfur-dioxide substantially curtailed in many countries. Today, economic
pollution. Sulfur dioxide is produced from the burning growth has created many similar challenges for society,
of fossil fuels, including gasoline and coal. This invisible and finding solutions for them hinges on applying our
gas can cause respiratory problems and aggravate heart knowledge of ecosystems and economic systems to address
conditions. It can also cause acid rain, which damages pressing environmental issues.
buildings and statues along with forests and aquatic
ecosystems (see Chapter 13). 2.8 Economics should
As nations’ economies grew in the 1960s, they put more
vehicles on the road and built more factories, which led to
include environmental costs
greater amounts of sulfur-dioxide pollution. But in the late and benefits
1970s and early 1980s, many of these countries reached Every time you drive to work or school in your car, you
an economic turning point as the average income of their add to the traffic on the road and cause a little damage to
51
the pavement. As thousands of others in your hometown the roadways? Should they really be paying the same
do the same every day of the year, the damage accumulates amount?
and the road will inevitably need to be repaired and, In 1920 an economist named Arthur C. Pigou became
perhaps, widened. In the previous section, we brought up the first to propose taxing economic externalities, such
the concept of economic externalities, which are the costs or as the damage caused by driving. His ideas caught on,
benefits to society or the environment not included in the and today we pay for roads in the United States through
price of a product or activity. In this case, road damage is an vehicle registration fees and taxes on fuel, which generally
externality associated with driving motor vehicles on roads correlate with the number of miles a person drives.
maintained at public expense. Government regulations Since 2003 the city of London has charged a 10-pound
exist to prevent such market failures and take several forms. “congestion charge” for every vehicle entering the city
Command-and-Control Regulations
The most obvious solution to preventing harm to society
center on weekdays. So-called Pigovian taxes, or “sin
taxes,” are also placed on cigarettes and alcohol to
discourage their use due to the harm they cause to society.
These taxes also contribute to the field of study
?
What activities would
is through command-and-control regulation, which is
called environmental economics, which includes the you reduce, if you were
direct regulation of an industry or activity, indicating what
is and is not allowed, along with a schedule of penalties for
environment in its models. In its analyses, environmental taxed for them based
economics draws mainly from the field of economics in on their environmental
breaking the rules. One way to prevent damage to the road
its assessments and management of costs and benefits impacts?
is to legislate what type of tires are allowed on vehicles.
of economic impacts on the environment. For example,
For instance, towns in cold areas frequently prohibit snow
the way that environmental economists control damage
chains within their limits because they tear up the road.
to the environment by economic externalities, such as
In the city of São Paulo, Brazil, planners reduce traffic by
pollution, is to put a tax on the externality proportional
regulating which cars can be on the road on any given day
to its damage to the environment. For instance, Pigovian
based on their license plate number.
taxes have been proposed for the emission of carbon
In Chapter 1, we introduced the discovery that CFCs
dioxide and other pollutants in the atmosphere, where
(chlorofluorocarbons) were causing an ozone hole over the
an outright ban is impractical. Pigou also thought that
Antarctic. Companies that produced CFCs were profiting as
economic activities that benefit the environment should
they harmed the environment—and they had no interest in
be encouraged through government subsidies. As with
voluntarily ending production. In fact, they spent millions
command-and-control regulations, one of the challenges
on public relations campaigns and lobbying efforts to resist
with this strategy is determining the right level of Pigovian
attempts to limit the production and use of CFCs; but
tax or subsidy. command-and-control
once alternative chemicals were developed, they became
regulations Laws and
supportive. In 1978 the United States instituted the first ban regulations that control
on CFCs, eliminating their use as propellants in aerosol Ecological Economics activities and industries
spray cans. The Montreal Protocol, signed in 1987, would through the use of subsidies
For economists, money is the fundamental metric of and penalties prescribed by
eventually lead to the phasing out of CFCs in all products.
value. But even when they have tried to incorporate the government.
The success of such command-and-control regulations
externalities into their economic models, some ecologists
depends on enforcement of the rules, which includes the environmental economics
believe that they still undervalue natural capital,
government’s ability to catch violators and the level of A branch of economics that
which is all of Earth’s natural assets, including plants
fine or other punishment required to discourage rule- draws mainly from the field
and animals, minerals and soils, and air and water. of economics as it assesses
breaking. If a penalty is too low or the chance of getting
In contrast to environmental economics, the field of and manages the costs and
caught is unlikely, then businesses will consider breaking
ecological economics draws from many disciplines, benefits of economic impacts
the rules. Penalties for illegally importing CFCs into the on the environment.
including economics, in its studies of the relationships
United States today can include prison time.
between economic activity and its impact on natural natural capital The value of
capital. Whereas conventional economics has seen the world’s natural assets (e.g.,
Pigovian Taxes
people and their institutions as nearly alone in the world, minerals, air, water, and living
Command-and-control instruments are not suited to and traditional ecology has focused most of its studies organisms).
preventing all environmental damage, just as they aren’t on ecosystems occupied by species other than humans,
ecological economics
ideal for preventing routine damage to a highly trafficked ecological economics attempts to build a conceptual A branch of economics that
road. After all, the economy depends on people using the bridge between humans and human institutions and the draws on many disciplines
roads. Nevertheless, this raises the question of who should rest of nature (Figure 2.22 on the next page). in studies of the influence
foot the bill for such repairs. Should everyone in town Rather than seeking only to maximize financial capital of economic activity on the
contribute an equal amount? Should car companies pay through short-term economic productivity, ecological environment in an attempt
to build a conceptual bridge
for the roads? What about truck drivers whose vehicles economists are focused on sustaining natural capital, between humans and human
cause even more damage? And what about people who which provides humans with a flow of goods and institutions and the rest of
choose to walk or bike and have less of an impact on services. A healthy fish stock will replenish itself each nature.

FIGURE 2.22 Ecological

economics attempts to bridge ECOLOGICAL ECONOMICS PERSPECTIVE ON THE RELATIONSHIP AMONG ECONOMIC SYSTEMS, NATURAL
the traditional approach of ECOSYSTEMS, AND THE ENVIRONMENT
conceptually separating
economic systems and
Ecological economics does not separate economic systems
ecosystems. By quantifying from the environment. In addition, ecological economists
NATURE
the exchanges of materials view both economic systems and natural ecosystems as
part of nature and embedded in the environment.
and energy between natural
ENVIRONMENT
and human-dominated
systems, ecological
economics identifies ECONOMIC SYSTEM ECOSYSTEM
ecosystem services, such
as water purification and
climate moderation, to which
it assigns monetary value,
placing natural ecosystems
CARNIVORES
squarely within the realm of
PRODUCERS:
economics. PROCESSING &
MANUFACTURING
ENERGY &
MATERIALS MATERIAL
Processed goods
WASTE
HERBIVORES
WASTE
MARKETING &
DISTRIBUTION PRIMARY
PRODUCERS: MATERIAL
LABOR & WAGES & CYCLING
CAPITAL Goods & Services PROFITS PLANTS & ALGAE
SUNLIGHT, WATER,
& NUTRIENT
CONSUMERS UTILIZATION
year, providing food to humans indefinitely. A forested 2. What aspect of CFC depletion of the ozone layer
valley will provide clean water. And a pristine beach made that issue better addressed by a command-and-
may simply be pleasant to walk on, which has social or control approach than did using Pigovian taxes?
cultural value. All these things have value and one of the
central challenges of ecological economics is determining 3. What are possible reasons why some have resisted
how much they are worth to society now and in the putting a monetary value on nature’s ecosystem
future. Knowing these values can help us make smart, services?
sustainable economic decisions. Ecological economists
who have placed a monetary value on such natural goods
and services, called ecosystem services, have found
2.9 Property rights can
that they far exceed the value of all goods and services lead to environmental
produced by the world’s economic systems. We will preservation
discuss ecosystem services in detail in Chapter 4. The establishment and protection of privately owned
ecosystem services property are considered the defining roles of government
The benefits that humans
receive from natural
! Think About It and the foundation of modern economies. The 17th-
century political philosopher John Locke wrote that
ecosystems such as food,
1. Why are the analyses of ecological economists the fundamental purpose of government was to elevate
water purification, pollination
of crops, carbon storage, and necessarily more complex than those of people from their natural state and ensure their right to
medicines. environmental economists? life, liberty, and property. Indeed, one solution to Hardin’s
53
Tragedy of the Commons is to distribute property to more sustainable if farmers and residents were able to buy
individuals, who will therefore have an economic incentive and sell their rights to water on a free market. Using such a
to maintain the integrity of that resource. market-based approach, water allocations could be traded
among residents and the price of water would fluctuate with
The Vicuña supply and demand. Because water would suddenly become
The vicuña (Vicugna vicugna) is the wild cousin of more valuable to farmers, they might be more willing to
the llama and alpaca. It lives in the highlands of South invest in technologies such as drip irrigation to reduce their
America and is prized for its wool. After the arrival of water use and sell their excess to municipalities. Meanwhile,
Europeans in the region, vicuña were treated as an open- residents who are willing to pay more for a green lawn in
access resource and their populations were decimated by summertime can do so by paying the market price for the
hunting. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, regulations water they use.
were put in place to protect the animals by banning all One of the advantages of market-based strategies over
national and international trade in vicuña products. command-and-control regulations or Pigovian taxes is that
Although vicuña populations began recovering as a result policy makers only have to set the overall goal for water use
of the reduction in hunting, their former grazing lands and do not need to identify a penalty or tax schedule. The
were now overrun by domesticated llamas and alpacas. market will establish the appropriate price for water. Taking
Locals could own domesticated llamas and alpacas and a market-based approach to managing water may in many
therefore benefit from them. cases require provisions to protect the public interest in,
Vicuña, on the other hand, provided no economic for example, maintaining wetlands and fish habitat. Such
benefit. In 1979 the Vicuña Convention authorized a tightly an approach has never been implemented for water, but
regulated trade in vicuña wool, which allowed locals to tradable quotas have proven successful in reducing sulfur-
harvest wool and sell the wool without killing the animals. dioxide pollution (Chapter 13)—which caused acid rain—
In Argentina and Chile, vicuña were considered private and reducing overfishing (Chapter 8).
property and raised in captivity by individual families. In
Peru and Bolivia, local communities engaged in periodic ! Think About It
round-ups, where they sheared and released the vicuña, and
shared in the profits. It turned out that giving ownership 1. Since the Republic of South Africa began allowing
of the vicuña, or their wool, to the people fostered the private ownership and management of wildlife,
survival of the species: Between 1969 and 2001, the vicuña big-game populations have increased dramatically.
population increased from 14,500 to 227,500. Explain.
2. What role would the law of supply and demand
Water Use Rights
play in setting price if water management were
Few environmental issues are as emotional as freshwater market-based?
use rights in the western United States. Economic growth is
limited by freshwater availability, but freshwater is a limited 3. What are some dangers of making water
resource that depends on climate, geology, and ecosystems. management entirely market-based?
Allocation of water in western rivers is governed by treaties
and compacts that date back more than a hundred years,
when water was far more plentiful than it is today. Unlike 2.10 Alternative paths to
goods on the free market, the price that farmers and city-
dwellers pay for water does not increase as the availability
sustainability: Tragedy of the
of water declines. It is set by local utilities and water Commons revisited
management agencies. Moreover, people who dig their own Although clearly defined property rights are often the
wells and install their own pumps often have to pay nothing key to sustainability, the Western conception of private
at all, even though they may be tapping into an aquifer ownership is not the only solution. When Kenya came
shared by their neighbors. Overexploitation of freshwater under British colonial rule at the end of the 19th century,
resources is another example of a Tragedy of the Commons. the colonial government forced the migratory Maasai
Cities facing water shortages often resort to command- to settle on specific plots of land. The stated goals of the
and-control regulations, such as strict regulations about colonial government were to improve the condition of
watering lawns and penalties for individuals who exceed the land and to increase cattle production. However, the market-based approach
water use quotas. Facing a drought in May 2014, the City colonial government’s policies achieved the opposite. An alternative to command-
of Santa Cruz, California, enacted such a measure for water Compared with Great Britain, the amount of rainfall and-control regulation
use. Single-family homes were allowed to use 249 gallons across the lands historically occupied by the Maasai that seeks to encourage
adherence to social or
per day with hefty penalties for those exceeding the limits. fluctuates greatly. In contrast to the settled lifestyle of environmental goals using
Many economists believe that such command-and- British cattle raisers, the Maasai adapted to the swings the principles of supply and
control approaches would be unnecessary and water use between dry and wet periods by adopting a semi-nomadic demand.

dedicated to preserving Maasai culture as it fosters

OVERSTOCKED AND OVERGRAZED MAASAI LANDS integration of the Maasai into the modern world, promotes
“education, health, environmental conservation, and
economic development.” Partly due to such efforts,
increasing numbers of Maasai children are receiving a
formal education. How these future leaders will influence
the cultural and economic development of the Maasai
remains to be seen.
Elinor Ostrom and the Commons

In the 1990s, the late political economist Elinor Ostrom
studied the management of Maasai grazing lands to learn
why Kenyan institutions have failed to foster sustainability
of that system (Figure 2.24). Her interest was stimulated
(Fred Hoogervorst/Hollandse Hoogte/Redux)
by the observation that, historically, the Maasai had

actually developed a robust system for managing their
lands before colonial governments disrupted it.
Ostrom had studied similar systems around the world
and identified a number of principles that have allowed
commons to be managed sustainably. First, those who
have a right to share in the resource must be clearly
identified, and the boundaries of the resource pool must
FIGURE 2.23 Confining Maasai livestock to relatively small areas and prohibiting long-distance be clearly defined. Next, the share of the resource to
movement of cattle to more productive lands during droughts have led to overgrazing and soil
erosion.
which an individual or household has a right must be
proportional to its contribution to the costs of sustaining
the resource system—for example, the costs of sustaining
lifestyle. In years with abundant rain, the low-lying, driest
a community-managed irrigation system. In addition,
parts of Maasai country were valuable for sustaining cattle
the state of the resource needs to be monitored and the
during the wet season. During the dry season and during
use of resources must match local conditions. Those who
extended droughts, the Maasai moved their cattle to wetter
do the monitoring and set the resource use levels must
environments at higher elevations, where usually there
?
How might differences
would be enough food for the herds.
Seeing some traditional Maasai lands vacant during
certain periods, the colonial government gave them ELINOR OSTROM, NOBEL LAUREATE
to colonial farmers. A total of 20,000 km2 of the most
in the climate and productive land (approximately equal in area to the state
culture of Britain versus of New Hampshire or half the area of Switzerland) were
Kenya have contributed converted to private colonial farms and ranches, and
to the damage done by the Maasai were restricted to reservations. Although the
colonial administrators Maasai retained 100,000 km2, 20% of their reservation
to the Maasai economy? lands were arid or semiarid and another 10% were
infested with vectors of serious diseases of humans or
cattle. Most seriously, however, the Maasai and their
?
cattle were cut off from the lands that they had depended
on for grazing during the dry season and during
extended droughts (Figure 2.23).
How does Elinor Colonial restrictions also prevented the Maasai from
(© Steve C. Mitchel/epa/Corbis)
moving their cattle north to trade cattle with their

Ostrom’s analysis affect
traditional trading partners. Rather than fostering
Hardin’s Tragedy of the
sustainability and economic improvements, the
Commons model? establishment of strictly demarcated property rights was
devastating.
Today, the Maasai are a people in transition. While
FIGURE 2.24 In her Nobel Prize–winning research, Elinor
they still rely mainly on livestock for their livelihood, Ostrom successfully challenged the idea that governments are
contemporary Maasai also participate in the market always better at protecting natural resources than are organized
economy. The Maasai Foundation, an organization communities of resource users.
55
SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT OF COMMON-POOL RESOURCES BY LOCAL COMMUNITIES

(Godong/UIG/age footstock)
(Arturo Elosegi)
A community-managed irrigation system in Nepal Community grazing lands in the Basque Country
FIGURE 2.25 Communities around the world have owned and sustainably managed common-pool resources for centuries without
outside intervention. For example, irrigation systems in Nepal (left), which have been built and successfully managed for centuries
by communities of local farmers, supply water to over 70% of the irrigated lands in the country. Community management has also
sustained the productivity and health of grazing lands (right) in the Basque Country of northern Spain for centuries.
be accountable to the users of the resource or consist 2. Why is monitoring of the resources by users or
of the resource users themselves, which will ensure people responsible to the users critical in Ostrom’s
accountability for poor management decisions. model for successful local management of common-
Ostrom, who won a Nobel Prize for her work on pool resources?
common-pool resources in 2009, also pointed out that
it is important for the individuals affected by any rules
governing resource use to participate in decision making.
The system must include a tactic for penalizing those 2.8–2.10 Solutions:
who break the rules and low-cost, rapid mechanisms for Summary
conflict resolution. In addition, the users of the common-
Linking environment with economics has
pool resources, or people subject to the users, must assign
the potential to contribute significantly to
the penalties for violating resource use rules. Ostrom’s
sustainable development. Although most
work suggests that these penalties should be graduated,
economists view the environment as outside
that is, smaller for first or minor offenses and larger for
the economic system, ecological economists
repeated or major offenses. Finally, the rights of the local
think of the economy as embedded in the
users of a common pool to organize and manage the
environment. A major effort in ecological
resource must be recognized by external authorities.
economics has been its attempts to assign
There are many examples of communities that have
economic value to nature. One solution to
managed common-pool resources sustainably for
Hardin’s Tragedy of the Commons is to assign
centuries, such as those pictured in Figure 2.25. It was
and enforce private property rights. In the
precisely the existence of such communities that nurtured
example of the wild vicuña, allowing local
Ostrom’s challenge to the proposed inevitability of Hardin’s
people to harvest and sell the wool contributed
Tragedy of the Commons. Her findings offer hope as
to the recovery of that species. Other resources,
we search for a sustainable relationship with Earth’s
such as water, are overexploited because their
environment and its myriad common-pool resources.
price does not vary with supply and demand.
Allocating tradable use rights can lead to
! Think About It more sustainable use of such resources. Nobel
Laureate Elinor Ostrom has shown that, under
1. How might British colonial administration of specific conditions, communal management
Maasai lands have been improved by including the is a viable alternative to private ownership or
traditional ecological knowledge of the Maasai in regulation by a central government authority.
their management schemes?

Central Question: How can linking ecology and economics help reduce societies’
environmental impacts?

• What makes up economies and ecosystems? • What factors fuel and limit economic growth?
• What are the forms of energy and what are the • How can economic system models have
rules that govern it? environmental consequences?
• How do matter and energy move through • What is the Tragedy of the Commons and how
ecosystems? does it impact the environment?
• How do matter and energy move through

economic systems?
Ecosystems, Economic Systems, ! Promote economic and environmental sustainability.

and You Does your community have a long-term plan for sustainability,
A sustainable economy starts with you! We can all play a role in working which attempts to promote economic development with reduced
toward a society that uses resources wisely and also benefits from environmental impact? For example, does your community have a
economic growth. Get to know the economic foundations of your program to promote energy efficiency and reduce waste through
community and investigate the environmental impacts of the industries in recycling programs? If so, try to become involved in activities and
your community. planning related to the sustainability program. If not, join with other
interested individuals to encourage such a program by writing
! Study the local and regional economics and environment. opinion pieces for the local media and letters to local or regional
leaders. It may be most efficient to focus on a particular issue, such
What is the economic base for your community? Is the economy
as recycling or water or energy efficiency, of special significance in
dominated by one or a few industries—for example, agriculture,
your area.
manufacturing, or mining—or is it a mixed economy? How is
employment divided among the main sectors of the regional or
local economy? What developmental initiatives are currently being ! Make environmentally constructive choices.
pursued in your community or region? What are the areas of growth How each of us affects the surrounding environment begins with
or decline? our personal choices. As a consumer, every time you purchase a
Familiarize yourself with the local and regional ecology and the product, you send a message to the manufacturer that you support
main environmental issues in your community. Learn how economic the values behind its product. Use this purchasing power to support
development may be affecting the local or regional ecosystems. businesses that work to reduce their negative impacts on the
How is the local economy impacting air or water quality? What environment or that have a positive environmental influence. Join
challenges does the local economy create for wildlife in your area? friends or a Meetup group with like-minded economic values and
What steps are being taken to reduce the environmental impacts communicate your choices on a blog or Facebook page dedicated
of water pollution, air pollution, or land use changes? Are there to your topic of interest.
particular parts of your community being impacted or neglected?
• What economic strategies and policies support
wise resource use?
• How can property rights and ownership lead to

environmental preservation?
• What are some alternative economic

approaches to sustainability?
Chapter 2 6. How does supply and demand influence

the price of a product?
a. Her ideas were not inspired by observations; they
were entirely theoretical.
a. Price is influenced entirely by demand. b. She observed that many local communities have
Review Questions b. Increased supply will lead to increased price. managed common-pool resources for centuries
c. Increased supply will lead to decreased price. without outside regulation.
1. Which of the following statements about
d. Decreased supply will lead to decreased price. c. She observed that common-pool resources are
matter is false?
almost never depleted in the absence of regulation.
a. All matter is composed of atoms. 7. Which of the following does not fit the d. She observed that traditional communities do not
b. An element consists of a single kind of atom. Tragedy of the Commons model? require rules for sustaining resources.
c. Molecules consist of two or more atoms. a. A family grazing cattle on their own land
d. Two bound oxygen atoms are a compound. b. Farmers grazing sheep on community lands
2. Which of the following is a form of potential c. Independent boat owners fishing the open sea Critical Analysis
energy? d. Several utility companies emitting air pollutants
1. How are ecosystems and economic systems
a. Kinetic energy similar? How are they different?
8. Why was access to large areas with
b. Heat energy
varying local climates critical to sustaining 2. What are the average energy losses in each of the
c. Chemical energy
the traditional cattle-based economy of the pyramids in Figures 2.16 and 2.17? What are some
d. Radiant energy
Maasai? implications of the differences in energy loss among
3. Which of these statements is true of energy a. It allowed raising unlimited numbers of cattle. these energy pyramids?
flow through an ecosystem? b. It avoided cooperation with neighboring groups.
3. Examine Figure 2.9. Describe how eliminating all
a. Primary production exceeds production at higher c. It included grazing lands that remained productive
decomposers and detritivores would affect the cycling
trophic levels. during droughts.
of carbon in the global ecosystem.
b. Most energy flows through carnivores. d. It provided a means to avoid predators of cattle,
c. Most energy flows through detritivores. such as lions. 4. Explain why the energy flow through carnivores in
d. Herbivore production equals primary production. an ecosystem cannot exceed primary production in
9. What role did the business community the ecosystem.
4. Which of the following is a consequence of play in the campaign to reduce production of
5. Discuss how Pigovian taxes and subsidies can be
the second law of thermodynamics? CFCs?
used to protect the environment (e.g., to protect a
a. Organisms expend energy for maintenance. a. They first resisted regulation, but became
nation’s forests from deforestation).
b. Energy in a system is conserved. supportive once alternatives were developed.
c. Energy in a system and surroundings decreases. b. They resisted control efforts throughout the Find additional resources and links online at www.
d. Energy for work increases over time. campaign and still do. macmillanhighered.com/launchpad/molles1e.
c. They were initially supportive of CFC regulation
5. What is an externality in an open economic but later resisted.
model? d. They remained neutral throughout.
a. Effects of manufacturing on consumer activity
b. Environmental damage due to economic activity 10. What key observation inspired the
c. Environmental damage to an economic system economist Elinor Ostrom to challenge Hardin’s
d. Effects of consumers on an economic system Tragedy of the Commons model?
Central Question: How can we
protect species in an increasingly
human-dominated world? Explain the ecology of populations
and interactions in communities.
(Jim Peaco, Yellowstone National Park, NPS) SCIENCE

C H A P T ER 3
Conservation of
Endangered Species
Discuss the legal, social, and economic

factors that help conserve and restore
Analyze the threats to survival of species. threatened and endangered species.
60 C HAPTER 3 CONSERVATION OF ENDANGERED SPECIES
(Joel Sartore/National Geographic Stock)

Multiple threats endanger various species.
Threatened and
Endangered Species
The Mexican spotted owl is threatened by logging of its old growth forest habitat. Koalas
face a variety of threats to their existence, including infectious disease and wildfires. The
highly restricted relict darter has become endangered as a result of habitat destruction.
T he morning of March 24, 1995, Yellowstone National

Park was still blanketed in snow when six gray
wolves—five males and one female—stepped out of their
frolicking and exploring the unfamiliar landscape. “They
were cavorting, playing and checking things out,” he told
the New York Times. It was, he said, a celebration of their
pen in the Lamar Valley. As they broke an infrared beam “recent liberation.”
that spanned the opening of their cage, a radio signal This wolf pack was the first to set foot in one of the
alerted anxious park employees stationed at a distance. world’s most iconic national parks in more than 50 years. The
More than 24 hours later, Doug Smith, a field biologist with canine predators had been eradicated from Yellowstone and
a bushy mustache, spotted the wolves for the first time, the surrounding area by ranchers protecting their livestock
H O W CAN W E PROTECT SPEC IES I N A N I NC R EA S I NGLY HUMA N - DOMI NATE D WOR LD?
61
and by the federal government, which had laid out poison boundaries, once again creating conflicts with ranchers.
carcasses to kill them, dynamited their dens, and offered Over the years, Doug Smith became known as the “Wolf
bounties to hunters who brought in their heads and skins. Man” and continued to follow the wolves’ movements and
Their 1995 reintroduction was hugely controversial among activities with radio collars. On October 3, 2009, he learned
ranchers and others, who unsuccessfully sued to stop it. that an alpha female he had been following—wolf 527F—
As that battle played out, the wolves were live-trapped in had been legally shot by a hunter in Montana. Smith was
Canada, outfitted with radio collars, and housed at this devastated. The cycle of exploitation and conservation had
pen where they were fed elk, deer, moose, and bison, while come full circle. “I have a deep-seated, fierce love of nature,
becoming accustomed to the sights, sounds, and smells of and I’m afraid that slowly, piece by piece, we’re losing it all,”
their new home. he later told the Christian Science Monitor.
In this chapter and the next, we focus on the challenge
of restoring and conserving biodiversity in the modern
“We reached the old wolf in time world. Biodiversity refers to biological variety, from genes
to watch a fierce green fire dying and species to diversity at the scale of ecosystems and
the globe. Some of the reasons
in her eyes. I realized then, and to conserve biodiversity are very biodiversity Biological variety
have known ever since, that there practical. The extinction of species from genes and species to
results in the irreplaceable loss of diversity at the scale of eco-
was something new to me in those potential sources of food, medicinal
systems and the globe.
eyes—something known only to her drugs, industrial chemicals,

and to the mountain.” and other materials and services potentially useful to
humans. In addition, as we will discuss in Chapter 4, some
Aldo Leopold, from Thinking Like a Mountain, 1949 species may play key roles in sustaining the health of the
ecosystems on which all populations depend. Beyond these
By 2003, 31 reintroduced wolves had multiplied and practical reasons, biocentric ethics, such as those expressed
Yellowstone boasted 174 wolves in a dozen packs. But by Doug Smith, commonly counsel stewardship of nature
the wolves ventured farther and farther outside the park and doing no harm to other species.
Central Question
How can we protect species
in an increasingly
human-dominated world?

62 C HAPTER 3 CO N SE R VATI ON OF ENDA NGER ED SPEC IES
(Jim Peaco, Yellowstone National Park, NPS)

3.1–3.5 Science
T o understand the goals of conservation, we need

to take a step back and understand what it is we
are conserving. What is it that makes a wolf a wolf?
the sum of the different genes and gene combinations
found within a single population of a species, as well
as across populations of the same species. Genes are
species A group of
interbreeding, or potentially Biologists define a species as a group of interbreeding, stretches of DNA that direct the growth, development,
interbreeding, populations, or potentially interbreeding, populations that are and functioning of organisms (Figure 3.1). For example,
reproductively isolated from reproductively isolated from other populations.
other populations.
For example, the gray wolf, Canis lupus, is a widely
populations All the distributed species with populations across the Northern
Hemisphere from western Europe through eastern DNA, GENES, AND PROTEINS
individuals of a species that
inhabit a particular place at the Canada. The species is made up of many populations,
same time. which are defined as all the individuals of a species
DNA
that inhabit a particular place at the same time. Those
endangered species DNA is a two-stranded molecule
A species whose populations 31 new wolves in Yellowstone became the founding twisted in helical form.
have become so small that members of a new population. Any attempt to restore or
they may become extinct in conserve an endangered species, one whose populations
the near future. have become so small that they may become extinct in
GENE
the near future, draws on the branch of ecology called
population ecology A section of DNA that contains
Branch of ecology that is population ecology. Population ecology is concerned the instructions to make at least
one protein
concerned with the factors with the factors influencing the structure and dynamics
influencing the structure and of populations, including population size, distribution,
dynamics of populations, and growth.
including population size,
distribution, and growth.
3.1 Genetic diversity is
genetic diversity
The sum of the different essential to the evolution
genes and gene combinations and survival of populations PROTEIN
found within a single Proteins have countless functions
population of a species and The genetic diversity of populations is critical to in living creatures: They can form
conservation. Mexican gray wolves living in the structures, function as hormones,
across populations of the
transport oxygen, and so on.
same species. mountains of southern Arizona and New Mexico
represent a regional population that is genetically
genes Stretches of DNA FIGURE 3.1 DNA is the hereditary molecule common to all
distinct from the wolves in Yellowstone. These genetic life on Earth. Within its code are the instructions to build a living
that direct the growth,
development, and functioning differences contribute to the overall genetic diversity of organism, including how it will grow and develop, as well as its
of organisms. gray wolves worldwide. We define genetic diversity as unique physical features.
63
VARIATION IN FACIAL MARKINGS

(Wendy Shattil and Bob Rozinski/Getty Images)
(Aaron Ferster/Getty Images)

(Kennan Ward/Corbis)
FIGURE 3.2 Distinctive facial markings and hair color are visible expressions of genetic variation among these Mexican gray
wolves, Canis lupus baileyi.
some genes code for proteins that function as structural a population to change and adapt to new environmental
molecules, making up tendons or ligaments, whereas circumstances—an important factor if species are to
proteins, called enzymes, facilitate specific chemical survive on a planet with a human population changing the
reactions. For instance, the enzyme lactase speeds up the environment as it grows.
digestion of the lactose sugar in milk.
We can see abundant evidence of genetic diversity
Genetic Diversity and Selective Breeding
in facial differences among individual people. These
differences allow us to instantly recognize friends and Genetic diversity has been crucial to domestication,
acquaintances in a crowd. Such facial variation can also the deliberate change of a wild animal or plant species
be seen in the facial markings of Mexican gray wolves to better meet the needs of humans. Humans have
(Figure 3.2). However, most genetic variation—such produced the many existing varieties of food crops and
as the differences in DNA that cause disease resistance, beautiful flowering plants and animal breeds, such as
or tolerance of high or low temperatures—is invisible dairy cows and racehorses, by selectively breeding certain
to casual inspection and is best studied using DNA individuals within an ancestral wild population. The
sequencing. individuals chosen for breeding during domestication
Conservation biologists have demonstrated that genetic were those that possessed certain desired characteristics,
variation, or genetic diversity, increases the probability such as the ability to produce large amounts of milk or
that populations will survive in the face of environmental the ability to run fast.
challenges. Consider, for example, genetic variation in Domestic dogs descended from wolves, and their
the maximum temperature a fish can withstand without breeds have been refined for particular abilities, such as
dying, called lethal maximum temperature. As Figure 3.3 herding livestock, hunting game, or guarding property.
shows, a population with low genetic variation may not The Border collie, for instance, is a specialist at herding
include any individuals capable of surviving temperatures sheep (Figure 3.4). Over generations, shepherds
reached during an unusual heat wave. As a result, the have kept and bred only those Border collies with domestication The
deliberate change of a wild
population dies out entirely. Meanwhile, some individuals characteristics helpful in controlling flocks of sheep
animal or plant population
in another population with higher genetic variation do without injuring them, including some of the hunting through selective breeding
survive. Genetic diversity not only helps ensure survival behaviors of its wolf ancestors like stalking, chasing, and to better meet the needs of
in the face of environmental challenges, but it also enables staring down a prey animal. Meanwhile, a Border collie humans.

IMPACT OF HEAT WAVE ON TWO FISH POPULATIONS
FISH POPULATION WITH FISH POPULATION WITH

LOW GENETIC VARIATION HIGH GENETIC VARIATION
Before heat wave: Before heat wave:
FREQUENCY IN
FREQUENCY IN
POPULATION
POPULATION
Lower Higher Lower Higher
MAXIMUM SURVIVABLE TEMPERATURE MAXIMUM SURVIVABLE TEMPERATURE
After heat wave: Maximum temperature during heat wave After heat wave: Maximum temperature during heat wave
FREQUENCY IN
FREQUENCY IN
POPULATION
POPULATION
Lower Higher Lower Higher
MAXIMUM SURVIVABLE TEMPERATURE MAXIMUM SURVIVABLE TEMPERATURE
FIGURE 3.3 Some individuals in the population with higher genetic The population with higher genetic variation survives
variation for temperature tolerance survive unusually high temperatures, the heat wave because it includes individuals capable
of surviving higher temperatures.
whereas in the population with lower genetic variation there are no survivors.
that shows behaviors associated with immobilizing and In the plant world, sunflowers are grown worldwide as a
artificial selection A killing prey—behaviors essential to wild wolves—is not source of oil and seeds. The wild ancestor of the domestic
process in which humans kept as a working dog, nor is it bred (Figure 3.5). This sunflower, Helianthus annuus, is native to North America,
“select” which individuals in a
population mate to produce
kind of selective breeding is called artificial selection— where it was domesticated and grown as a crop by Native
descendants with desired wherein humans “select” which individuals will Americans more than 4,000 years ago. Native Americans,
characteristics. reproduce to form future generations. and later Russian plant breeders, selectively bred the
sunflowers that had the largest seeds
and inflorescences (a tight cluster of
A MASTER SHEPHERD small flowers) with other sunflowers
that had large inflorescences and
seeds. Over time, this resulted in a
plant with a giant flowering head,
bearing large seeds (Figure 3.6).
Genetic Diversity and Natural

Selection
FIGURE 3.4 The Border Charles Darwin, the famed 19th-
(Wayne Hutchinson/age fotostock)
collie, a herding dog that century naturalist, recognized

originated on the border a parallel between changes in
between Scotland and populations produced by plant and
England, employs several
behaviors present in its
animal breeders and changes in
wolf ancestors to control natural populations. He proposed
the movement of sheep. that as individuals are born into a
65
ARTIFICIAL SELECTION FOR BEHAVIOR
ARTIFICIAL SELECTION
OVER MANY GENERATIONS
?
Why are conservation
biologists working to
Ancestral wolf Border collie
conserve populations
of rare varieties of
BEHAVIOR TOWARD BEHAVIOR TOWARD domestic plants and
HERD ANIMALS HERD ANIMALS breeds of domestic
Orient Orient livestock?
Eye Eye
Stalk Stalk
Chase Chase
Grip
Kill
FIGURE 3.5 The herding behavior in modern Border collies is the result of a long process of artificial selection by shepherds for a
dog capable of controlling the movement of sheep without injuring them.
natural selection A
process of interaction
population, the characteristics of some individuals better A vivid example of how natural selection works between organisms and
their environment that
fit the requirements of the environment than others. Those can be found in the American chestnut trees that once results in different rates of
individuals with the more favorable traits survive and grew in abundance in the forests of eastern North America. reproduction by individuals in
reproduce at a higher rate. Consequently, the traits more Individual chestnut trees grew to heights of over 30 meters the population with different
closely matching environmental requirements increase in (100 feet) with trunk diameters of 1 to 2 meters (3 to 6 physical, behavioral, or
frequency in the population—more individuals in the next feet) (Figure 3.7). Then around 1900, the blight fungus physiological characteristics;
can change the relative
generation possess the favorable traits compared with the (Cryphonectria parasitica) arrived in North America, frequencies of particular genes
number that possessed the traits in the parental generation. carried by imported Asian chestnut trees, which were in the population—that is, in
Darwin called this process natural selection. resistant to the fungus. evolution.
ARTIFICIAL SELECTION FOR BEHAVIOR

(© Al Schneider, www.swcoloradowildflowers.com)
(Joe Petersburger/National Geographic
ARTIFICIAL SELECTION
OVER MANY GENERATIONS
Stock)
Wild sunflowers Domestic sunflowers FIGURE 3.6 Artificial

1 cm 1 cm
selection in sunflowers,
Wild seed Domestic seed Helianthus annuus,
has emphasized larger
PLANT CHARACTERISTICS PLANT CHARACTERISTICS inflorescences (a cluster of
small flowers called florets),
Small inflorescence Large inflorescence larger seeds, higher oil
content, and variation in the
Small seeds Large seeds
composition of oils to serve
Low oil content High oil content diverse purposes—from
stability when frying to a
Varied oil composition
delicate taste as a salad oil.

FIGURE 3.7 The American In less than 50 years, chestnut blight swept across the
chestnut, Castanea dentata, was LOSS OF NATURAL WEALTH American chestnut’s entire natural range, killing nearly
once one of the giant trees of the
temperate forests of eastern North
4 billion trees. In most circumstances, only the root
America, where it produced vast systems survived, but here and there large American
amounts of food for wildlife and was chestnut trees survived because they either grew in soil
a source of income for local people. and climate conditions unfavorable to the fungus or
Today, the American chestnut they possessed genes that gave them some resistance to
survives mainly as shrubby sprouts
from the stumps of trees infected
the blight fungus. In the small population of surviving
by the chestnut blight fungus, trees, many have blight-resistant genes. In other words,
Cryphonectria parasitica. the genes that give resistance to the blight fungus have
increased in frequency in the population.
?
The increase in frequency of resistance genes relative
to susceptible genes in the population is a good example
of evolution by natural selection (Figure 3.8). In general,
Was the genetic diversity we define evolution as a change in the genetic makeup of
in the American chestnut a population as a consequence of one of several different
processes, including natural selection and selective
population likely to be
breeding.
higher or lower after the
chestnut blight fungus
swept through the ! Think About It
population? Explain. 1. What is the most likely reason that Asian
chestnut trees were resistant to the chestnut blight
(Eben Lehman/Forest History Society)
fungus when it was introduced to North America,

evolution A change in the whereas the American chestnut tree was not?
genetic makeup of a population
as a consequence of one of 2. How does genetic variation help a population
several different processes,
including natural selection and survive in the face of changing, uncertain
selective breeding. environments?
NATURAL SELECTION FOR BLIGHT RESISTANCE
Before chestnut blight: After chestnut blight:
MORTALITY FROM
CHESTNUT BLIGHT
PROPORTION OF AMERICAN CHESTNUT TREES PROPORTION OF AMERICAN CHESTNUT TREES

WITH BLIGHT-RESISTANT GENES WITH BLIGHT-RESISTANT GENES
Resistant to Resistant to
chestnut blight chestnut blight
Susceptible to Susceptible to
chestnut blight chestnut blight
FIGURE 3.8 Prior to exposure to the chestnut blight fungus, resistant American chestnut trees were present but apparently rare in the American chestnut
population. However, following massive blight-induced mortality, resistant trees represented a much higher proportion of the population of surviving large trees.
67
?
3.2 Distribution and In contrast, the endangered mountain gorilla, Gorilla
beringei beringei, lives in just two small areas in East
abundance are key indicators Africa (Figure 3.9b). The total distribution of the
of population security mountain gorilla is approximately 700 square kilometers How might the fact
(270 square miles), about one-fourth the area of Rhode that house sparrows are
It is no coincidence that endangered populations, such Island, the smallest U.S. state, or about one-fortieth the associated with towns
as the Venus fly trap of North and South Carolina, area of the tiny African country of Rwanda. and cities explain its wide
have small populations and often live in relatively small Some invertebrate species survive in even smaller
geographic distribution?
geographic areas. While thousands of geographically areas. The Bay checkerspot, an endangered butterfly,
restricted species face the prospect of imminent survives in about 75 square kilometers (29 square miles),
extinction, the loss of all members of a species, other a small remnant of its former range in the central coastal
species are abundant and have wide distributions. region of California, approximately one-tenth the area extinction The loss of all
members of a species.
For example, the familiar house sparrow, Passer occupied by mountain gorillas (Figure 3.9c).
domesticus, now lives on all continents except Antarctica Why might a species be abundant in one place and distribution The geographic
(Figure 3.9a). absent in another? Climate turns out to be a major range of a species.
RANGE OF GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTIONS
a. WIDE RANGING and EXPANDING

DISTRIBUTION
The house sparrow, with one of the most
extensive native distributions of any bird on
Earth, was spread around the world with
European colonization.
Native
distribution
Introduced
distribution
Animals/All rights reserved)

(Robert Maier/Animals
House sparrows
3,000 km
c. SHRINKING DISTRIBUTION b. LIMITED DISTRIBUTION

Once much more widely distributed, the Bay checkerspot butterfly survives in a The mountain gorilla population lives only on the Virunga Volcanoes, which
few scattered populations associated with a type of nutrient-poor soil in one extend into Rwanda, Uganda, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo and in
county south of San Francisco, California. These remaining populations are also Bwindi Impenetrable National Park in Uganda. The global distribution of the
highly vulnerable to extinction. species is so small that it appears as a tiny dot on the vast African continent.
Bwindi
San Francisco DEMOCRATIC Impenetrable
National Park
REPUBLIC
(Josh Hull/U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service)
CALIFORNIA OF THE CONGO

UGANDA
(Brent Stirton/Getty Images)
Virunga
Volcanoes
RWANDA
Bay checkerspot butterfly Mountain gorilla

50 km 20 km
FIGURE 3.9 The wide-ranging distribution of the house sparrow, Passer domesticus, contrasts sharply with the distributions of endangered
species such as the mountain gorilla, Gorilla beringei beringei, and the Bay checkerspot butterfly, Euphydryas editha bayensis.

reason why all species, except for

humans, have restricted geographic SHOWERING THE ENVIRONMENT WITH OFFSPRING
ranges. For example, the adaptations—
traits favored by natural selection for
surviving and reproducing in a particular
environment—that enable an organism
to withstand the cold of Arctic winters
do not prepare it for the heat of a desert
summer. Other reasons might be that
one region lacks suitable physical habitat,
such as caves, which are critical to cave-
dwelling species like bats, or that a region
is home to a fatal disease to which a
(David Parsons/Getty Images)

species is susceptible.
Rare to Abundant
?
When population ecologists refer to the
abundance of a species, they mean the
number of individuals in a population, FIGURE 3.10 Female plains cottonwood trees, Populus deltoides, produce
millions of tiny wind- and water-dispersed seeds each year. A few seeds among
Why do you think also called population size. We can
these millions will land on sites where they can germinate and grow to a mature tree.
expanding distribution represent population size in two ways:
as total population, the total number of
and increasing
individuals in the population, or as population density, the can expand or contract, and the number of organisms
abundance are
number of individuals inhabiting some defined area, such can increase or decrease with each passing year.
generally included in as numbers per square kilometer (km2) or per square mile Understanding the factors that contribute to population
endangered species (mi2). For example, the total house sparrow population has size is critical to protecting and rehabilitating populations
management plans? been estimated to number half a billion. In contrast, the of endangered species.
global population of mountain gorillas totals approximately
700. Ecologists monitoring one of the last remaining Rates of Reproduction
populations of Bay checkerspot butterflies estimated that its
Reproductive rates vary widely among species. For
population ranged from 12,000 during poor years to over
example, a plains cottonwood tree produces approximately
500,000 during a favorable year.
25 million seeds per year (Figure 3.10). In contrast, a
Population densities also vary widely among species.
Bay checkerspot butterfly lays an average of about
Larger species generally live at lower densities than
730 eggs during its one season of life. Female mountain
smaller species and have lower total population sizes.
gorillas generally give birth to one offspring once
For instance, the overall population density of mountain
every four years. Expressed in terms of births per 1,000
gorillas is approximately one per square kilometer. In
females per year, mountain gorillas have a reproductive
adaptations Traits favored contrast, the population density of the caterpillars of the
rate of approximately 250 births per 1,000 females per
by natural selection for Bay checkerspot butterfly can vary from 10,000 to more
year, whereas the annual rate of reproduction for the
surviving and reproducing in than 1 million per square kilometer. Bay checkerspot butterfly population is approximately
a particular environment.
730,000 eggs per 1,000 females per year. The great contrast
abundance (population ! Think About It between species in reproductive rates translates into great
size) The number of differences in potential for population growth.
individuals in a population. 1. Why might larger species be generally more
vulnerable to extinction compared with smaller Population Growth
population density
The number of individuals
species?
Populations can grow in one of two stereotypical
inhabiting some defined area.
2. Why might herbivores be at less risk of extinction ways. The first pattern ecologists recognize is
J-shaped (exponential) compared with carnivores in the same ecosystem? J-shaped population growth, which is also called
population growth (Consider Figure 2.11, page 41.) exponential population growth. During exponential
Population growth that occurs growth, a population grows by a fixed rate, called r, the
at a constant, or fixed, rate rate of population increase per capita (per individual);
per capita and that produces 3.3 Populations change this is calculated as the birthrate minus the death rate.
a characteristic J-shaped
pattern of increase in An animal population is not static, but rather changes The population growth rate can also be expressed as a
population size over time. over time. The geographic distribution of a population percentage of population size, for example, 4% per year.
69
J- AND S-SHAPED POPULATION GROWTH
J-SHAPED (EXPONENTIAL) S-SHAPED (LOGISTIC)

POPULATION GROWTH POPULATION GROWTH
As long as the rate of growth remains fixed, the Limited essential resources can cause the
size of the population will increase faster and rate of growth to slow and eventually stop,
faster over time, producing the characteristic producing the characteristic S-shaped
J-shaped pattern of population growth. pattern of population growth.
POPULATION SIZE
CARRYING CAPACITY (K)
TIME
FIGURE 3.11 While those populations showing J-shaped growth continue to increase, those
?
undergoing S-shaped growth stop growing when something limits the continued growth of the
population—predators, limited food supplies, finite habitat space, and so on. The maximum size of a
population able to survive over the long term in a particular area is called the carrying capacity.
If the per capita rate

of increase, r, is held
As long as the rate of growth remains fixed, the size of resources are depleted, the per capita rate of growth constant, why does
the population will increase faster and faster over time, decreases, resulting in a plateau of population size. This a population grow
because each year the population is larger, producing the is what ecologists call S-shaped, or logistic, growth faster and faster
characteristic J-shaped pattern of population growth (see (see the yellow line in Figure 3.11). If the bighorn sheep over time during
the orange line in Figure 3.11). population shown in Figure 3.12 continues to grow, the J-shaped (exponential)
We often see exponential growth when a population sheep would strip their mountain home of its plant cover. population growth?
is living at a low density and environmental conditions, Dwindling food supplies might slow population growth
including climate and food resources, are favorable. and eventually stop it, unless some other factor such as
For example, Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep disease or predators did so first.
reintroduced to the Wheeler Peak Wilderness in northern The population size at which S-shaped population
New Mexico grew at an average rate of approximately growth stops is called the carrying capacity, generally S-shaped (logistic) growth
28% annually for seven years. At this constant rate, the abbreviated with the letter K. Populations approaching Population growth in which
population grew from 32 adults to 180. Because a fixed carrying capacity may not necessarily level off as they the per capita rate of growth
28% is added to the population annually, the number approach K, but may “overshoot” it before declining decreases with increasing
population size as a result of
of individuals added, in this case each year, increases. again. predation or reduced availability
Continued exponential population growth would For an animal population, the carrying capacity may be of food, space, or other
increase the size of this population to more than 4,000 determined by food supply, the number of nesting sites resources; eventually levels off
in just 20 years, producing a J-shaped pattern of growth or breeding territories, or access to shelter from predators at carrying capacity.
(Figure 3.12). or severe weather. For a plant population, the factors
carrying capacity (K ) The
J-shaped growth cannot continue indefinitely, since determining carrying capacity include the availability number of individuals in a
the population would eventually exhaust essential of nutrients, water supply, or access to light. Carrying population that an environment
resources such as energy, space, and nutrients. As such capacity differs from one species to another. For example, can support over the long term.

FIGURE 3.12 The population grew POPULATION OF ROCKY MOUNTAIN BIGHORN SHEEP IN THE WHEELER
exponentially at a fixed rate of 28% per PEAK WILDERNESS, NEW MEXICO
year, from 32 to 180 individuals in seven
years (numbers rounded to nearest
individual); the population growth shown
from 180 to 4,460 sheep is potential
growth, assuming a continued constant
rate of exponential growth. Growing
exponentially, this population would
increase by nearly 140 times in 20 years.
(© Darren Bennett/Animals Animals–All rights reserved)
Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep
5,000
NUMBER
ADDED TO THE POPULATION
YEAR POPULATION SIZE
0 – 32
1 9 41
4,000
2 11 52
3 15 67
4 19 86
5 24 110
6 31 141
3,000
POPULATION SIZE
7 39 180
8 51 231
9 64 295
10 82 377
11 107 484
12 135 619 2,000
13 173 792
14 222 1,014
15 0.28 × 1,014 = 284 + 1,014 = 1,298
16 363 1,661
17 466 2,127 1,000
18 550 2,722
19 762 3,484
20 976 4,460
0
The number added to the population is generated by 0 5 10 15 20
multiplying 0.28 (the growth rate) by the previous
year’s population size. YEARS
population biologists estimate that the carrying capacity levels of plant growth, which, in turn, supports large
of bighorn sheep in the Wheeler Peak Wilderness is populations of small herbivorous mammals, mainly
approximately 180, or 3.5 individuals per km2 (9 per mi2). rodents. However, droughts in these same deserts may
By contrast, the Wheeler Peak Wilderness might support last for a decade or more and reduce the carrying capacity
a single mountain lion, one of the main predators of of both plant and herbivore populations.
bighorn sheep.
Because carrying capacity is determined by Controls on Population Size
environmental conditions, it may vary over time. During Most populations tend to fluctuate around some average
periods of abundant rain, deserts may support high number, which is typically at or below the carrying
71
?
capacity. For instance, during the last half of the 20th
TABLE 3.1
century, the mountain gorilla population on the Virunga
LIST OF COMMON DENSITY-INDEPENDENT AND
Volcanoes ranged between approximately 250 and DENSITY-DEPENDENT POPULATION-REGULATING
450 individuals (Figure 3.13). Meanwhile, a population FACTORS How could mountain
of the Bay checkerspot butterfly on Jasper Ridge on the lions preying on
Density-Independent Factors Density-Dependent Factors
Stanford University campus ranged from fewer than
Floods Intraspecific competition bighorn sheep act as
100 to approximately 5,000 individuals. (competition among members
Such fluctuations are the result of interactions between of the same species) a density-dependent
factors that promote growth and reproduction and Salinity Interspecific competition population-regulating
(competition among members
factors that suppress them. Soil moisture promotes of different species) factor? What other
growth in plants, whereas abundant food might signal Drought Predation (one organism preys environmental factors
on another)
to animals that it is time to reproduce. By contrast, might be important in
Extreme Temperatures Parasitism (parasites harm a
infectious disease or a hard frost might limit growth. host organism) regulating populations
Mechanisms of population control that change with Pollution Disease of bighorn sheep?
the density of a population are called density-dependent Fire Fire (for a population of
factors. Infectious disease is considered a density- fire-prone plant)
dependent factor because it can more easily spread

through a population living at high densities than one population to another. For instance, the chief causes of
living at low densities. Similarly, predation pressure also death recorded among mountain gorillas are density
increases with population density as predators focus on dependent, including disease, parasitic infections, and
areas with lots of prey. occasional predation by leopards. By comparison, Bay
Density-independent factors are controls on checkerspot butterfly populations are more subject
populations not affected by population density to density-independent factors, particularly weather
(Table 3.1). Generally, they include physical aspects of conditions.
the environment such as drought, floods, and extreme
temperatures.
All populations are subject to both density-dependent ! Think About It
and density-independent factors, but the relative 1. In Section 3.3, we have emphasized the influence
importance of each varies substantially from one of birth and death rates on population growth. How
might migration affect population growth?
2. How can fire act as a density-dependent control
CONTRAST IN POPULATION DYNAMICS factor for some species and not for others? density-dependent factors
Mechanisms of population
5,000 control that change with the
density of a population (e.g.,
Mountain gorilla
population 3.4 The life history of infectious disease, predation).
4,000
Bay checkerspot
butterfly population
a species influences its density-independent f actors
capacity to recover from Controls on populations that
disturbance are not affected by population
POPULATION SIZE
3,000 density (i.e., physical aspects

Some species’ numbers grow slowly and steadily and have of the environment such as
drought, floods, and extreme
stable populations over long periods of time, whereas
temperatures).
2,000 others have populations that fluctuate wildly in response
to changes in environmental conditions. Such differences life history Characteristics
are due to variation in life history among species, which of a species, such as the age
1,000 includes such variables as the age at which individuals at which individuals begin
reproducing, the number of
begin reproducing, the number of offspring they
offspring they produce, and
produce, and the rate at which the young survive. the rate at which the young
0 Whales, bears, wolves, and gorillas all have populations survive.
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
that can stabilize close to their carrying capacity, which is
YEAR
why we call them K-selected species. Ecologists propose K-selected species
FIGURE 3.13 The population of mountain gorillas on the that living near the carrying capacity favors individuals Organisms with populations
Virunga Volcanoes has varied by 200, from a low of 250 to a high that generally stabilize close to
of 450 individuals. Meanwhile, the number of Bay checkerspot that excel at competing for limited resources in a crowded their carrying capacity and are
butterflies on Jasper Ridge varied by nearly 5,000, from 80 to environment. These species have a long life span, tend to often regulated by density-
5,000 between 1960 and 1997, when it became locally extinct. reproduce later in life, and have a small number of large dependent factors.

0.1 kilogram (3.5 ounces) and may have two sets of

TABLE 3.2
twins per year, appear to be r-selected (Figure 3.14).
CHARACTERISTICS OF K-SELECTED AND
R-SELECTED SPECIES As a result of their higher reproductive rates, a pygmy
marmoset can produce 16 offspring in the time that
Life History Trait K-Selected Species r-Selected Species a female gorilla produces one. Not surprisingly, while
Maturity Late Early mountain gorillas live at population densities of about
Reproductive rate Low High one per km2 (2.6 per mi2), pygmy marmoset population
Survivorship High Low densities may be as high as 200 per km2 (518 per mi2).
Length of life Long Short The concepts of r- and K-selection apply to plants
Population stability High Low as well. For example, the American chestnut, which
Information from Pianka, 1994.
produces large seed-bearing fruits that number in the
thousands, contrasts sharply with the plains cottonwood,
which produces millions of tiny wind-dispersed seeds
offspring that receive intensive parental care. In general, each spring (Figure 3.15).
density-dependent regulating factors, such as disease and The life history of an organism influences its capacity
?
competition, exert significant controls on populations of to recover from environmental disturbances. Ecologists
K-selected species. define disturbance as a discrete event, such as a fire,
Mice, rabbits, dandelions, and cockroaches are earthquake, or flood, that disrupts a population,
Can we classify all examples of r-selected species, which grow rapidly ecosystem, or other natural system by changing the
organisms as either when the environment is favorable. You might sum up resources, such as food, nutrients, or space, available to
their philosophy as “live fast, die young.” Unlike large, organisms or by altering the physical environment. In
r- or K-selected, or are
enduring animals such as whales, r-selected species general, populations of r-selected species are faster to
these endpoints in a
are small and subject to catastrophic mortality from recover from disturbance than are K-selected species. For
continuum? Explain. instance, a population of mountain gorillas decimated by
harsh weather, fires, and other density-independent
factors. They have undergone strong natural selection to massive mortality during a volcanic eruption would take
reproduce prolifically when the time is right. a longer time to recover compared with a population of
?
As humans alter the
Table 3.2 contrasts the major characteristics of K-selected
and r-selected life species.
Let’s look closely at some animal and plant examples
pygmy marmosets subjected to a similar disturbance. It
should not be surprising, then, that endangered species
often have K-selected life histories.
and see how the life history concept applies. Mountain
environment for our
own benefit, what sorts
gorillas, which are large and have low reproductive rates,
are a perfect example of a K-selected species. Female
! Think About It
of life histories among mountain gorillas may weigh up to 100 kilograms 1. In terms of life histories, why are populations of
wild species are we (220 pounds) and give birth every fourth year. In K-selected species generally slower to recover from
favoring? comparison, pygmy marmosets, which weigh only disturbance compared with r-selected species?
K-SELECTED VERSUS r-SELECTED PRIMATE SPECIES
r-selected species
Organisms with populations
(Thomas Hörner/Picture-alliance/dpa/AP Images)
that generally fluctuate widely

(Michael Nichols/National Geographic Creative)
in size; subject to catastrophic

mortality from harsh weather,
fires, and other density-
independent factors.
disturbance A discrete
event (e.g., a fire, earthquake,
or flood) that disrupts a
population, ecosystem, or
other natural system by
Mountain gorillas Pygmy marmosets
changing the resources
available or by altering the FIGURE 3.14 On average, a female mountain gorilla produces a single young every four years. In contrast, the tiny pygmy
physical environment. marmoset commonly produces two sets of twins each year.
73
K-SELECTED VERSUS r-SELECTED TREE SPECIES

(Courtesy The American Chestnut Foundation)
Seeds
(© Iryna Rasko/Alamy)
American chestnut seeds Plains cottonwood seeds
FIGURE 3.15 An American chestnut tree produces thousands of large seeds annually. In contrast, female plains cottonwood trees
produce millions of tiny seeds.
?
2. When studying life histories, why is it generally around plant roots help the plants acquire soil nutrients
more informative to compare closely related in exchange for energy-rich carbohydrates.
organisms, for example, two primates, than to
compare two very different organisms, for example, Environmental Requirements and the Niche Why is a species’
a primate and a tree or a primate and a butterfly? The ecological niche is a description of the physical and habitat not the same as
biological requirements of a species. A species’ niche its niche?
includes where an organism lives—its habitat—and its
trophic position in the ecosystem, for example, whether
3.5 Species interactions
it’s a primary producer, a predator, or an herbivore (see
define biological Chapter 2 for more on trophic relations). However, the
communities niche may also include such factors as the temperature
range the species lives in, its water requirements, as well
An ecological community consists of all the species—
as when and where it feeds.
plants, animals, fungi, and microbes—that exist and
For instance, mountain gorilla habitat is mountain ecological community All
interact in a given location. The interactions among the
tropical rain forest, whereas that of the Bay checkerspot the species—plants, animals,
community members, such as those between a predator
butterfly is temperate grassland. Both are herbivores; fungi, and microbes—that exist
and its prey, shape ecological patterns and influence and interact in a given location.
however, their approaches to herbivory are quite different.
the evolution of populations (Figure 3.16). The web of
Mountain gorillas feed on more than 140 species of plants,
interactions can be baffling. For example, hummingbirds mutualism Mutually
which makes them a “generalist herbivore.” In contrast, Bay
dip their bills into deep flowers to drink nectar; at the beneficial relationship between
checkerspot caterpillars are “specialist herbivores” that feed organisms.
same time, they inadvertently pollinate these plants in
mainly on just two plant species (Figure 3.17).
a mutually beneficial relationship, called a mutualism. niche A description of
Meanwhile, small insects, such as bees and flies, might the physical and biological
The Competitive Exclusion Principle
visit these same flowers and compete with hummingbirds requirements of a species.
for nectar. If these bees are poor pollinators, then they Competition involves interactions between individuals
habitat Where an organism
impose a cost on both the flowers and the hummingbirds. that depend on the same resources, such as food or space,
usually lives (e.g., a forest,
Finally, it’s a little-known fact that hummingbirds for their survival and reproduction. Where the resources coral reef, or marsh).
sometimes eat insects for protein, so they may well snatch involved are in limited supply, competition for those
one of these flying insects in their flexible bills! resources may impact one or both of the competitors by competition Interactions
Nature is filled with elaborate mutualisms that go reducing growth rates, reproductive rates, or probability among individuals that depend
on the same resources;
beyond pollination. For instance, Acacia ants live inside of survival. Competition is most likely to occur between
generally results in reduced
the thorns of some Acacia trees and protect them from organisms with similar niches, since by definition they growth, reproduction, or
herbivores; in exchange, they feed on a nutrient-rich have similar resource needs. Because individuals of survival of one or both
liquid the plants secrete. Mycorrhizal fungi growing the same species share the same niche, competition competitors.

INTERACTIONS BETWEEN SPECIES IN COMMUNITIES
(© Carlos Ordonez/age fotostock)

(© Image Source/Alamy)
(© Moodboard/Alamy)
(Shutterstock)
Predation Herbivory Pollination Protection mutualism
FIGURE 3.16 Ecological communities are characterized by a complex web of interactions among species. (a) A black-backed jackal
hunting sand grouse in Africa typifies predation, the killing and eating of another organism for food. (b) An elephant stripping foliage from
a tree shows an herbivore harvesting living plant biomass. (c) Dusted with yellow pollen, a bee is photographed in the act of transporting
pollen from one plant to another as it gathers nectar from the flowers it visits. (d) In another mutualism, a tropical anemonefish finds shelter
?
among the tentacles of a stinging anemone for which the anemonefish provides chemical nutrients from its wastes and food scraps.
How are competing is often strongest among them. This competition is competitive exclusion principle, if two species with
businesses, for example, called intraspecific competition, one of the density- identical niches compete for a limited resource (e.g.,
restaurants or car dependent factors that regulate populations. Competition nectar), one or the other will be a better competitor
manufacturers, similar among individuals of different species, interspecific and will eventually eliminate the other species. It
to species living in a competition, is most likely to occur where the organisms follows from the competitive exclusion principle that
natural ecosystem? How have similar niches (Figure 3.18). when species live together, they generally have slightly
are they different? Interspecific competition may influence the number different niches.
and kinds of species that live together in a community. Studies of animals as diverse as insects, birds, fish,
For instance, one species may exclude another from an rodents, and lizards have shown that coexisting species
ecological community and so reduce the total use different resources, such as food, nesting sites, and
number of species living together. According to the feeding areas. Called resource partitioning, one of the
intraspecific competition
Competition among individuals
of the same species.
CONTRASTING APPROACHES TO DIET
interspecific competition
Competition among individuals
of different species. GENERALIST HERBIVORE SPECIALIST HERBIVORE
Number of plant species in diet: Number of plant species in diet:

competitive exclusion
principle If two species with
identical niches compete for a
limited resource (e.g., nectar),
one or the other will be a better
competitor and will eventually
eliminate the other species.
resource partitioning Bay checkerspot

Coexisting species use Mountain gorilla caterpillar
different resources, such
as food, nesting sites, and FIGURE 3.17 Because mountain gorillas feed on so many more plant species, the dietary part of its niche is much broader
feeding areas. compared with that of the Bay checkerspot butterfly, which has a narrow feeding niche.
75
COMPETITION WITHIN AND BETWEEN SPECIES
INTRASPECIFIC COMPETITION INTERSPECIFIC COMPETITION

Competition between individuals of the same species Competition between individuals of different species
FIGURE 3.18 Both intraspecific (within species) competition and interspecific (between species) competition are important to the
ecology of species. The intensity of interspecific competition depends on the amount of overlap in niches between two species.
best-known examples of the phenomenon occurs among that all species are about the same size and all eat insects.
coexisting species of woodland warblers. Up to five Since each species forages for insects in a different part
species of woodland warbler may live together in the of the trees, however, the spatial aspects of their feeding
forests of northeastern North America despite the fact niches are different (Figure 3.19). Similarly, many
PARTITIONING OF RESOURCES
Black-throated green
Cape May warbler warbler
Bay-breasted warbler
Blackburnian warbler
FIGURE 3.19 The colored areas in the spruce

trees, which show where each species spends
at least half of its feeding time, indicate the
feeding zones of five species of North American
warblers. These differences in feeding zones, that Yellow-rumped warbler
is, feeding niches, reduce competition among the
warbler species.

hummingbirds coexist in the tropical rain forest, but they

have bills of different lengths, which allow them to access is important to the potential survival of a
different flowers. population because it reflects the potential of a
population to evolve and survive in the face of
! Think About It environmental challenges.
There are two basic patterns of population
1. How might the feeding patterns of the Bay growth: J-shaped, or exponential, growth,
checkerspot caterpillar niche indicate vulnerability and S-shaped, or logistic, growth. Species
of the species to extinction? range widely in life history, a set of evolved
adaptations to the environment such as the age
2. Why is intraspecific competition generally at which individuals begin reproducing and
stronger than interspecific competition? the number of offspring they produce. Species
controlled by density-dependent factors stabilize
at the population carrying capacity and are
called K-selected, while r-selected species are
3.1–3.5 Science: often subject to catastrophic mortality from
density-independent factors. The ecological
Summary niche describes the physical and biological
Organisms live in populations, which consist requirements of a species. Species living in the
of the individuals of a species inhabiting some same community that have similar niches are
specified area. Populations vary in distribution more likely to compete than are species with
and abundance. Smaller populations with different niches. According to the competitive
limited distributions generally characterize exclusion principle, two species with identical
endangered species. Larger species generally niches cannot coexist indefinitely. Species living
have smaller population sizes, when together in the same community often partition
compared with smaller species, and live at resources, reducing the potential for competition
lower population densities. Genetic diversity as a result.
3.6–3.9 Issues
O n June 24, 2012, a century-old Galapagos tortoise
named Lonesome George was found dead inside his
enclosure at the Charles Darwin Research Station. George
species, the current rate of extinction is between 100 and
1,000 times higher than background extinction levels.
Over the course of the history of Earth, there have
was the last known member of the Pinta Island subspecies been five great mass extinctions, in which a large
Chelonoidis nigra abingdonii, and his death marked the proportion of species became extinct within a few million
extinction of that lineage. The decline of the Pinta Island years. An estimated 99% of species that once existed are
tortoise began when seafarers made the cruel discovery now extinct. The last great extinction, which was possibly
that the defenseless creatures, which can weigh more caused by an asteroid strike, wiped out the dinosaurs,
background extinction than 800 pounds, could be stored alive in a ship’s hold as along with 75% of all species, about 65 million years ago.
Average rate of extinction
occurring over long periods
a source of meat for up to a year. Later, the introduction An earlier mass extinction, 245 million years ago, resulted
of time between periods of of voracious goats by humans stripped Pinta Island of the in the extinctions of about 90% of species on Earth.
mass extinction. plants the tortoises depend on, sealing the tortoises’ fate. The current rate of extinction, estimated at up to
The disappearance of the Pinta Island tortoise is just 1,000 times higher than background levels, is high enough
mass extinction A period one of many thousands of extinctions that have occurred to be considered a mass extinction. Environmental
wherein a large proportion
of species becomes extinct
during the course of human history. Although extinction scientists estimate that at present rates of extinction,
within a few million years is a normal process that takes place due to natural we are now experiencing the sixth mass extinction. We
or less. changes in climate, geology, and competition from other are on course to lose approximately half of all species
77
on Earth by the end of the 21st century. In contrast to found nowhere else, once covered approximately 1 million
previous extinctions, the sixth mass extinction is not the hectares (2.5 million acres). Today, as little as 10% of that
result of an asteroid or a comet but rather one of Earth’s remains. Native mammal and bird species, such as the
most abundant large vertebrate species: Homo sapiens. California gnatcatcher, have been largely restricted to
The International Union for the Conservation of Nature remnants of their habitat. Many of these small populations
(IUCN, the former World Conservation Union) estimates are unable to sustain themselves and will likely die out
that 99% of all species threatened with extinction are at within a short period of time (Figure 3.20).
risk because of human activities. For this reason, some We destroy terrestrial habitats when we plow prairie
scientists argue that beginning in 1945, when the first and plant wheat, cut down a tropical rain forest, or drain
nuclear bomb was dropped, we entered an entirely new and fill in marshes. With each pass of a bulldozer, we reduce
?
era: the Anthropocene, a new geologic era dominated by the habitat available for other species, thereby reducing their
the effects of humans. Perhaps the most dramatic evidence total population size. In these situations, smaller, isolated
of the reality of the Anthropocene are human impacts on populations, such as butterflies or mountain gorillas, have a
global climate (see Chapter 14), another factor that will lower chance of survival than larger populations. According Why is habitat
undoubtedly contribute to the unfolding mass extinction to the IUCN, habitat loss and degradation are affecting 86% destruction considered
caused by our species. of all threatened birds, 86% of threatened mammals, and one of the most serious
88% of threatened amphibians. threats to species’
Environmental scientists estimate that we are losing populations?
3.6 Habitat destruction approximately 90,000 km2 of tropical rain forest annually,
and alteration are the which is approximately the area of the state of Indiana.
most serious threats to In the countries of Southeast Asia, including Malaysia,
Indonesia, and Papua New Guinea, approximately
biodiversity
11 million hectares of tropical forest have been cleared
Habitat destruction is, without a doubt, the greatest threat for oil palm plantations. Palm oil is used in foods, beauty
to biodiversity around the world. The human population, products, and even as a biofuel. One casualty of this
which surpassed 7 billion in 2012, increasingly dominates transformation has been the orangutan, a great ape that
Earth. As our population grows and we alter the planet spends most of its life high in the tree canopy on the
to meet our own needs, we put untold thousands of islands of Sumatra and Borneo. The orangutan population
species at risk. In Chapter 4, we will consider how human has declined by 50% since the 1950s. If current trends
impacts on the environment challenge the diversity of continue, conservationists believe that the Sumatran
whole communities of organisms. Consider the extensive population could vanish in the next 10 years and that Anthropocene era A new
agriculture and urban sprawl in southern California the Bornean population is unlikely to survive into the geologic era dominated by the
coastal sage scrub. The region, home to 300 plant species next century. effects of humans.
THE CHANGING FACE OF THE LAND

(© Bruce Farnsworth/Alamy)
(© ZUMA Press, Inc./Alamy)
Suburban development encroaching on coastal sage habitat California gnatcatcher
FIGURE 3.20 Human modification of landscapes often leads to large changes in landscape structure and reductions in overall
biodiversity. Replacing coastal sage habitat with suburban development in Southern California (left) has put many unique species,
such as the California gnatcatcher, Polioptila californica (right), in danger of extinction.

compared with the vulnerability of terrestrial and

A SYMBOL OF OLD GROWTH TEMPERATE RAIN FOREST
marine species?
2. Does a growing human population inevitably
produce habitat destruction? What other factors
besides our population growth contribute to
habitat destruction?
3.7 Invasive species

threaten native species
After the brown tree snake arrived on the island of Guam
following World War II, 10 out of the island’s 12 native
forest bird species went extinct—all fallen prey to a
(Daisy Gilardini/Getty Images)
predator they neither recognized nor had learned to fear.

The brown tree snake is what we call an invasive species,
one that, when introduced to a new environment,
poses a serious threat to native populations. Increasing
globalization, including the rise in airline travel and
transportation of goods on giant cargo ships, is increasing
FIGURE 3.21 The temperate rain forests of southeastern Alaska and northwest Canada are rich in
biodiversity, including the Kermode, or spirit, bear, Ursus americanus kermodei, a white subspecies the movement of species across Earth.
of the black bear found only in the central and northern coastal regions of British Columbia. Invasive species may be predators, as in the case of
the brown tree snake, or they may be pathogens or
competitors. Introduced species often compete fiercely
?
The typical focus of
Temperate habitats are also under threat. More than
50% of historic grasslands and more than 30% of desert
habitat have been lost. The Kermode (or spirit) bear,
with native species because they are not hindered
by their own predators, parasites, and pathogens (see
Table 3.1, page 71). As a result, non-native species
a white subspecies of the black bear, is one temperate can become overwhelmingly abundant in their new
conservation efforts species that is seriously threatened by habitat destruction. environment and competitively displace native species
is on large, impressive The bear lives in the temperate rain forests of northwest (Figure 3.22).
species, such as Siberian Canada (Figure 3.21). The bear’s habitat is shrinking The cane toad is an invasive species that has hurt
tigers or Kermode due to the logging of old growth forests in the region and biodiversity in Australia in an unexpected way. Here’s
bears. How does will shrink even further as a result of a recently approved what happened: Sugarcane farmers introduced the
this help or hinder project to build an oil pipeline on Princess Royal Island softball-sized cane toad, hoping the toads would eat
the conservation of in British Columbia. beetles that infested the sugarcane crop. The toads
Marine and freshwater species are also increasingly proved to be a weak beetle-controlling mechanism. But
ecosystems?
impacted by human activity. According to the IUCN, the bigger problem was their effect on animals besides
?
freshwater species are going extinct faster than either beetles. The cane toad secretes a toxin from glands
terrestrial or marine species. In 2014 the IUCN estimated on the back of its head. In South America, where the
that human pressures on freshwater ecosystems threatened toad is native, predators had either evolved resistance
Will the relative rate one-third of freshwater species with extinction. The to the toxin or knew to stay away from the cane toad.
impact of humans on freshwater wetlands and other In Australia, however, monitor lizards and endangered
of infection of invasive
aquatic ecosystems is considered in Chapter 6, which carnivorous mammals known as quolls had no
non-native species by
focuses on managing freshwater resources and associated resistance to the toad’s toxin and simply saw it as an easy
parasites and pathogens environmental issues. Pollution and warming of the oceans meal. So far, it has caused serious declines in species’
remain constant in have placed 33% of reef-building corals in danger of populations. It remains to be seen how well Australian
their new environment extinction. In addition, overfishing has severely depleted animals will recover and adapt to the toads’ presence in
over the long term? marine fish populations around the world. Ways to reverse the future.
Why or why not? these impacts on fish stocks are discussed in Chapter 8. Introduced species can have indirect effects as
well. Invasive plants have pushed the Bay checkerspot
invasive species An ! Think About It butterfly to the brink of extinction largely by altering the
makeup of the native grasslands of California. Similar
introduced species that poses
a serious threat to native 1. What factors likely contribute to the greater stories are repeated around the globe, which is why the
populations. vulnerability of freshwater species to extinction, World Resources Institute, an environmental think tank
79
INVASIVE COMPETITORS
(Kerry Britton, USDA Forest Service, Bugwood.org)
(USFWS/Science Source)
(Calin Tatu/Shutterstock)
Kudzu vines can cover entire landscapes. In the setting In the arid regions of the United States, Tamarix, or Several species of Asian carp have increased to large
shown here, it has invaded the southern United States. saltcedar, has choked riverside habitats, simplifying the population sizes in the upper Mississippi River system,
habitat and increasing the frequency and intensity of fires. threatening native aquatic populations.
FIGURE 3.22 Released from predators, parasites, and pathogens present in their native environments, populations of invasive species can grow explosively in a
new environment, overwhelming native species in the process.
dedicated to finding ways to protect the environment trophies and traditional medicine; and exotic tropical
and improve people’s lives, cites invasive species as the woods, for furniture. The Congressional Research
second greatest threat (after habitat destruction) to Service has estimated that the black market value of
endangered species.
! Think About It CARVED IVORY CONFISCATED BY CUSTOMS AGENTS
1. How may similarity in niches affect competitive

interactions between native and invasive species?
2. What sorts of evolutionary pressures do invasive
predators and competitors exert on the native
species with which they interact?
3.8 Plant and wildlife

trafficking are growing
dangers to species
With rhinoceros horns selling for more than $100,000
per kilogram in Asia as a purported cancer treatment,
it’s no surprise that rhinoceros poaching in South Africa
increased 30-fold between 2007 and 2011. The black
rhino in western Africa has already been declared extinct,
and the northern subspecies of white rhino is on the
brink of extinction. Illegal trading in wildlife and plants
(Mike Groll/AP Photo)
is one of the top three threats to endangered species

worldwide (Figure 3.23). Demand for exotic pets, flashy
hunting trophies, bush meat, and traditional medicines
drive wildlife trafficking. Some of the primary targets
FIGURE 3.23 Wildlife trafficking involves the movement of endangered live animals and
include rare parrots, for the pet trade; tigers, for skins plants and wildlife products, such as ivory and skins. This illicit trade is valued in billions of U.S.
and traditional medicines; elephants, for ivory; bears, for dollars annually.

illegally traded wildlife is worth between $5 billion and Unfortunately, criminal networks that focus on wildlife
$20 billion each year. The trade is not just a problem for have increased in recent years because of globalization
African countries or other distant places: In 2012 two and increasing wealth in countries such as China, where
Manhattan jewelry store owners pled guilty to selling there is high demand for traditional medicine derived
? more than $2 million worth of elephant ivory.

In many cases, the impacts of wildlife trafficking extend
beyond the wildlife killed or captured. For example, the
from animals, such as snake blood wine and foods like
shark fin soup.
How might the poachers

who kill animals for
use of cyanide to stun coral reef fish sold in the aquarium
trade has done massive damage to coral reef ecosystems,
! Think About It
the illegal wildlife trade which are one of the most productive and diverse 1. How are drug trafficking and plant and wildlife
potentially play a useful ecosystems on Earth. The wildlife trade also holds the trafficking similar? How are they different?
role in the protection of potential to spread disease to humans and other wildlife
species. For instance, prior to the 1970s, the African 2. There would be no plant and wildlife trafficking
the wildlife they hunt? without demand. What tools could be used to
clawed frog (Xenopus laevis) was widely traded as a
pregnancy test—frogs lay eggs when exposed to the urine substantially reduce demand for illegal plant and
of a pregnant woman—and, today, it remains a model wildlife products?
laboratory animal for a variety of experiments. Scientists
believe trade in this frog may be at least partly to blame
for the global spread of the chytrid fungus, a pathogen 3.9 Pest and predator control
that has led to amphibian die-offs around the world.
have pushed species to the
brink of extinction
When Europeans arrived in North America, gray wolves
ERADICATING A PREDATOR
(Canis lupus) and red wolves (Canis rufus) occupied most
of the continent. However, wolf numbers were quickly
depleted as state and federal agencies in the United States
organized campaigns to exterminate wolves, which were
seen as a threat to livestock and game animals. The
systematic hunting and poisoning that followed were
so effective that, by the early 20th century, nearly all
wolves in the United States south of Canada and north of
Mexico had been eliminated (Figure 3.24). The last wolf
in Yellowstone National Park was killed in 1926. Today,
the United States Department of Agriculture’s Wildlife
Services continues to intentionally trap, shoot, and
poison tens of thousands of animals every year, including
predators ranging from gopher snakes to coyotes.
Predators aren’t the only animals that have been
targeted for elimination by humans. Pest species such
as rodents and insects, which threaten agriculture, and
migratory birds, which can interfere with airplane traffic,
Mexican gray wolf are also targeted for killing; but their higher numbers and
reproductive rates make extinction unlikely. Nevertheless,
GRAY WOLF control aimed at “pest” species can have unintended
Current distribution impacts on other species, such as the peregrine falcon,
Historical distribution
Falco peregrinus.
RED WOLF Historically, the peregrine falcon was found across
Current distribution much of the Northern Hemisphere. The fastest of
Historical distribution all birds, the peregrine can dive on prey at speeds of
320 kilometers per hour (200 miles per hour). From
the 1940s to 1970s, the number of peregrine falcon
FIGURE 3.24 The historical distribution of wolves in North America once encompassed nesting pairs in North America declined precipitously
nearly the entire continent. However, by the early 20th century, wolves had been almost entirely from an estimated historical number of approximately
eliminated south of the United States–Canada border. 3,875 to just 324 pairs. The decline was traced to DDE
81
BACK FROM THE BRINK OF EXTINCTION
(Geoff Kuchera/iStock/360/Getty Images)
FIGURE 3.25 The peregrine falcon, Falco peregrinus, is the fastest-flying of all living bird
species. Its recovery from near extinction in North America is one of the great successes in the
history of endangered species restoration.
(dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene), a highly persistent

chemical produced during the breakdown of the 3.6–3.9 Issues:
insecticide DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane), Summary
which caused their eggshells to thin and reduced
reproductive success. DDT was ingested by plant- Species are threatened by a variety of human
eating insects, and it moved up the food chain as those activities. Habitat destruction and alteration
insects were eaten by small birds. With each transfer are considered the most serious threat to
in a food chain, the DDT by-products became more species, affecting nearly 90% of endangered
concentrated in the tissues of animals, a process called amphibians, mammals, and birds. Invasive
biomagnification, which we will consider in detail species can harm native species through
in Chapter 11 (see page 340). As a consequence, top unchecked predation or competition. Their
predators such as the peregrine falcon ingested a very impact is particularly devastating on islands,
high dose of the chemical. DDT was banned in the where they have caused numerous species
United States in 1972, and the numbers of peregrine to go extinct. Illegal plant and wildlife
falcon began to bounce back in the decades that followed trafficking for traditional medicine, the
(Figure 3.25). pet trade, hunting trophies, and bush meat
causes significant harm to threatened species.
! Think About It Globalization and rising wealth in countries
such as China have led to an increase
1. Why was DDT more of a threat to peregrine in criminal gangs that focus on wildlife
falcon populations than to the populations of the trafficking. Finally, predator control programs
birds it fed on? extirpated wolf populations, and pest control
has caused collateral damage to nontarget
2. What factors should be considered in a cost– biomagnification The
populations. The 20th-century decline in
process of certain chemicals
benefit analysis of pest and predator control efforts? the North American population of peregrine becoming more concentrated
falcons was traced to the insecticide DDT. in the tissues of animals with
each transfer in a food chain.

? H ow can we possibly reverse the sixth mass

extinction? In 2013 National Geographic magazine
ran a controversial cover story titled “Reviving Extinct
3.10 National laws and
international treaties protect
Can laws, such as those Species.” It was not a work of science fiction, but an endangered species
protecting endangered exploration of genetic technologies that are edging closer
species, be effective if to reconstructing life from bits and pieces of DNA found While laws regulating the hunting, fishing, and trapping of
in bones, hair, and other pieces of fossilized or preserved wildlife have a long history, it was not until rather recently
they do not reflect the
material. Imagine woolly mammoths from the Ice Age that fears of species extinctions resulted in legal protection.
prevailing values of walking Earth again! Or how about reviving the passenger The Endangered Species Act of 1973, or ESA, provides
society as a whole? pigeon, which once numbered in the billions and was legal protection in the United States to both domestic and
wiped out by hunting? foreign endangered species and declares plants and all
While genetic resurrection may be useful in bringing invertebrate animals eligible for protection.
back a handful of the most spectacular and important In addition, the ESA requires federal agencies to
animals on the planet, it is hardly a viable solution to develop programs for the conservation of two categories
the biodiversity crisis. Even if all the species that human of species: endangered species, which face the highest
activity has destroyed thus far were effectively brought danger of extinction, and threatened species, which face
back, the threats that hindered their survival in the a lower danger of extinction. Agencies are also prohibited
first place still pose great danger. In the foreseeable from authorizing, funding, or engaging in any action that
future, it is likely to be far cheaper and easier to prevent would jeopardize an endangered or threatened species
an extinction than to try to reverse one. The first step or that might destroy or alter so-called critical habitat,
involves establishing a legal framework to protect species. areas essential for the survival of a listed species. The ESA
TABLE 3.3
EVOLVING SPECIES PROTECTION U.S. federal endangered species law has developed over time through a
series of legislation and amendments
Year Title Main Effect

1900 Lacey Act First federal law prohibiting the trade of illegal fish and wildlife, aimed at preserving
hunting game and wild birds.
1966 Endangered Species Authorized identifying endangered native animal species and giving them limited protection.
Preservation Act (ESPA)
1969 Endangered Species Amended 1966 ESPA to prohibit importation and sale of species threatened with worldwide
Conservation Act (ESCA) extinction and changed name of act to ESCA.
1972 Marine Mammal Prohibited hunting, killing, capturing, or harassing of marine mammals, including sea otters,
Protection Act polar bears, whales, and dolphins.
Endangered Species Act
of 1973 (ESA) Legal 1973 Endangered Species Replaced ESCA, distinguished between endangered and threatened species, extended
Act (ESA) protection to endangered plants and all invertebrate animals, required federal agencies to
protection in the United conserve listed species, implemented CITES protection in the United States.
States for both domestic and
1978 ESA Amendment Required the designation of critical habitat at the time of species listing, required
foreign endangered species consideration of economic and other impacts of designating critical habitat.
that declared plants and all
1982 ESA Amendment Restricted the determination of endangered status to be based solely on biological
invertebrate animals eligible information, excluded economic and other effects of listing.
for protection. 1988 ESA Amendment Required population monitoring of species proposed as candidates for listing and for species
that have been recovered from their endangered status.
critical habitat Areas that 2004 National Defense Exempted the Department of Defense from designating critical habitat, required a
are essential for the survival Authorization Act of 2004 management plan approved by the Secretary of the Interior.
of a listed endangered or 2008 Lacey Act Amendment Expanded the act to cover plants and plant products, making it possible to prosecute importers
threatened species. of illegal timber.
83
CONSERVATION SUCCESS
(Colin Edwards Wildside/Shutterstock)
(visceralimage/Shutterstock)
(Terry Tollefsbol)
Grizzly bears (Yellowstone population) Bald eagles (lower 48 states) Whooping cranes
FIGURE 3.26 Species listed for protection under the Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA) include the Yellowstone population
of grizzly bears, the bald eagle in the lower 48 states, and the whooping crane. Marking the success of the recovery programs
supported by the ESA, the Yellowstone grizzly bear and bald eagle populations have recovered sufficiently to be delisted. Meanwhile,
the whooping crane population is growing exponentially.
was followed by 30 years of legislative acts that generally approximately 5,000 animal species and 29,000 plant
broadened the range of protected species and tied their species, which are listed in three appendices. Appendix
legal protection more closely with science (Table 3.3). I of the Convention lists species threatened with
Protection of endangered species and their critical
habitats often clashes with economic activities. An
endangered fish called the snail darter prevented a dam
extinction, which can be traded only under exceptional
circumstances. Appendix II includes species that are not
presently threatened by extinction, but for which trade is
How can
?
from being built in Tennessee for many years, while the regulated by import and export quotas to avoid threats to
Northern spotted owl has blocked the cutting of old their survival. Appendix III consists of species protected communication and
growth forests in the Pacific Northwest. As a consequence, by at least one country that has asked for assistance from education complement
a variety of economic interests have tried repeatedly to other signatories of CITES for help in regulating trade of the laws and treaties
weaken the Endangered Species Act, in part by limiting the the species. protecting endangered
funding that gets appropriated to it each year. The nations that have signed CITES and many species?
Nevertheless, the law has been remarkably successful prominent nongovernmental organizations, such as the
in conserving and restoring a wide variety of species. World Wildlife Fund or World Wide Fund for Nature
Approximately 1,400 species in the United States and (WWF), Conservation International, and the Wildlife
2,000 globally have been listed and placed under the Conservation Society, are cooperating to reduce wildlife
protection of the ESA. Some of the most well-known trafficking and the threat it presents to endangered
species listed under the ESA include the Florida panther, species. In the United States, one of the critical tools to
blue whale, California condor, and whooping crane. It enforcing CITES is the Lacey Act. First passed in 1900
is a sign of the success of the ESA that several formerly and amended in 2008, the Lacey Act forbids the trading
endangered species have recovered sufficiently to be of illegally harvested plants and animals. For example,
removed from the endangered species list, a process if an endangered ebony tree is illegally harvested in
called delisting. Many species have now been delisted, Madagascar, outside of U.S. jurisdiction, one can still be
including the Yellowstone grizzly bear population and the prosecuted for importing it to or trading it in the United
bald eagle (Figure 3.26). States. In 2012, for instance, Gibson Guitar pled guilty to
importing ebony for its guitars in violation of the law.
The CITES Treaty
The major treaty regulating international trade in wildlife
is the Convention on International Trade in Endangered
! Think About It Lacey Act First passed in
1. How might including the potential for negative 1900 and amended in 2008,
Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, or CITES (pronounced
this law forbids trade in
“sight-ees”), which came into force in 1975 and has economic impact as a criterion for the listing of illegally harvested plants and
been signed by nearly 180 nations. CITES protects endangered species affect how the ESA is applied? animals.

2. Why is it critical to have both national laws and

PEREGRINE FALCONS NESTING IN THE
international cooperative treaties regarding trading LOWER 48 UNITED STATES
in endangered species? 1,600
NUMBER OF NESTING PAIRS

3.11 Banning of a toxin and 1,200
captive breeding brought

peregrine falcons back from 800
the brink of extinction
?
Using what you learned
After the peregrine falcon was declared an endangered
species in the United States in 1970, the greatest threat to
its survival needed to be eliminated. In 1972 the United
400
0
States banned the insecticide DDT, which had caused
about population eggshell thinning. As a result of decreased DDT use in the
1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
YEAR
growth earlier in the United States, Canada, and Latin America, the amount FIGURE 3.28 The number of pairs of nesting peregrine
chapter, predict how of DDE, the breakdown product of DDT associated with falcons in the lower 48 (contiguous) United States grew rapidly
the pattern of growth eggshell thinning, has gradually decreased in the tissues of following the banning of DDT, as did the release of falcons
shown in Figure 3.28 peregrine falcons (Figure 3.27). However, that was only produced by the captive breeding program. (Data from U.S. Fish
and Wildlife Service 2003, 2006)
will or will not change the first step toward a solution.
over the long term. To restore falcon populations, the U.S. Fish and
(Hint: Consider Figure Wildlife Service entered into a partnership with state announced its intention to remove the American
natural resource agencies and nongovernmental peregrine falcon from the endangered species list.
3.11.)
organizations to establish captive rearing programs. From The American peregrine falcon was removed from
1974 to 1997, these programs released more than 6,000 the endangered species list on August 25, 1999, and the
peregrine falcons to their historic range in 34 states. In population continued to grow. By 2003 the American
?
How would reduced
addition, critical habitat for the peregrine falcon was
identified and protected.
The initial goal of the captive rearing and release
peregrine falcon population in the United States, Canada,
and Mexico reached an estimated 3,005 breeding pairs.
Follow-up genetic studies of migratory peregrine falcons
program was to build the population back up to have shown no reductions in genetic diversity from 1985
genetic diversity among 631 nesting pairs in the United States. By the mid-1990s, to 2007, indicating that the restored peregrine falcon
North American the population had grown well beyond this target populations of North America are not in decline.
peregrine falcons (Figure 3.28), and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
between 1985 and
2007 have made the
! Think About It
population less able CONCENTRATION OF DDE IN BLOOD PLASMA
1. Why was a captive rearing program necessary?
to adapt to future OF MIGRATORY PEREGRINE FALCONS Why was a ban on DDT alone not sufficient for the
environmental peregrine falcon to recover on its own?
1.0
challenges? 2. What were some advantages of having a
DDE IN BLOOD PLASMA (µg/g)
0.8 cooperative breeding program for the peregrine

falcon, involving federal and state scientists along
0.6 with private foundations and citizens?
0.4
3.12 Population ecology

0.2
provides a conceptual
foundation for wolf
restoration
0
1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
YEAR
Population ecology provides a general framework
FIGURE 3.27 The concentration of DDE, a breakdown product
of DDT, in the blood plasma of peregrine falcons captured at
for guiding restoration of endangered species and for
Padre Island, Texas, during spring migration declined rapidly predicting how their populations will respond during
between 1979 and 2004. (Data from Henny et al., 2009) restoration. Gray wolf restoration provides a clear
85
example of the utility of population ecology for managing male and female that successfully rear at least two pups
endangered species. which survive to the end of the calendar year. That goal
was met in 2000 and was quickly exceeded (Figure
Promoting Genetic Diversity 3.30a). By 2007 there were over 100 breeding pairs across
the Northern Rocky Mountain Recovery Area, which
Genetic analysis gives environmental scientists essential
includes parts of Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming, and
tools for restoring endangered species populations. For
the number of breeding pairs appeared to be stabilizing,
instance, restoration of wolf populations in Yellowstone,
a pattern suggesting S-shaped, or logistic, population
Idaho, and along the Arizona–New Mexico border would
growth (see Figure 3.11, page 69). Since generally only
require that founding populations have diverse genetics.
the dominant male and female in a wolf pack breed, the
That’s why, following the initial introduction of wolves
total number of wolves in the recovery area is far higher
into Yellowstone in 1995, an additional 17 Canadian
than the number of breeding pairs.
wolves were brought in the subsequent year.
In fact, the population grew to over 1,700 wolves by
Compared with the wolves of the Northern Rocky
2011 (Figure 3.30b), then dropped slightly to 1,600
Mountains, there is much less genetic variation among the
individuals in 2013. Looking at just one part of the range,
small population of surviving Mexican gray wolves (see
the Yellowstone wolf population peaked in 2003 at 172,
Figure 3.24, page 80), which are the descendants of three
then declined to fewer than 100 by 2009, where their
unrelated but highly inbred lineages. However, biologists
numbers have approximately stabilized since. Again,
discovered sufficient remaining diversity in these three
the growth of the restored wolf population appears to
surviving lineages to improve the chances of success by
be following an S-shaped pattern at both regional and
the population. By crossbreeding descendants of the three
local scales, as we would expect from a highly territorial,
lineages, they have been able to more than double litter
K-selected species like the gray wolf.
sizes from an average of 3.5 or 3.6 pups to 7.5 pups per
Wolves remain a charged subject in Rocky Mountain
litter (Figure 3.29). In addition, crossbred Mexican wolf
states, where ranchers—and their supporters in
pups also have an 18% to 21% higher chance of surviving
state government—oppose their preservation. As a
to 6 months of age. Such positive effects of increasing
consequence of their dramatic recovery and pressure
genetic diversity are called genetic rescue.
from state officials and interest groups, the U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service classified the gray wolf population of the
Logistic Population Growth in a K-selected Species
Northern Rocky Mountain states as recovered and took
?
The wolf population of the Northern Rocky Mountains them off the U.S. endangered species list in 2012. With
Recovery Area grew quickly following their reintroduc- delisting, responsibility for management of gray wolf
tion to Yellowstone and Idaho. Conservation biologists populations was returned to the states of Idaho, Montana,
set a restoration goal of 30 breeding pairs, defined as a and Wyoming, opening a controversial hunting season Should restored gray
on the wolves. In September 2014, however, the Federal
wolf populations be
District Court for the District of Columbia restored
subject to hunting
GENETIC VARIATION AND WOLF LITTER wolves in Wyoming to endangered species status.
and other forms of
SIZES
management control, or
8
! Think About It should they continue to
1. How would population recovery for an r-selected receive protection as an
7
NUMBER OF PUPS PER LITTER
species, such as the Bay checkerspot butterfly (see endangered species?

6 page 67), likely compare to that of gray wolves?
5
2. What aspects of gray wolf life history make it
4 unlikely that any restored population will grow
3
exponentially in the future?
2
3.13 Restoration of North
1
American gray wolves has
0
Inbred line 1 Inbred line 2 Crossbred wolves
required working through
WOLF LINEAGES conflict
FIGURE 3.29 By combining the genes carried by inbred
lines of Mexican gray wolves through crossbreeding lineages, Conservation success can sometimes introduce its own
biologists have been able to more than double the number of problems. In many cases, a species’ revitalization is
pups in litters. (Data from Fredrickson et al., 2007) inhibited by an environmental threat the peregrine falcon

GRAY WOLF RECOVERY IN THE NORTHERN ROCKY MOUNTAINS
120
NUMBER OF BREEDING PAIRS

100
80
60
40
20
0
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
a. YEAR
2,000
1,500
NUMBER OF WOLVES
1,000
500
0
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
b. YEAR
FIGURE 3.30 (a) The number of gray wolf breeding pairs in the Northern Rocky Mountains states
of Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming grew rapidly beginning in the 1980s and then showed signs of
leveling off after 2007. (b) The total gray wolf population across the region showed a similar pattern
of growth and apparent stabilization. (Data from U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013)
did not face: conflict with entrenched economic and mortality, such as disease, extreme weather, injuries, and
cultural interests. Such is the case with the reintroduction so forth. Second, although wolves have killed substantial
of the wolf to Yellowstone and the surrounding area. numbers of livestock in the Northern Rocky Mountain
The greatest opposition comes from livestock ranchers states, other predators, such as coyotes and mountain lions,
whose cattle may be attacked by wolves. One poll in the take many more (Figure 3.32).
southern Rocky Mountains found that 53% of ranchers What can be done to reduce the economic
opposed restoration of wolves, while only 28% of consequences of wolf restoration? The main mitigation
nonranchers were opposed. strategy is to compensate ranchers for livestock
There is no doubt that wolves prey on livestock, losses. The Defenders of Wildlife, a nongovernmental
especially cattle and sheep that are left unattended for long organization, took the lead role in compensating
periods of time, and that ranchers could potentially suffer ranchers for livestock lost to wolves. The position
the economic consequences from this predation. In the 19- of the Defenders of Wildlife is that the loss of even
year span between 1987 and 2011, 1,669 cattle and 3,261 a single animal to one rancher can be significant,
sheep were confirmed to have been killed by wolves in the and it established a fund of private donations for
Northern Rocky Mountain Recovery Area (Figure 3.31). economic compensation. That fund, the Bailey Wildlife
But to put these numbers in context, we need to consider Foundation Wolf Compensation Trust, paid nearly
all sources of livestock loss. First, fewer sheep and cattle $1.4 million in compensation to ranchers between
are lost to predators of all kinds than to other sources of 1987 and 2010, when compensation programs were
87
FIGURE 3.31 From 1987 to 2011,

GRAY WOLF PREDATION ON DOMESTIC ANIMALS gray wolves were confirmed to have killed
approximately 5,000 domestic animals in the
800 Northern Rocky Mountain states of Idaho,
Montana, and Wyoming. Most of the animals
killed were cattle and sheep; others included
Sheep dogs, llamas, goats, and horses. (Data from
NUMBER KILLED BY WOLVES
600 Cattle U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 2013)

Other
400
200
?
0
1987 1992 1997 2002 2007 2012
YEAR
Livestock production
transitioned to the states with wolf populations. Now predators on public lands to protect private coexisted with wolf
that the states have taken responsibility for compensating livestock? populations for
livestock producers for losses to wolves, Defenders of thousands of years
Wildlife has begun to invest its resources into developing 2. A published study of Mexican gray wolves living
before modern traps,
nonlethal ways to promote coexistence between livestock in Arizona and New Mexico found that 96% of
poisons, and firearms
production and wolves (Figure 3.33). their diet was based on wild prey, mainly elk and
provided the means to
deer, and just 4% made up of cattle. How should
exterminate wolves.
we factor this information into an assessment of the
What does this fact
! Think About It threats that these wolves pose to cattle producers?
indicate about the
1. Many ranchers graze livestock on public 3. How should the economic burden of wolf possibility of coexistence
lands. Should public funds be used to eliminate restoration be spread across society? in today’s world?
LOSSES OF SHEEP AND CATTLE TO PREDATORS AND OTHER CAUSES IN IDAHO, MONTANA,
AND WYOMING IN 2010
LOSSES OF SHEEP LOSSES OF CATTLE

TO PREDATORS AND OTHER CAUSES TO PREDATORS AND OTHER CAUSES
Nonpredators Nonpredators
Wolves Wolves
Other predators Other predators
FIGURE 3.32 Although nonpredatory sources of mortality were higher than losses to predators among sheep and cattle, sheep
suffered far more losses to predators, especially to coyotes. Wolves were the cause of a higher percentage of predatory losses in
cattle than in sheep. (Data from USDA, 2013; National Agricultural Statistics Service, www.nass.usda.gov/)

NONLETHAL PREVENTION OF WOLF PREDATION
(Russ Talmo/Defenders of Wildlife)
FIGURE 3.33 Defenders of Wildlife, a nongovernmental organization that took the lead in compensating
livestock raisers for livestock predation by wolves, is now contributing to the application of nonlethal methods for
promoting the coexistence of livestock production and wolves, such as hiring range riders to oversee livestock
and discourage wolves.
3.14 Wild populations indigenous communities with the help of the World
Wildlife Fund allow limited hunting of big game species,
are sources of significant which would otherwise be extirpated from the landscape.
economic benefits Money spent on hunting fees goes toward conservation
initiatives and is funneled back into the communities,
Sometimes saving an individual species can also be good creating a sustainable income stream. Studies have shown
for the economy. Restoration and conservation of banner that individual trophy hunters spend more money and
species, such as mountain gorillas, eagles, and wolves, time visiting more remote local communities than do
provide viewing opportunities for wildlife enthusiasts. ecotourists.
Travel to natural areas to observe animals is just one facet One 2007 study in the journal Biological Conservation
of ecotourism, recreational travel that helps conserve the found that in 23 countries, 1.4 million square kilometers
environment and improves the well-being of local people. of land was set aside for trophy hunting, an area that
The Ugandan government charges tourists $500 to spend exceeded all other protected areas in the region. Since
just one hour watching mountain gorillas in the Bwindi the country of Kenya banned wildlife trophy hunting in
Impenetrable Forest Reserve—and that doesn’t include 1977, much of the land has been converted to livestock
all the money spent on lodging, food, and travel. A and agriculture, resulting in losses of 60% to 70% of large
University of Montana study estimated that the presence mammals. By contrast, wildlife is booming in southern
of wolves in Yellowstone has brought in $35 million in African countries that allow hunting, and the importance
tourist dollars. Wildlife watchers in the United States of the industry means that these countries have more
spend nearly $40 billion annually. Globally, ecotourism is funds to fight illegal poaching. In addition, the wildlife-
valued at hundreds of billions of U.S. dollars. associated industries provide many local residents with
ecotourism Recreational
travel that helps conserve the Hunting for trophies and meat can also play a positive jobs, which has contributed to a decrease in poaching.
environment and improves the role in biodiversity, so long as it is properly regulated. Species can provide other economic benefits to humans
well-being of local people. In Namibia, wildlife conservancies managed by local as well. A 2005 survey found that about half of the drugs
89
?
used to treat human disease were first isolated as natural
chemicals produced by plants, fungi, bacteria, or animals. 3.10– 3.14 Solutions:
In 1997, 118 of the top 150 prescription drugs used in the
United States were derived from natural sources. Of these,
Summary
What are the relative
74% were based on compounds isolated from plants, 18% Finding solutions to the biodiversity crisis
merits of utilitarian
from fungi, 5% from bacteria, and 3% from a species of involves developing both a legal and social
(anthropocentric)
snake. For example, the rosy periwinkle, Cantharanthus framework. The U.S. Endangered Species Act of
1973 provides legal protection to both domestic
versus intrinsic
roseus, a plant native to the tropical dry forests of
Madagascar, is the source of two important drugs. One and foreign endangered animal and plant (biocentric) value of
drug, used to treat childhood leukemia, increased the species. The CITES treaty, signed by nearly 180 species as justifications
odds of surviving the disease from 20% to 99%. The other nations, regulates international trade in wildlife. for saving endangered
is used to treat Hodgkin’s disease. According to the World Saving a species typically involves eliminating species?
Resources Institute, plant-derived medicines are worth the factors that led to its decline and putting
over $40 billion worldwide each year, and there is still it back on the path to recovery. In the case of
great potential for discovery of new medicines within the the peregrine falcon, legally protecting the
great diversity of plants. species and banning DDT were the first steps.
It’s not always possible to predict how a specific species Once that foundation had been established, a
will benefit humanity. In 1966 Thomas Brock of Indiana cooperative captive rearing and reintroduction
University isolated a bacterial species he named Thermus program could begin.
aquaticus from several springs in Yellowstone National By comparison, the restoration of wolves
Park (see Figure 4.2), one of Earth’s most unique and reveals how complicated it can be to navigate a
harsh ecosystems. This thermophilic, or heat-loving, web of economic and political forces opposed
bacterium thrives in hot temperatures ranging from to conservation. Nongovernmental and
50°C to 80°C (122°F to 176°F). He deposited cultures of governmental programs have paid ranchers for
T. aquaticus in the American Type Culture Collection, livestock losses partly to soften their opposition.
where the newly discovered bacterium would be available On the other hand, wild species can provide
to other researchers. economic benefits. Restoration and conservation
Twenty years later, scientists from Cetus Company of large, “charismatic” species, such as mountain
obtained T. aquaticus samples from the culture from gorillas and wolves, can boost local economies
which they extracted an enzyme called Taq polymerase. through ecotourism. Trophy hunting can
This enzyme could be used to amplify small quantities of provide a sustainable income stream for rural
DNA, a process requiring an enzyme that is stable at high communities and encourages conservation Taq polymerase An enzyme
temperatures, and it is widely used in modern medical programs. Wild species, particularly plants, are isolated from a bacterium
discovered living in hot springs
diagnosis and forensics. Had Yellowstone not been also a valuable source of medicinal drugs, worth
in Yellowstone National
protected 100 years earlier, that enzyme might never have billions of U.S. dollars annually. Park; used to amplify small
been discovered. Undoubtedly, intact natural ecosystems quantities of DNA.
harbor countless other species, the value of which cannot
be calculated or anticipated at this time. In Chapter 4, we
will explore how ecosystems as a whole provide valuable
services to humanity and how conserving large areas
can protect these services. Marine-protected areas are
discussed in Chapter 8.
! Think About It
1. Should we use only economic criteria for species
conservation and restoration? Elaborate on your
answer.
2. Can aesthetic and economic reasons for
conserving endangered species coexist, or are they
mutually exclusive? Explain.

Central Question: How can we protect species in an increasingly human-

dominated world?

• What is the significance of genetic diversity in • How have humans affected extinction rates?
populations?
• What are the three main factors that threaten
• How do distribution and abundance vary species populations?
among species?
• How have predator and pest control impacted
• How do populations grow and how are they vulnerable species?
regulated?
• What are the typical life histories of species
• How does species interaction influence

communities?
Endangered Species and You reducing losses to predators, including shepherds, protective fencing,
and livestock guard dogs. If you are a consumer of such products,
Protecting endangered species involves work across many areas, including
buying from these certified producers will help sustain their efforts. You
science, politics, law, and economics. It is impossible for any individual to
may also consider becoming active in organizations, such as Defenders
singlehandedly save and protect an endangered species. However, the
of Wildlife, that promote the coexistence of livestock and predators.
solutions to endangered species issues can be addressed in our daily lives
in many significant ways that collectively make a very big difference. ! Help control invasive species.
The massive problem of invasive species has created virtually

! Get involved with endangered species and wildlife
unlimited opportunities for involvement in control and prevention
conservation.
programs. You can begin at home. If you are a gardener, consider
There are many opportunities to work as a volunteer or intern in growing native plant species to help reduce the flow of invasive
endangered species and wildlife conservation programs that will give species into the environment. If you keep exotic pets, do not release
valuable experience in preparation for future studies or a career in them into the wild. Pets released into the wild generally die in a short
a conservation-related field. For example, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife time. Also, wildlife refuges, nature centers, national or state forests,
Service sponsors large numbers of volunteers to work on endangered and others often enlist volunteers to help with invasive species control
species management, habitat restoration, and many other conservation- and habitat improvement.
related projects. Most state fish and game agencies or departments of
natural resources support and value volunteers and interns who work ! Do not encourage wildlife trafficking.
in similar areas. Most modern zoos are also focused on endangered Taking care with your buying habits can reduce the environmental
species conservation and the majority have volunteer programs. A impact of wildlife trafficking. The pet trade is a major source of
summary of government-related volunteer programs across the United damage to habitats, particularly coral reefs, and wild populations.
States may be found at www.volunteer.gov. Millions of birds, primates, amphibians, and reptiles are captured and
sold every year. If you keep pets, you can reduce these impacts by
! Support predator-friendly products and organizations. purchasing only captive-reared birds, aquarium fish, and reptiles and
Livestock producers around the United States are becoming certified by strictly avoiding any purchase of wild-caught animals. To reduce the
as producers of “predator-friendly” products, including wool, lamb, destruction of reef habitats around the world, do not buy coral or live
and beef. These are ranchers and farmers who use nonlethal means of reef rocks. Avoid all products made of ivory or turtle shells.
91

• How do laws and international treaties protect
endangered species?
• How was the peregrine falcon saved from

probable extinction?
• What contributions has population ecology

made to restoring wolf populations?
• What approaches have been used to reduce

conflict resulting from wolf recovery?
• What economic benefits do wild populations

offer?
Chapter 3 6. Which of the following is considered to be

the greatest threat to the existence of species?
b. Compared with sheep, a higher percentage of
cattle are lost to predators, especially to wolves.
a. Habitat destruction c. Invasive species c. A higher percentage of sheep are lost to predators,
Review Questions b. Wildlife trafficking d. Predator control programs but a higher proportion of cattle losses to predators
are the result of wolf predation.
1. Genetic diversity in populations is important 7. Does saving endangered species have any d. Losses of sheep and cattle to predators, as a
to which of the following? potential positive economic consequences? percentage, are approximately equal.
a. Domestication of plants and animals a. No, saving endangered species just costs money.
b. Survival of species faced with climate change b. Yes, saving endangered species can provide a
c. Survival of species challenged by pathogens
d. All of the above
focus for commercial nature films. Critical Analysis
c. Yes, but only saving endangered plant species from
1. In places where there are fewer species of warblers
2. Which of the following species would most which medicines can be made.
in the community, compared with those pictured
likely be in danger of extinction? d. Yes, since plants, animals, and insects make a
in Figure 3.19, the feeding zones of the remaining
a. A widespread, abundant, genetically diverse species broad range of contributions to the economy.
warblers expand. What does this suggest about the
b. Drought-caused deaths in a plant population feeding zones of these warblers?
8. What species are protected by the
c. A rare, geographically restricted species with low
Endangered Species Act of 1973? 2. What steps might be taken to protect species from
genetic diversity
a. Endangered species native to North America wildlife trafficking? Consider all aspects of the activity.
d. A rare, geographically restricted species with high
b. Endangered mammals such as the gray wolf
genetic diversity 3. If DDT were the only insecticide available for
c. Endangered animals, including invertebrate animals,
controlling malaria-carrying mosquitoes, should the
3. Which of the following describes an example and plants from anywhere in the world
use of the insecticide have been continued, even at the
of density-dependent population of regulation? d. Only endangered species with no potential
cost of the extinction of peregrine falcons, bald eagles,
a. High temperatures reducing insect numbers economic value
and other birds of prey? Justify your answer.
b. Drought-caused deaths in a plant population
c. The release of toxic pollutants into a lake 9. Why was the banning of DDT critical to 4. Do changing societal attitudes toward wolves
d. A disease that spreads easily through a population saving North American peregrine falcons from over the past century reflect changes in the relative
extinction? influences of anthropocentric versus biocentric or
4. K-selected species are least likely to have a. DDT was killing adult peregrine falcons. ecocentric ethics (see Chapter 1, page 22)?
which of the following qualities? b. A breakdown product of DDT was causing
a. Large size c. Long average life span reproductive failure in peregrine falcons. 5. How can stakeholders reach across cultural and
b. Short average life span d. Late maturity c. DDT was killing the species peregrines prey on. economic divides to establish cooperative, mutually
d. DDE, a breakdown product of DDT, was causing beneficial approaches to wolf restoration?
5. Competitive exclusion is most likely to occur
blindness in adult peregrine falcons.
under which of the following circumstances? Find additional resources and links online at www.
a. Competition between two species of carnivores 10. What do the patterns of loss of sheep and macmillanhighered.com/launchpad/molles1e.
b. Competition between two species of herbivores cattle indicated by Figure 3.32 suggest about
c. Competition between two species with nearly these two types of livestock?
identical niches a. Sheep are much less subject to predation than
d. Competition between two species of plants cattle.
Central Question:H ow
can we protect Earth’s
diverse ecosystems? Explain influences on patterns of species,
ecosystem, and geographic diversity.
(Cheryl Jaworowski/USGS) SCIENCE

C H A P T ER 4
Species and
Ecosystem Diversity
Analyze human impacts that threaten Discuss the keys to sustaining

species and ecosystem diversity. species and ecosystem diversity.
94 C HAPTER 4 SPECIES A ND EC OSYSTEM DI VER SITY
(Jim Peaco/Yellowstone National Park)
Its vast size and careful protection have made Yellowstone National Park a haven for wildlife. The park has succeeded in sustaining all the large
wildlife species that have occupied this landscape for centuries and may be a model for the design and management of protected areas.
Protecting Yellowstone’s
Diverse Ecosystems
Yellowstone National Park, established to protect unique geologic features, became a global
model for protecting large areas with high ecological and conservation value.
W hen the first American explorers visited the

Yellowstone region in the early 1800s, they were
astounded. Their accounts of boiling pools and spouting
In 1872 the U.S. Congress
designated Yellowstone as the first
conservation The
protection, management,
national park in the world. Covering or restoration of species,
ecosystems, or natural
geysers in a landscape bathed in sulfurous fumes were nearly 9,000 square kilometers resources.
thought to be the tall tales of frontiersmen. It was only after (3,475 square miles) of mountainous
official government expeditions confirmed these early landscape, Yellowstone National Park exceeds the combined
reports that the descriptions were believed. areas of the states of Rhode Island and Delaware. Today,
H O W CAN W E PROTECT E A R TH’S DI VER SE EC OSYSTEMS?

95
Yellowstone is the largest area of ecologically intact north modified by human actions and occupation, there
temperate landscape on Earth. Its ecosystem is home to are a number of threats to its ecological health, and
the largest herds of elk in North America, and it is one of the national park requires active management to
the few remaining areas in the lower 48 states where the maintain its ecological integrity. Park managers must
magnificent grizzly bear still roams in significant numbers. prevent bison populations from expanding too rapidly,
Greater Yellowstone serves as wintering ground for the rare which would harm the landscape and cause conflicts
trumpeter swan, and is home to the largest free-ranging with ranchers outside the park. They also allow
herd of bison in the lower 48 states. Mountain lions and moderately sized fires to burn regularly in the forests
wolverine still roam its mountains, bighorn sheep scramble to prevent catastrophic ones and to maintain meadow
among its cliffs, moose browse its willows, and eagles grace ecosystems. In addition, they monitor and control some
the open sky. 212 species of exotic plants. In other words, conserving
Yellowstone’s biodiversity requires strategies that are
more comprehensive than the species-by-species model
“Thank you but we do not print we looked at in Chapter 3. Instead, we now move up a
fiction.” level from individual organisms and their populations
Editor in response to early descriptions of the Yellowstone to communities of organisms and their ecosystems.
landscape, Lippincott’s Magazine (1869) One reason to preserve ecosystems is that we enjoy
the experience of hiking through a beautiful forest, for
As we learned in Chapter 3, restoring the wolf example, and spotting wildflowers or animals. Another
population to the landscape was just one part of the task reason is that maintaining biodiversity provides
required to maintain Yellowstone’s functioning ecosystems. practical benefits, ranging from clean water to climate
Because Yellowstone is surrounded by landscapes highly control.
Central Question
How can we protect
Earth’s diverse ecosystems?

(Cheryl Jaworowski/USGS)
4.1–4.5 Science
B iologists have described and named more than species, ecosystem (b) clearly supports a higher diversity
?
1.75 million species of organisms, but the true of butterflies compared with ecosystem (a), which
number of species on Earth likely ranges between supports only a single species of butterfly.
3 and 100 million. In fact, we do not even know the In contrast, ecosystems (b) and (c) both have six
Why does pollution full diversity of any single ecosystem on the planet. butterfly species. Still, the butterflies in ecosystem (c) give
often reduce species Nevertheless, biologists have developed tools to help us a visual impression of higher butterfly species diversity.
richness and evenness understand and study diversity and its importance to The visual contrast between ecosystems (b) and (c) is
in terrestrial and ecosystem functioning. created by higher species evenness in (c). In other words,
butterfly species diversity is higher in ecosystem (c), as a
aquatic ecosystems?
4.1 Species and ecosystem consequence of higher species evenness.
Diversity has consequences for the functioning of
diversity are key elements ecosystems. More diverse communities are usually
species diversity A measure
of biodiversity more stable over time and recover more quickly after
of diversity that combines When you think about biodiversity, you probably imagine disturbances, such as a treefall or a forest fire. In addition,
the number of species in a a lush, green tropical rain forest like Madidi National ecosystems with higher species richness generally support
community and their relative Park in Bolivia, which has more than 600 tree species. higher levels of primary production, compared with less
abundances.
By comparison, an oak-hickory forest in the Missouri diverse ecosystems (see Chapter 7, page 190).
species richness The Ozarks contains just 46 tree species. One of the most basic
number of species in a
elements of biodiversity is species diversity, which is Ecosystem Diversity
community or living in a local
area or region; higher species determined by two components: the number of species in Zooming out from the species level, we see that the
richness increases species a community and their relative abundances. The species landscape is a patchwork of different ecosystems ranging
diversity. diversity of a community increases with the number from forests to wetlands. Ecosystem diversity is a
species evenness of species, which is called species richness. However, measure of the variety and extent of ecosystems in an
How evenly individuals species richness alone does not give a complete picture of area. Because of differences in the kinds of species in
are apportioned among species diversity. We must also consider species evenness, different ecosystems and differences in their patterns
the species inhabiting a a measure of the relative abundances of species in a of energy flow and nutrient cycling, each ecosystem in
community; higher evenness
increases species diversity.
community. This is important because even though a a landscape adds to overall biodiversity. For instance,
community has high species richness, it may be dominated the butterflies pictured in Figure 4.1 live in meadow
ecosystem diversity A
by a single species, making it, effectively, less diverse. ecosystems.
measure of the variety and
extent of ecosystems in an Consider butterflies living in three hypothetical A nearby woodland ecosystem would support
area. meadow ecosystems (Figure 4.1). With six butterfly a different assemblage of butterfly species, and an

97
CONTRIBUTIONS OF SPECIES RICHNESS AND SPECIES EVENNESS TO SPECIES DIVERSITY
a. LOWEST (ZERO) SPECIES DIVERSITY b. INTERMEDIATE SPECIES DIVERSITY c. HIGHEST SPECIES DIVERSITY
Community includes just one butterfly species. Species richness is high (6 species) but species High species richness and high species evenness (all
evenness is low. species equally abundant).
FIGURE 4.1 (a) A population of a single butterfly species has zero species diversity. (b) A community of six butterfly species that
is dominated numerically by one of the six species has low species evenness. (c) A community of six species is equal in species
richness to community (b) but, with all species equally abundant (highest possible species evenness), is higher in species diversity
compared with community (b).
?
agricultural field would likely support yet another order to make conservation decisions, we need to know
collection of butterflies. Furthermore, the butterflies something about the biological differences among
that live in these three different ecosystems would be Earth’s various regions, such as islands and continents,
pollinating different plants, which, in turn, are eaten by and climatic zones, such as those on cold mountaintops
What relationship do
different insects. or in the tropics. Such knowledge will help us choose
the best places for biological reserves and will inform
you expect between
Yellowstone National Park’s ecosystems include
forests, meadows, large rivers, ponds, marshes, and management of these areas. ecosystem diversity and
lakes, along with the geothermal ecosystems for which species diversity in a
the park is best known. In fact, Yellowstone may contain landscape?
The Terrestrial Biomes
a higher diversity of ecosystems than anywhere else in
North America (Figure 4.2 on the next page). The biomes are large geographic areas recognized by
?
their distinctive biological structure—associations
! Think About It of plants, animals, and other organisms—and

characteristic vegetation or plant growth forms, such
1. Should any particular component of biodiversity as trees, shrubs, grasses, or vines. For example, the How might the map in
(species, ecosystem, etc.) receive a higher priority plant and animal species that live in tropical forests Figure 4.3 change with
for conservation (see Chapter 1) than others? and tundra are entirely different, and both support global warming?
species different from those living in the Mediterranean
2. How do conservation for species diversity and scrub biome. However, because of their large scale,
ecosystem diversity complement each other? biomes are made up of many interacting communities
and ecosystems. Variation in climate, soils, and other
3. Does a natural ecosystem need to be rich in physical factors determine the type of biome covering
species to merit conservation attention? a geographical region (Figure 4.3 on page 99). For
example, the cold climates of the far north are
biome Associations of plants,
4.2 Geographic patterns dominated by the low herbs and dwarf trees of the
animals, and other organisms
tundra biome, as well as the vast expanses of coniferous
and processes influence trees characteristic of the taiga or boreal forest biome.
that occur over large areas
and that are characterized by
biodiversity Meanwhile, tropical forests are found in regions where distinctive biological structure,
Now that we have reviewed species and ecosystem it is warm year-round and very rainy. Deserts develop especially by characteristic
growth forms (e.g., trees,
diversity, which reflect biodiversity within communities where there are dry climates. shrubs, or grasses on land;
and across landscapes, let’s consider patterns of As we will see in Chapter 7 (pages 193 and 195), corals, kelp, or mangrove trees
biodiversity at larger regional and global scales. In the soils of the terrestrial biomes are also distinctive in aquatic environments).

A LANDSCAPE OF DIVERSE ECOSYSTEMS

(Christer Fredriksson/Getty Images)
(John Elk III/Getty Images)

Mixed conifer and aspen forest Yellowstone River

Yellowstone
National Park
Norris Geyser Basin Yellowstone Lake
(Yellowstone National Park Photo Collection)

(Neal Herbert/National Park Service)
Meadow/grassland Cattail marsh

10 km
AREA ENLARGED
FIGURE 4.2 Yellowstone National Park includes an exceptionally high level of ecosystem diversity, which consists of the variety
and relative extents of ecosystems in the landscape. The presence of diverse and unique ecosystems, a natural wonderland that still
impresses the modern visitor, was a likely contributor to Yellowstone being named as the world’s first national park.
and support very different types of economic activities: transition between marine and terrestrial environments
Temperate grasslands support extensive growing of include salt marshes and mangrove forests. Meanwhile,
grains, such as wheat and maize, whereas the boreal freshwater wetlands occupy the transition between
forests support vast wood harvesting for lumber and freshwater and terrestrial environments. Because
wood pulp for paper manufacturing. of highly variable physical conditions and greater
nutrient availability, these transitional biomes have low
The Aquatic Biomes biodiversity but exceptionally high production.
The major marine biomes include the open ocean,
Latitudinal Diversity Gradients
ocean floor, coral reefs, and kelp forests (Figure 4.4
on page 100). While coral reefs are limited to warm Consider that the number of bird species living in
tropical oceans, kelp forests are found in cool-temperate tropical Suriname is over 7 times higher than in
coastal waters through cold regions, such as the coasts Newfoundland, although they are roughly the same
of southern California to Alaska. The diversity of size (163,820 km2 versus 111,390 km2). Other groups
species living in and on intact coral reefs rivals that of of organisms such as mammals, trees, reptiles, fish, and
tropical forests, and the organisms making up a coral insects also increase in species richness from the poles
reef community are very different from those inhabiting to the tropics. Similar increases in species richness occur
a freshwater marsh. Aquatic biomes that occur at the among freshwater and marine organisms, such as fish,

99
PORTRAITS OF EARTH’S TERRESTRIAL BIOMES

(Ralph Loesche/Shutterstock)
(Sean Lema/Shutterstock)
(NPS/Larry McAfee)
(NPS)
TROPICAL FOREST TEMPERATE FOREST TEMPERATE GRASSLAND DESERT

CLIMATE: Wet year-round or wet and CLIMATE: Moderate winters, warm CLIMATE: Cold winters; wet and hot CLIMATE: Hot summers and mild or
dry seasons summers, medium to high precipitation summers cold winters, dry
VEGETATION: Broad-leaved evergreen VEGETATION: Deciduous or coniferous VEGETATION: Grasses and other VEGETATION: Drought-tolerant
or deciduous trees, vines, and epiphytes trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants herbaceous plants, varying in height succulents, deep-rooted shrubs and
such as orchids and ferns in understory with annual precipitation trees, fast-growing ephemeral plants
(Israel Hervas Bengochea/Shutterstock)
(Oleg Znamenskyiy/Shutterstock)
(IDAK/Shutterstock)
(NPS Photo)
TROPICAL SAVANNA MEDITERRANEAN SCRUB TAIGA OR BOREAL FOREST TUNDRA

CLIMATE: Warm year-round; distinct CLIMATE: Mild and wet winters; hot, CLIMATE: Cold winters; short, mild CLIMATE: Cold winters; brief, cool
wet, dry seasons dry summers summers; medium precipitation summers; low precipitation
VEGETATION: Dry season fires help VEGETATION: Tough-leaved, fire- VEGETATION: Vast expanses of VEGETATION: Lichens, low herbs, and
maintain grassland with scattered tolerant shrubs and trees, spring coniferous trees, especially spruce, dwarf trees
trees flowering grasses and herbaceous fir, and larch; some deciduous aspen,
plants birch, and willow
FIGURE 4.3 The plant growth forms and animals characteristic of Earth’s diverse biomes reflect evolutionary adaptations to the
planet’s geographic variation in climate.
mollusks, and algae. As a consequence, regions near the amount of land area there exceeds that in temperate
equator contribute disproportionately to global species
richness (Figure 4.5 on page 101).
Why are the tropics so diverse? There are a few
possible reasons for this phenomenon. The simplest
regions. Other factors may include the amount of
sunlight that the equator receives year-round, which
contributes to greater levels of plant growth. The tropics
also tend to have relatively stable climates, compared with
?
Where would species
is that there is simply more room in the tropics. The the temperate zone, where seasonal changes limit growth unknown to science
continents are centered around the equator, and the in cold months. However, we do not yet have an entirely most likely be found?

PORTRAITS OF EARTH’S AQUATIC BIOMES
(Deep East 2001, NOAA/OER)

(M. Pellinni/Shutterstock)
(topseller/Shutterstock)
(NOAA)
STREAMS & RIVERS LAKES & PONDS OPEN OCEAN OCEAN FLOOR
PHYSICAL ASPECTS: Turbulent, PHYSICAL ASPECTS: Conditions vary PHYSICAL ASPECTS: Extensive open PHYSICAL ASPECTS: Mainly sand or
downstream flow of well-mixed water; from shore to open water, variable water, light limited to upper layers, mud, light gradient from shallows to
high oxygen salinity and nutrients well mixed ocean depths
KEY ORGANISMS: Algae and riverside KEY ORGANISMS: Plants, algae, fish, KEY ORGANISMS: Drifting algae and KEY ORGANISMS: Invertebrates such as
plants source of food for aquatic and invertebrates vary from shore to grazing animals fed on by larger fish, shrimp and fish abundant in shallows and
invertebrates, amphibians, and fish deeper water seabirds, and whales at hydrothermal vents
(Andy Lidstone/Shutterstock)
(Randolph Femmer/USGS)
(David Burdick/NOAA)
(NOAA)
CORAL REEFS & KELP FORESTS MANGROVE FORESTS SALT MARSHES FRESHWATER WETLANDS
PHYSICAL ASPECTS: Coral Reefs: Warm, PHYSICAL ASPECTS: Margins of warm PHYSICAL ASPECTS: Generally twice PHYSICAL ASPECTS: Flooding saturates
well-lighted, shallow water with stable tropical oceans, gradient from salt to daily tides; highly variable salinity, oxygen, soils with water for varying lengths of time
salinity and temperature; freshwater and temperature KEY ORGANISMS: Plants tolerate
Kelp Forests: Seasonally variable cool to KEY ORGANISMS: Mangrove trees; high KEY ORGANISMS: Herbaceous plants oxygen-poor, water-saturated soils;
cold, well-lighted, shallow water diversity of birds, fish, insects, and other tolerate saline, oxygen-poor soils; abundant, diverse animals
KEY ORGANISMS: Reef-building corals, invertebrates abundant invertebrates, birds, and fish
or macro-algae supporting highly diverse
fish and invertebrate populations
FIGURE 4.4 The biological communities of aquatic biomes are determined mainly by physical and chemical aspects of the
environment, especially temperature, current and wave energy, salinity, and oxygen content.
biodiversity hotspot
A region that supports at
least 1,500 endemic plant
species, approximately 0.5%
of the world total, and that has satisfactory explanation for this long-known pattern, and in the temperate zone, including areas around the
been reduced in area by at
ecologists continue their research. Mediterranean Sea and the California region (Figure 4.6).
least 70%.
endemic species Local or Biodiversity Hotspots Species Richness on Islands: Effects of Area
regional species of organisms and Isolation
found nowhere else on Earth.
Although the tropics are generally the most diverse parts
of the globe, particular areas seem to be “biodiversity Islands are natural laboratories for the study of
equilibrium model of hotspots,” with spectacularly high numbers of species. biodiversity. For instance, biologists Robert MacArthur
island biogeography The Conservation International, a nongovernmental and E. O. Wilson proposed that the number of species
hypothesis that the number conservation organization, has identified 34 biodiversity on an island remains relatively constant over time but
of species on an island is
hotspots on Earth, which they define as regions that that the composition of species on an island changes.
determined by a balance
between rates of immigration have been reduced from their historic area by at least According to their theory, known as the equilibrium
of new species and rates 70% and that support at least 1,500 endemic species of model of island biogeography, the number of species
of species extinction on the plants—that is, local or regional species found nowhere on an island is the result of a balance between the rate at
island, where rates of species else on Earth. These biodiversity hotspots represent only which new species immigrate (arrive from somewhere
immigration and extinction
2.3% of Earth’s land area yet support half the world’s plant else) there and the rate at which species already on the
are determined by island size
and isolation from sources of species (150,000 species) and nearly half the terrestrial island become locally extinct (although they may persist
immigrants. vertebrate species. Many of these hotspots are located elsewhere).

101
SPECIES RICHNESS VARIES WITH LATITUDE
90ºN
75ºN
Though about equal in area, Newfoundland and

60ºN New York, at high to middle latitudes, support
only a fraction of the bird species living at lower
latitudes in tropical Guatemala and Suriname.
Newfoundland
45ºN
LATITUDE
New York
30ºN
15ºN Guatemala
Suriname
0º
0 200 400 600 800
NUMBER OF BIRD SPECIES
FIGURE 4.5 Bird species richness increases from higher to lower latitudes, a common pattern among most groups of organisms,
including plants, mammals, insects, and fish. (Data from various sources)
Let’s look at an example. The birds on Delos, a small (Figure 4.7 on the next page). Between surveys, three
Greek island of only 6 km2, were surveyed during the bird species became extinct on the island, while two
middle of the 20th century and then again 35 years later new species immigrated. The result was an insignificant
BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOTS MAY MERIT CONSERVATION PRIORITY
Mountains of
Caucasus Central Asia
California
Floristic Madrean Mountains of
Province Pine-Oak Japan
Mediterranean Southwest China
Woodlands Basin Irano-
Caribbean Anatolian Himalaya
Islands
Indo-
Eastern Burma Philippines
Mesoamerica Afro- Polynesia-
montane Horn of Micronesia
Tumbles- Africa Western
Guinean Ghats and
Choco- Tropical Forests
Polynesia- Magdalena Sri Lanka Wallacea
Andes of West East
Micronesia Africa Coastal Melanesian
Cerrado Forests of Madagascar Islands
Sundaland
Eastern and the Indian
Succulent Africa Ocean Islands
Atlantic Karoo New Caledonia
Forest Southwest New Zealand
Chilean Cape Floristic Maputaland- Australia
Winter Region Pondoland-
Rainfall- Albany
Valdivian
Forests
Biodiversity hotspots
FIGURE 4.6 A relatively small number of biodiversity hotspots are home to a very large portion of Earth’s species. Because biodiversity hotspots,
shown by red shading, support half of Earth’s plant species and a large fraction of animal species, many conservation scientists suggest that they
be a focus for biodiversity conservation. (After Mittermeier et al., 2005)

ON DELOS ISLAND, GREECE, SPECIES EXTINCTION AND IMMIGRATION ARE NEARLY EQUAL
INITIAL BIRD ASSEMBLAGE BIRD ASSEMBLAGE 35 YEARS LATER
Barn White Black-eared Crested Barn Black-eared Crested

swallow wagtail wheatear Lark swallow wheatear Lark
House Linnet
sparrow
Rock Hooded Common Hooded House Linnet
sparrow crow raven crow sparrow
Immigration
Delos Island OVER A PERIOD Delos Island

OF 35 YEARS
Extinction
White Rock Common

wagtail sparrow raven
FIGURE 4.7 Species richness on islands, such as Delos, has been shown to result from a dynamic balance between local
extinction and immigration. Despite substantial extinction and immigration of species, the number of bird species on Delos Island
changed little in 35 years. (Data from Foufopoulos & Mayer, 2007) (Left panel: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Dennis Jacobsen/Shutterstock,
skapuka/Shutterstock, Bildagentur Zoonar GmbH/Shutterstock, John Navajo/Shutterstock, Vishnevskiy Vasily/Shutterstock, Edwin Butter/Shutterstock;
Right panel: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, skapuka/Shutterstock, Bildagentur Zoonar GmbH/Shutterstock, Vishnevskiy Vasily/Shutterstock, Andrew
Williams/Shutterstock, Florian Andronache/Shutterstock; Center top: Andrew Williams/Shutterstock, Florian Andronache/Shutterstock; Center bottom:
Dennis Jacobsen/Shutterstock, John Navajo/Shutterstock, Edwin Butter/Shutterstock)
decline in the number of bird species from seven to that has been cleared to establish agricultural fields
six. The bird community on Delos supports the theory or national parks or wildlife refuges, surrounded by
proposed by MacArthur and Wilson. intensively used forest or grazing lands. The implication
MacArthur and Wilson proposed that the area of of the equilibrium model of island biogeography is that
?
If you were to study
an island and its distance from the mainland source
population determine rates of immigration and
extinction. Larger islands tend to have higher species
larger and less isolated natural habitats will support
higher species richness.
the bird community on

numbers for two reasons. First, they provide a larger
target area and therefore receive more immigrants. ! Think About It
Delos Island 50 years Second, they have lower extinction rates because they 1. Why do some conservation organizations,
from now, what would can maintain larger populations of resident species. such as Conservation International, suggest that
you expect to find? Now consider islands that are close to the mainland. conservation efforts be concentrated on biodiversity
They receive more immigrants because of close
hotspots?
proximity. They also have lower extinction rates because
immigration can help sustain the population of a species. 2. Why is there more general concern about
Consequently, large islands close to the mainland tend to deforestation in tropical forests, such as those in
harbor the most species, whereas small, isolated islands Suriname, compared with boreal forests, such as
harbor the fewest (Figure 4.8). those of Newfoundland?
The equilibrium model of island biogeography can be
broadly applicable to any habitat that occurs as isolated 3. Are there unique species and ecosystems that
patches, such as remnant patches of woods in a landscape will be lost if we focus conservation entirely on

103
AREA AND ISOLATION INFLUENCE SPECIES RICHNESS ON ISLANDS
AREA’S INFLUENCE ON SPECIES RICHNESS ISOLATION’S INFLUENCE ON SPECIES RICHNESS

NUMBER OF SPECIES
NUMBER OF SPECIES
Small Large Near Far
ISLAND AREA DISTANCE FROM SOURCE OF IMMIGRANTS
Mainland
FIGURE 4.8 On average, larger islands support more species (higher species richness), whereas islands farther from sources of
immigrants (e.g., a continent) support fewer species. As a result, small islands far from sources of immigrants support the fewest
species, and large islands near sources of immigrants support the most species.
biodiversity hotspots and tropical latitudes? in the populations. Elk had been feeding on the young
(Consider the polar bear.) cottonwood and willow trees so that few grew to maturity.
However, soon after the reintroduction of wolves, elk
4.3 Some species influence
biodiversity much more than WHAT IS THE SOURCE OF THE KEYSTONE
others SPECIES HYPOTHESIS?
The species in an ecosystem can be thought of loosely
as a sports team, where each species has a different
role to play. While the loss of any player might hurt the
team’s prospects, the loss of certain ones, such as the
quarterback in football, would be absolutely devastating.
In nature, it’s also the case that some species appear
Sea star Wolf Sea otter
to be more vital to the integrity of communities and
ecosystems than others.
Keystone Species and Ecosystem Engineers

Species that exert significant effects on biodiversity
despite low abundance within the community are called
keystone species. Losing one of these species is like the
collapse of a stone archway following the removal of its
keystone. Keystone species are usually top-level predators
like sea stars, sea otters, and jaguars that influence the keystone species A species
structure of communities through their feeding activities with substantial influence on
(Figure 4.9). When restored to Yellowstone National community structure, despite
Park, the gray wolf revealed its role as a keystone species. FIGURE 4.9 The keystone species hypothesis is an analogy its low biomass or numbers
drawn from architecture. The stone at the top of a stone arch is relative to other species; the
Before the restoration of wolves, woody vegetation along called the “keystone.” If the keystone is removed, the arch will influence of keystone species
the Lamar River was limited to a scattering of mature collapse upon itself. The removal of a “keystone species” can is often exerted through
cottonwood and willow trees, with very few young trees have an analogous effect on an ecological community. feeding activities.
S CI EN CE ISSUES S OLU T IONS

WOLVES AND RECOVERY OF RIPARIAN TREES IN YELLOWSTONE BEAVERS ENGINEER STREAM ECOSYSTEMS
(Robert Cicchetti/Shutterstock)
(R. L. Beschta)
FIGURE 4.10 Wolf reintroduction is fostering cottonwood and willow FIGURE 4.11 By building dams, beavers introduce ponds and marshes along
reproduction and growth in Yellowstone National Park. Shown here are the results streams, which diversifies the ecosystem by adding new environments along areas
of successful establishment and growth of young cottonwoods (the smaller, that would otherwise be limited to the alternating pools and riffles of a typical
densely spaced saplings under the mature cottonwood trees) in a riverside area stream.
along the Lamar River, where the local topography and the presence of wolves
have reduced feeding by elk and bison.
avoided riverside areas, where they were vulnerable to wolf behind carrion that other species, including grizzly bears,
attacks. With the elk gone, young trees survived at a higher coyotes, foxes, ravens, and eagles, could feast on.
?
rate (Figure 4.10).
These effects trickled down through the ecosystem.
Foundation Species
As willows increased in size and abundance, there was
Why is starvation an increase in the feeding and breeding habitat available Foundation species create a physical framework for the
no longer a major to birds. Beaver populations grew, too, and physically community with their own bodies. Think, for example, of
source of mortality altered the landscape as they became more abundant a forest, where the trees form a canopy and where shrubs
(Figure 4.11). Species, like the beaver, that manipulate and herbaceous vegetation on the forest floor create a
among elk wintering in
the physical environment and influence ecosystem habitat for other species. In the ocean, corals or kelp
Yellowstone National create a complex structural framework for fish and other
structure and processes are called ecosystem engineers.
Park? By preying on elk throughout the year, wolves also left animals to live in and feed in (Figure 4.12).
FOUNDATION SPECIES OCCUR IN MOST ECOSYSTEMS
ecosystem engineer
A species, like the beaver,
that influences ecosystem
structure and processes
(Dennis Burns/Getty Images)
by altering the physical

environment.
(Borisoff/Shutterstock)
foundation species
A species that strongly
influences community
structure by creating
Coral reef Grove of aspen trees
environments suitable for
other species by virtue of its FIGURE 4.12 Corals create foundations for species-rich ecosystems in shallow, tropical marine environments. Aspen trees are an
large size or biomass. important foundation species in Yellowstone National Park.

105
INFLUENCE OF WOLVES RIPPLES THROUGH THE YELLOWSTONE ECOSYSTEM
EFFECT ON POPULATION KEYSTONE SPECIES
Increase Decrease
SCAVENGERS
Gray wolf
Eagles, ravens, magpies,
More food red fox, grizzly bear
Reduced
Predation competition
Birds, small mammals
DOMINANT HERBIVORE More food
More
habitat
variety
More food
More
Less predation predictable
PREY SPECIES carcass
Elk availability Carrion
AQUATIC SPECIES
Predation
PREDATOR/SCAVENGER
Insects, spiders
Insects, amphibians
More food, habitat More habitat
More habitat
Coyote
FOUNDATION SPECIES ECOSYSTEM ENGINEER
Less grazing
pressure
Willow, cottonwood, Increased food and dam

aspen building material Beaver
FIGURE 4.13 Predation by wolves directly suppresses the populations of some species, mainly coyotes and elk, while indirectly
stimulating growth in many other populations, including ecosystem engineers and foundation species. The far-reaching effects of the
gray wolf in the Yellowstone National Park ecosystem, which appear to qualify it as a keystone species, are the subject of ongoing
long-term scientific studies.
Willows and cottonwoods, since they appear to have

been released from control by elk grazing, may resume the
wolf reintroduction show how the presence, or absence,
of a single species in an ecosystem can make a profound
?
How might the views of
status of foundation species in the Yellowstone National difference to biodiversity. an elk hunter versus a
Park ecosystem. In addition to providing food for beavers, trapper of beavers for the
willows are a nesting habitat for a diversity of birds, Indicator, Umbrella, and Flagship Species
fur trade differ in regard
including the endangered Western willow flycatcher. They There are many other species that can play important to wolf restoration in
provide shelter and food to a great diversity of insects, as practical roles as we work to conserve ecosystems and the Northern Rocky
well as cover for small mammals. By shading the ground, landscapes. Viable populations of some species can Mountains?
willows change the temperature and moisture conditions demonstrate the health of the ecosystems on which
experienced by soil organisms, including worms, insects, they depend. Consequently, monitoring these indicator
and fungi. Again, wolves, by chasing elk out of streamside species, such as the California gnatcatcher, which is
indicator species A species
and riverside areas, seem to be releasing willows from associated with coastal sage scrub (see Chapter 3, that provides information
herbivore control, further underscoring the keystone role page 77), can provide information about the state of the about the state of the
of wolves (Figure 4.13). These far-reaching effects of ecosystem in which they live. Management designed to ecosystem in which it lives.

sustain populations of indicator species, as well as others microorganisms, plants, and animals begin to colonize the
such as the grizzly bears of Yellowstone or the spirit bear affected area. As these organisms establish themselves, they
of the temperate rain forests of western Canada (see modify the environment, starting a process of ecological
Figure 3.21, page 78), is another entry into ecosystem change called succession, which is the gradual change in a
conservation. Indicator species can also act as umbrella community over time following a disturbance.
species, since protecting them provides protection for Succession on a bare geologic surface, such as a recent
the entire ecosystem on which they depend. Yet other lava flow, is called primary succession. It is generally a
so-called flagship species can attract and sustain human slow process, requiring hundreds or thousands of years,
interest in protecting ecosystems. Examples of such because it begins in the absence of well-developed soil.
charismatic species, which have become symbols for One example of this is the succession that takes place
ecosystem conservation, include redwood trees, giant on the stones and gravel exposed by a retreating glacier
pandas, and the great whales. (Figure 4.14). The earliest colonizers must be tolerant of
low nutrient conditions. Many of these “pioneer” species,
! Think About It including plants and lichens (an association between a
fungus and cyanobacteria), do not depend entirely on
1. Can an organism be a keystone species and an soil nutrients because they are capable of getting nitrogen
ecosystem engineer? How about a keystone species from the air (for more on the nitrogen cycle, see
and a foundation species? Chapter 7, page 192).
The earliest community to develop during succession,
2. Why do conservation biologists take threats called a pioneer community, is made up mainly of
to keystone species, ecosystem engineers, and species that are tolerant of exposure to full sun, capable
foundation species very seriously? of living under conditions that are stressful to many other
species. These pioneer species also generally have high
3. How might too much attention to known
reproductive rates and good dispersal abilities. Gradually,
keystone and foundation species harm conservation
as these early organisms grow and shed detritus, which
efforts? is consumed by fungi, worms, and other detritivores,
nutrient-rich soil forms. As soil builds, conditions
4.4 Ecological succession become suitable for the establishment of grasses and
herbs, then shrubs and trees. In time, a forest could
affects community develop on the site.
composition and diversity Succession following a disturbance of an established
After a disturbance, such as an intense forest fire, disrupts community that doesn’t destroy all living creatures or
umbrella species A species
whose protection provides
an established biological community, or when a new the soil is called secondary succession, because the
protection for the entire substrate, such as ash from a volcano, is laid down, process occurs on a landscape already much modified
ecosystem on which that
species depends.
flagship species A species PRIMARY SUCCESSION FOLLOWS GLACIER RETREAT

that attracts and sustains
human interest in protecting
ecosystems.
succession The gradual

change in a community over
time following a disturbance.
primary succession
Succession on a bare geologic
surface, such as a recent lava
flow.
pioneer community The

earliest community to develop
during succession.
(NPS/Kay White)
secondary succession
Succession following
disturbance of an established
community that doesn’t
destroy all living creatures or FIGURE 4.14 As glaciers retreat, they expose mineral substrates, including stones, gravel, and sand. Over
the soil. time, this surface is gradually colonized, initiating a successional process that may take many centuries.

107
EXAMPLE OF SECONDARY SUCCESSION: FIGURE 4.15 During old-field succession in eastern North
America, the succession of communities will generally pass
OLD-FIELD SUCCESSION
through several predictable stages. The initial stage consists
of bare soil immediately following abandonment of the field.
Second, an early successional community consists mainly of
annual plants capable of colonizing bare soil. Third, a later stage
(Natural Area Teaching Laboratory, University of Florida,
of mixed perennial and annual herbaceous develops. Fourth,

an early forest stage consists mainly of young, fast-growing,
sun-tolerant trees and shrubs. Finally (not shown here), there is
an ultimate successional stage of trees that can germinate and
grow in the shade of mature, sun-tolerant trees.
Gainesville, FL, US)
by organisms. For example, after an agricultural field is

abandoned, it may gradually become forested again. Early
in succession, annual plants—those that germinate from
15 JUNE, 2007 Cleared field with some herbaceous plant cover seeds, then grow, set seeds, and die within one year—with
high reproductive rates and rapid dispersal ability will
dominate the plant community. Later, perennial herbs,
?
grasses, and shrubs, with more restricted environmental
requirements, will establish themselves, displacing many

of the earliest, pioneer plant species. Next, we might
see fast-growing pine trees. Eventually, the pines will be Should the goal of
overgrown and replaced by slower-growing deciduous conservation be to
trees, such as oak and hickory. These will become the eliminate all forms of
foundation species of the climax community, which will
disturbance? Explain.
remain stable until the next disturbance (Figure 4.15).

The species making up the climax community will, of
course, depend on the biome in which succession occurs.
21 JULY, 2008 Field dominated by tall ragweed As succession unfolds, the sequence of species that
arrive have different life histories (see Chapter 3,
page 71). The communities during the early stages of
succession are dominated by the r-selected species (many
offspring, wide dispersal) characteristic of disturbed

environments, while the later stages of succession favor
K-selected species (few offspring, slow growth). Between
these two endpoints, mid-successional communities are
formed from a mixture of r- and K-selected species. As a
result, the middle stages of succession are generally richer
in species than either early or late successional stages

(Figure 4.16 on the next page).
14 JULY, 2010 A more diverse mix of herbaceous plant cover on field

! Think About It
1. Considering that disturbance is a natural part
of the environment, why might human-caused
disturbance often have a more negative impact on

biodiversity?
2. What would the life histories of species be like
in a world with frequent and intense disturbances
everywhere?
climax community The
3. If pioneer species are so good at colonizing community at the end of a

and dominating space during the early stages of successional sequence that
persists until a disturbance
15 JULY, 2013 Woody shrubs and young sun-tolerant trees have
succession, why does their dominance not extend disrupts it sufficiently to restart
colonized field through the later stages of succession? succession.

SPECIES RICHNESS AND COMPOSITION CHANGES DURING SUCCESSION ALLOPATRIC SPECIATION: ITS FOUR BASIC STEPS
1 SINGLE INTERBREEDING POPULATION

The middle, species-rich stages An ancestral population with interbreeding throughout.
of succession include a mixture
of r-selected species, which are
good colonizers of new habitat,
and K-selected species, which
SPECIES RICHNESS
are generally strong competitors.
r-selected and
r-selected K-selected K-selected
species species species
Early Middle Late Single ancestral species

SUCCESSIONAL STAGE
FIGURE 4.16 The number of species in a community increases rapidly during the early stages of
2 MOUNTAIN BARRIER FORMS
succession and generally reaches a peak during the middle stages, declining during the later stages. The population is divided into two separated (allopatric)
The middle, species-rich stages of succession include a mixture of r-selected species, which are populations. Geographic barrier prevents interbreeding
good colonizers of new habitat, and K-selected species, which are generally strong competitors. between two populations.
(After Guo, 2003)
4.5 Global species richness

results from a balance
between speciation and
extinction
Two allopatric populations
Just as the number of species on islands is largely
What factors could

? determined by rates of immigration and extinction, the
number of species on Earth as a whole is determined by
the relative rates at which new species form and existing
ones become extinct. In Chapter 3, we discussed patterns
3 DIFFERENTIATION
Over time, genetic differences build up between the two
popuations as the result of natural selection and random
mutations.
keep two geographically of extinction over time, including how human activity
isolated populations is increasing extinction rates to levels suggesting a mass
from diverging extinction. Here, we examine extinction’s opposite: the
genetically? process by which new species arise.
Allopatric Speciation
The evolutionary process by which new species arise
is called speciation. Evolutionary biologists have Continued allopatry
proposed several ways in which new species may
form. The most common form of speciation, however, 4 BARRIER PERMEABLE, NO INTERBREEDING
appears to occur when a geographic barrier, such as Barrier removed and the distributions of the two popula-
speciation An evolutionary tions overlap but do not interbreed. Speciation is complete.
a river, canyon, or mountain range, divides a single
process by which new species
arise. population into separate subpopulations in a process
called allopatric, or geographic, speciation. Because
allopatric (geographic) the separated organisms cannot cross the geographic
speciation A process by barrier to mate, genetic differences between the two
which new species are formed
that occurs as the result of
populations can gradually accumulate either because the
the division of a population separated populations adapt to different environmental
into two geographically conditions or because of random mutations. When
separate populations; over the populations become so different genetically or
time, genetic differences behaviorally that they no longer interbreed, they have
arise and accumulate in the Two species
two separate populations,
become two separate species (Figure 4.17). FIGURE 4.17 Allopatric speciation, also known as geographic
eventually leading to Gorillas provide a good example of allopatric speciation, is thought to be one of the main ways in which new
reproductive isolation. speciation. The two recognized species—the western species arise.

109
GEOGRAPHIC SEPARATION OF GORILLA SPECIES
WESTERN GORILLAS EASTERN GORILLAS

(Ronald van der Beek/Shutterstock)
(Ryan M. Bolton/Shutterstock)
Western lowland gorilla, Gorilla gorilla gorilla Mountain gorilla, Gorilla beringei beringei
(Nickolay Khoroshov/Shutterstock)
(© Orokiet/Alamy)
Cross river gorilla, Gorilla gorilla diehli Eastern lowland gorilla, Gorilla beringei graueri
FIGURE 4.18 The western gorilla (Gorilla gorilla) and the eastern gorilla (Gorilla beringei) are separated by more than
1,000 kilometers (620 miles). As shown, both gorilla species have further differentiated into two subspecies.
gorilla (Gorilla gorilla) and the eastern gorilla (Gorilla speciation can also occur through polyploidy, an
beringei)—live on opposite sides of the African increase in the number of sets of chromosomes, either
continent and are today separated by over 1,000 kilometers by doubling the number of sets within a species lineage
(620 miles) (Figure 4.18). Eastern gorillas are heftier, live
in lager groups, and are more strictly vegetarian compared
with western gorillas. However, these two gorilla species
once consisted of a single continuous population, with
or by doubling the number of sets of chromosomes
following hybridization between two closely related
species. Polyploidy has been an important mechanism
for sympatric speciation in plants. The evidence for
?
People all around the
individuals mating and exchanging genes across their sympatric speciation among animals is weaker. However, world are concerned
entire range. But approximately 1 million years ago, a this is an area of active current research. about survival of
large-scale climatic or geological event separated the gorillas. What are the
single gorilla population into two allopatric populations.
Through successive generations, the separate populations ! Think About It possible sources of this
concern?
began to accumulate genetic differences, eventually 1. Some birds, originally described as separate
producing the distinctive eastern and western gorillas of species because they differ greatly in color pattern
today. Yet evolutionary differentiation did not stop there. and some aspects of behavior, have since been
Both gorilla species eventually evolved into two separate
combined under a single species name because
subspecies.
members of the two populations have been found
to interbreed in nature and produce fully fertile
Sympatric Speciation
offspring. What is the scientific justification for
New species can also arise without geographic isolation, considering these physically distinct populations as
in a process called sympatric speciation. Sympatric members of the same species?
speciation may follow ecological or behavioral separation
of two subpopulations of a species that use different 2. If extinction has been a natural process
throughout the history of life on Earth, why are sympatric speciation
habitats or foods. If two subpopulations of a species A process by which new
use different criteria for choosing mates, they may environmental scientists working to reduce the species arise without
also diverge without geographic isolation. Sympatric present threats of extinction? geographic isolation.

4.1–4.5 Science: in time depends on a region’s history of a

Summary disturbance. Following severe disturbance,
organisms will begin to colonize the area,
Species diversity is a function of the number setting in motion an ecological process
of species—species richness—and their called primary succession. Succession after
relative abundances—species evenness. less severe disturbances is called secondary
Ecosystem diversity consists of the number succession. Species richness generally peaks
and kinds of ecosystems in an area. Species during the middle stages of a successional
richness generally increases from the poles to process, in which the community commonly
the equator. Biodiversity hotspots, inside and consists of a mixture of early (r-selected) and
outside the tropics, support especially high late (K-selected) successional species.
numbers of species. Species diversity is also the product of
Diversity is shaped by a number of factors. evolution. During allopatric speciation,
Species richness on islands, determined a population is divided into two
by species immigration and extinction, is geographically separate populations. The
usually lower compared with similar-sized two separated populations then accumulate
areas on continents. Keystone species, differences over time, becoming separate
foundation species, and ecosystem engineers species when they no longer interbreed.
disproportionately influence the biodiversity of During sympatric speciation, new species
their communities. Diversity at any given point form without geographic isolation.
4.6–4.8 Issues
I t’s fair to say that no place on Earth has been left patches of habitat, or habitat fragments. A patch of forest
untouched by human activity. In places like Manhattan’s surrounded by a large area of land cleared for cattle
Greenwich Village, there’s almost no trace of Minetta pasture is a typical example. Habitat fragmentation affects
Brook, which once flowed into a marsh where Washington the entire community of organisms and can reduce
Square Park now sits. The wildlands of the western species richness because the populations of species
United States are crisscrossed with roads cut by ranchers, dependent on the remaining patches of native ecosystem
loggers, and oilfield workers. Even deep within the are generally reduced and their long-term survival
Amazon, evidence of ancient metropolises can be seen in threatened. Like islands, the smaller the fragment, the
soil charcoal patterns and irrigation canals. And even in fewer species they can support.
ecosystems where humans have never set foot, our carbon-
dioxide emissions are altering the ecosystems’ function. Tropical Forest Fragmentation
This is the global reach of human impact on biodiversity. In addition to the 90,000 km2 of tropical forest that
is cleared annually, some 20,000 km2 are not entirely
destroyed each year but rather damaged by logging,
habitat fragmentation
A subdivision of a formerly
4.6 Habitat fragmentation burning, and road building, resulting in habitat
continuous habitat into reduces biodiversity fragmentation (Figure 4.19). For the last three decades,
isolated habitat patches as Every time we clear land for roads or farms, build the Biological Dynamics of Forest Fragments Project,
a result of activities such as
deforestation, road building,
subdivisions, or excavate a mine, we break up natural a cooperative effort by Brazilian scientists and others
and dam construction on ecosystems. Habitat fragmentation transforms from all over the world, has been investigating this
rivers. continuous ecosystems into smaller, increasingly isolated phenomenon. Within a 1,000-km2 study area, researchers

111
SATELLITE IMAGES REVEAL THE MASSIVE SCALE OF TROPICAL DEFORESTATION
(NASA Earth Observatory)
FIGURE 4.19 Current estimates of deforestation in the tropics total tens of thousands of square
?
kilometers annually.
established forest fragments of various sizes to observe connected to large expanses of forest (more than 200
and study. Each fragment was surrounded by land that kilometers in extent). How would ecological
had been cleared of forest to establish cattle pasture The results of the study, which have been reported in succession (see page
(Figure 4.20).The controls for this research are similar- hundreds of scientific papers, are clear: Compared with 106) generally affect
sized forest plots completely surrounded by and larger fragments, smaller forest fragments support fewer forest fragmentation?
ECOLOGISTS STUDY FRAGMENTATION EXPERIMENTALLY
Continuous, uncut rain forest
Forest clear-cut to establish

cattle pasture
(Dr. Richard O. Bierregaard)
10-hectare forest fragment 1-hectare forest

fragment—100 m by 100 m
FIGURE 4.20 The Biological Dynamics of Forest Fragments Project is one of the largest and
longest-running ecological experiments ever. Shown here are small and large forest fragments
separated from continuous rain forest by cleared land.

insect pests. These edge effects often extend deep into the
FRAGMENTATION IMPACTS SPECIES
DIVERSITY
patch of forest. In the Amazon River Basin, 30 different
edge effects have been identified, extending as far as
10
400 meters (1,300 feet) into forest fragments (Figure 4.22).
Forest fragments While some species thrive where fragmentation produces
AVERAGE SPECIES RICHNESS

?
8 Control areas edge effects, those that require the physical conditions of
the interior of an ecosystem (e.g., higher humidity or lower
6 sun exposure) do not. Consequently, as edge conditions
Was there ever a proliferate with increasing fragmentation, these “interior
time when tropical species” decline in abundance and at some point disappear
4
from the landscape.
forest interior species
may have been more
common than tropical
2
! Think About It
forest edge species? 0 1. What are some ways to counteract the effects of
1 10 100
AREA (hectares) isolation that result from habitat fragmentation?
FIGURE 4.21 Tropical forest fragmentation reduces the
2. How are habitat patches—for example, forest
number of forest-dwelling species in forest fragments, including
insect-feeding birds. Compared with control areas, which patches surrounded by agricultural fields—and
are equal-size areas of unfragmented forest, forest fragments oceanic islands similar? How are they different?
support fewer species of insect-feeding birds. (Data from
Laurance et al., 2002)
4.7 Valuable services of

species of large mammals, primates, understory birds, ecosystems are threatened
dung beetles, ants, bees, termites, and butterflies. Most
Beyond losing the aesthetic benefits of nature, what are
significant, forest fragments of all sizes support fewer
the consequences of losing an ecosystem? In the late
species of forest animals compared with similar-sized
1990s, a panel of 11 ecologists, led by Gretchen Daily of
areas embedded in continuous forest (Figure 4.21).
Stanford University, identified a long list of goods and
This study and many others around the world have
services that humans derive from natural ecosystems.
demonstrated repeatedly that habitat fragmentation
The goods can be readily assigned economic value
results in the loss of biodiversity.
because they are regularly bought and sold—seafood,
edge effects Environmental timber, feed for livestock, and biomass fuels.
Edge Effects
conditions occurring near the Many of those goods are already being threatened by
edge of an ecosystem (e.g., unsustainable harvesting (see Chapter 8). According to
When considering the size of an isolated fragment of forest,
near the edge of an isolated
forest fragment); conditions at it’s important to remember that the newly created edge the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization,
edges differ from those deep of that patch is different from the interior. Edges may be one-quarter of the world’s 600 monitored fish stocks
in the ecosystem interior. windier, drier, and hotter and might be subject to more are overexploited or depleted. Another 52% are being
EDGE EFFECTS PENETRATE FAR INTO FOREST FRAGMENTS
Cleared land Forest fragment
Increased wind disturbance
Increased tree mortality
Disturbance-adapted beetles
Lower humidity
Edge Into the forest

0 100 200 300 400
DISTANCE BEYOND EDGE (meters)
FIGURE 4.22 Here are a few of the dozens of edge effects, which extend anywhere from 10 to 400 meters from the edge of a forest
patch, that have been documented in studies of isolated forest patches in the Amazon River Basin. (Data from Laurance et al., 2002)

113
or damping storm surges. For instance, the spidery roots

TABLE 4.1
of mangrove forests reduce the power of waves crashing
ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
against the coast during violent storms. An economist
1 Purification of air and water
with India’s Institute of Economic Growth has estimated
2 Mitigation of droughts and floods that mangrove forests prevented 20,000 deaths during the
?
3 Generation and preservation of soils 1999 Orissa Cyclone in the Indian Ocean. But mangroves
4 Waste detoxification and decomposition are one of the world’s most endangered ecosystems.
5 Cycling of nutrients They are being chopped down for firewood and building
6 Pollination of crops and wild plants material and cleared for shrimp farms. In the last Some have criticized
7 Seed dispersal 50 years, their distribution has been reduced by 60%. attempts to put an
8 Agricultural pest control Destroying mangroves rarely makes economic sense. One
economic value on
9 Maintenance of biodiversity study in Mexico has shown that each acre of mangrove
10 Reduction of coastal erosion forest brings in $15,000 per year in seafood, more than
ecosystem services.
11 Uptake and storage of greenhouse gases 200 times the market value of their wood. What are some of
12 Moderation of climate Of course, the economic value of the full gamut of the sources of such
13 Protection from harmful ultraviolet light ecosystem services is not always so easy to quantify. criticisms?
14 Aesthetic, cultural, and intellectual values The challenge was taken up by teams of researchers led
by Robert Costanza of the Australian National University
?
Information from Daily et al., 1997.
in Canberra. In a study published in 2014, Costanza and
his colleagues estimated that the total value of the goods
exploited at maximum harvest rates. One of the principal and services provided by natural ecosystems in 2011
problems with current attempts to regulate fisheries is was $125 trillion. Their estimate was almost twice the How would you go
that species are often viewed in isolation when, in fact, total global annual gross product at the time. However, about assigning cash
they are components of interconnected ecosystems. many of the goods and services provided by ecosystems, value to a cooling sea
For instance, we are currently overharvesting Atlantic particularly extensive ones such as climate control by the breeze on a summer
menhaden for fish oil, which harms other species that world’s oceans, are simply irreplaceable. evening?
feed on them, including tuna, mackerel, and cod, along
with birds such as ospreys.
In addition to goods, ecosystems provide many
! Think About It
services to the local and global environment: Plant roots 1. Are ethical and aesthetic values versus economic
and soil filter water, trees filter the air, mangrove and values mutually exclusive?
coastal forests provide flood control. These ecosystem
services have economic, social, or cultural value to 2. If some ecosystems, such as the Amazon rain
human populations (Table 4.1). For example, wild native forest or the boreal forests of Canada and Russia,
insects provide ecological services such as pollination, provide ecosystem services that are global in
control of native herbivore pests, and even recreation. A significance, should the international community
2006 estimate put the annual value of ecological services compensate the countries that sustain them?
provided by insects at $57 billion in the United States
alone. However, these services are threatened by factors 3. What sorts of ecosystem services are simply
such as the overuse of pesticides and herbicides. For irreplaceable and therefore invaluable?
instance, colony collapse disorder, a mysterious condition
that has been wiping out approximately 10% of honeybee
colonies each year, has been linked to neonicotinoid
pesticides (insecticides chemically similar to nicotine),
4.8 Many invasive species
although other factors may be involved. harm ecosystems
Other animals may control pest insect populations: A We already learned in Chapter 3 that invasive species
colony of 30,000 southeastern bats in Florida eats more can endanger populations of native species. However,
than 15 tons of mosquitoes each year. Historically, bats the impacts of invasive species can extend to entire
have been persecuted by humans who have dynamited, ecosystems. The Fynbos vegetation of South Africa
ecosystem services
poisoned, and shot them. Today, the biggest threat to is one of Earth’s biodiversity hotspots, where rolling Aspects of ecosystem
bats’ survival comes from a fungal disease called white green meadows border the southern Indian Ocean. structure and function that
nose syndrome, which was likely spread by recreational Unfortunately, invasive pine and acacia species in the have economic, social, or
cavers and has killed more than 5.7 million bats in Fynbos have sucked so much water out of the ground cultural value to human
populations (e.g., flood
eastern North America. that they have reduced water flow in nearby river basins
control by wetlands or water
Functioning ecosystems can even save lives by by nearly one-third. These invasive plants have also purification by forest and river
providing clean water, reducing the impact of forest fires, impaired a wide range of other valuable services: They ecosystems).

invaded vast areas in western North America, not only

INVASIVE GRASS SPECIES CHANGES A FIRE REGIME increases fire frequencies but also is a poor source of
forage for livestock or native animals. Prior to the cheat
grass invasion, wildfires occurred every 60 to 110 years;
now they happen every 3 to 5 years (Figure 4.23).
Invasive Species and Aquatic Ecosystems

The impact of invasive species is not limited to terrestrial
environments. Invasive aquatic species have been spread
around the world with devastating consequences to
ecosystem goods and services. Countries across Africa
spend millions of dollars each year to control invasive
aquatic weeds that choke waterways important for fishing
and commerce. The introduction of the Nile perch
(istockphoto/Getty Images)
into Lake Victoria, one of the great lakes of Africa, has

resulted in hundreds of native fish species going extinct
(Figure 4.24), but it has also had consequences for the
ecosystem as a whole. For instance, local people once
caught smaller native fish, which they could sun-dry on
FIGURE 4.23 One of the most serious threats to native ecosystems is the result of changed
fire regimes fueled by flammable invasive species, such as cheat grass, Bromus tectorum, racks. The larger Nile perch must be smoked, so people
shown here fueling a fire across a rangeland in the western United States. need to cut down trees for fire. This has increased erosion
and led to increases in pollution by agricultural runoff.
In Asia, the golden apple snail has ravaged rooted
?
Is it sometimes
displace plants used for traditional medicines and tea,
and invade coastal dunes and riparian areas, which
restricts access for tourism and fishing.
aquatic plants, reducing their biomass and releasing
nutrients into the ecosystem. As a result, previously clear
waters are now turbid and choked with algae. In the
United States and Canada, zebra mussels have become a
Woody invasive plants have also increased the intensity
appropriate to consider of fires by increasing the amount of flammable plant
nuisance by attaching to nearly any submerged structure,
invasive species including the intakes to water supply systems.
biomass in the ecosystem. In the southwest United States,
problems as threats a thirsty tree called saltcedar, Tamarix species, has dried
to public safety and Economic Impact of Species Invasion
up streams and changed the fire regime by increasing
security in addition to the frequency and intensity of fires in these ecosystems. The executive director of the United Nations
associated ecological Similarly, cheat grass, Bromus tectorum, which has Environmental Programme estimated that the costs
issues?
?
How does one weigh
INVASIVE AQUATIC SPECIES REDUCE ECOLOGICAL SERVICES IN AFRICA
the loss of hundreds

of fish species found
nowhere else on Earth
against establishing the
highly profitable Nile
perch fishery in Lake
(Woodfall Wild Images/Photoshot)
(AP Photo/Danny Wilcox Frazier)
Victoria, the largest

lake fishery in the
world?
Water hyacinth in Lake Victoria Nile perch caught in Lake Victoria

fire regime The frequency
and intensity of fires that FIGURE 4.24 Water hyacinth in Lake Victoria interferes with fishing and transport. Another invasive species, the introduced
typically occur in a particular Nile perch, coupled with nutrient pollution has led to the extinction of hundreds of native fish of Lake Victoria, which had been the
ecosystem. traditional source of protein for millions of people living around the lake.

115
of invasive species to the global economy exceeded

$1.4 trillion in 2010. The economic costs of controlling 4.6–4.8 Issues:
just the saltcedar invasion of western North America have
been estimated at $127 to $291 million annually for control
Summary
and estimated water losses. Meanwhile, zebra mussel Habitat fragmentation, which transforms
control associated with water systems around the Great continuous ecosystems into smaller, isolated
Lakes approaches $70 million each year. However, some habitat patches, results in significantly reduced
invasive species exact even greater costs. For instance, the biodiversity. Increased wind or reduced
water losses resulting from invasive species in the Fynbos moisture on the edges of ecosystem patches
region are valued at $1.4 billion, and the golden apple snail, gives them a smaller effective size than they
introduced from South America, causes over a $1 billion in appear on a map. Ecological economists
annual losses in rice cultivation in the Philippines. David estimate that the total value of goods and
Pimentel and colleagues from the College of Agriculture services provided by natural ecosystems,
and Life Sciences at Cornell University estimated that as including maintenance of biodiversity, may be
of 2005, invasive species have caused over $120 billion in $125 trillion, or nearly twice the total global
damages annually in the United States alone. annual gross product. Many ecosystem services
are threatened by habitat destruction and the
! Think About It spread of infectious diseases, such as white nose
syndrome in bats. These services are not only
1. During control efforts, do we have an obligation valuable, but they can also save human lives by
to treat invasive species, especially vertebrate reducing coastal storm surges, reducing forest
animals, ethically? fires, and providing clean water. Invasive species
can also harm ecosystems by altering hydrologic
2. Does the use of militaristic terminology (e.g., and fire regimes. The economic impacts of
battle, eradicate, overrun, and kill) to frame invasive species, which amount to hundreds of
relationships with invasive species foster an billions of dollars annually, result from control
adversarial relationship with nature rather than a costs and reduced ecological services.
sustainable one?
T he two major focal points for biodiversity
conservation and restoration are on species
(emphasized in Chapter 3) or on ecosystems. Often, these
to economic development. Even the site of the meeting
was significant—it was held near the Amazon River
basin, perhaps the last greatest reservoir of biological
approaches are presented as polar opposites. However, it diversity on Earth, which provides immeasurable services
is apparent that conserving endangered species requires to the people of the Amazon basin and beyond. The
healthy, functioning ecosystems. Wild species do not Convention’s specific objectives were “the conservation of
live apart from the ecosystems on which they depend. biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components,
Similarly, wherever we conserve or restore natural and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising
ecosystems, we sustain many species populations. Some of out of the utilization of genetic resources.” Convention on Biological
the most extensive programs to protect whole ecosystems The Convention has charted a clear path toward Diversity An international
agreement negotiated under
have involved setting aside protected areas. finding a solution to the biodiversity crisis, requiring
the sponsorship of the United
Concern that the world’s ecosystems were under threat countries to meet a variety of milestones, including Nations Environmental
led 168 countries of the world to sign the Convention setting aside 26% of their land area and 17% of their Programme to promote the
on Biological Diversity following the “Earth Summit” territorial seas as protected areas. In addition, the nations conservation of biological
meeting in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992. It was a need to ensure the effectiveness of their national parks diversity, the sustainable use
of its components, and the
defining moment in the history of the relationship and other protected areas by developing management
fair and equitable sharing of
between humans and the biosphere, as it came with the plans for them and identifying the impacts of climate the benefits arising out of the
recognition that protecting ecosystems is fundamental change. As of 2015, 196 nations had ratified or accepted utilization of genetic resources.

the Rio Convention (although U.S. president Bill Clinton

NUMBER OF PROTECTED AREAS HAS GROWN
signed the Rio Convention, the Senate has not ratified it). EXPONENTIALLY
To date, most countries have failed to meet their goals, but
there have been significant conservation successes over the 100,000
last 20 years.
NUMBER OF PROTECTED AREAS

4.9 The number of protected 75,000
areas has grown rapidly

One of the principal means of conserving an ecosystem 50,000
is to protect it. The Convention on Biological Diversity

defines a protected area as a geographically defined area
25,000
that is designated or regulated and managed to achieve
particular conservation objectives. The various types of
protected areas range from strict nature reserves, set aside 0
mainly for scientific research and in which tourism is 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000
YEAR
prohibited, to areas protecting biodiversity but managed
for sustainable harvest of natural resources such as timber FIGURE 4.25 The number of protected areas worldwide has
and game animals. Generally, local laws regulate the use of increased rapidly from the few designated at the beginning of
the 20th century to over 100,000 by the end of the century.
protected areas. (Data from Mulongoy & Chape, 2004)
The world’s oldest protected areas were sacred sites
valued as the homes of the gods or as resting places
for the dead. Protection of the resources produced by
an ecosystem came later. In Japan, for instance, forests Marine Protected Areas
providing timber for the construction of Shinto temples Protected areas in coastal areas and the oceans, called
have been protected for over 2,000 years. Hunting marine protected areas, or MPAs, help conserve
preserves were established in northern India around the ecosystems critical for biodiversity, such as coral reefs
same time. The first large natural area protected for purely and salt marshes, and sustain populations that supply us
aesthetic reasons was Yellowstone National Park. with fish and other marine resources. For many years,
The founding of Yellowstone inspired the establishment protecting marine habitats was ignored, compared with
of national parks and other types of protected areas protecting terrestrial habitats, but that’s slowly changing.
the world over. Between 1872, the date of Yellowstone’s In 2006 President George W. Bush declared 36 million
protected area A founding, and 1962, the number of protected areas grew to hectares of marine habitat in the Pacific Ocean the
geographically defined over 10,000. Today, there are more than 100,000 protected Papahanaumokuakea Marine National Monument, which
area designated or areas across the globe, encompassing nearly 19 million km2, became one of the largest MPAs in history. Studies have
regulated and managed
more than the combined areas of the United States and shown that properly managed MPAs provide a refuge for
to achieve particular
conservation objectives Brazil. In total, about 12% of Earth’s land surface is afforded fish to breed and replenish exploited fisheries. In fact,
(e.g., national parks, national some degree of conservation protection (Figure 4.25). social scientists have found links between MPAs and a
forests, wildlife refuges). reduction in poverty among small fishing communities
Size and Connections in Protected Area Design in places such as Papua New Guinea and Indonesia—
habitat corridor A strip
of suitable habitat linking When it comes to nature reserves, bigger is better. making it a win–win for conservation and society (see
protected areas intended to Unfortunately, that’s not always practical. One key to also Chapter 8, page 251).
increase the movement of
sustaining functioning ecosystems in smaller reserves is to
! Think About It
wildlife between protected
areas to sustain genetic ensure that they have connections, or habitat corridors, to
variation and reduce the other reserves. Habitat corridors increase the movement of
likelihood of extinction of organisms among protected areas; increase gene exchange 1. The United Nations Environmental Programme
protected populations. between separated populations, which helps maintain notes in a recent report that most of the world’s
genetic diversity in local populations; and reduce the chance largest protected areas are in remote, low-diversity
marine protected areas
(MPAs) Protected areas of extinctions in habitat fragments. In southern China, for regions, including ice caps and deserts. What does
in coastal regions and the instance, environmental scientists have identified potential this bias reveal about the actual commitment to
oceans that help conserve habitat corridors between existing reserves for the giant biodiversity protection?
ecosystems critical for panda in the Minshan Mountains (Figure 4.26). If adopted
biodiversity (e.g., coral reefs
by the government, this conservation plan would reduce 2. What political, economic, and social conditions
and salt marshes) and
habitat fragmentation and multiply the size of the panda could lead to the creation of large protected areas
sustain populations that
supply fish and other marine protected area, making the future of the species more in high-diversity areas where human population
resources. secure. densities are high?

117
CONSERVATION PLANS IN CHINA AIM TO REDUCE HABITAT FRAGMENTATION
Road
Nature reserve
25 km Giant panda habitat
Proposed habitat corridors
FIGURE 4.26 Conservation planners have developed a landscape-based plan for the conservation of giant pandas in the Minshan
Mountains, in southern China. The key element in their plan is to link existing panda reserves with a network of habitat corridors to
reduce fragmentation. (After Shen et al., 2008)
4.10 Nongovernmental areas totaling over 2.5 million km2. Some of the best
known organizations include the World Wildlife
conservation complements Fund, Conservation International, and The Nature
governmental programs Conservancy.
During the past three decades, nongovernmental
The Nature Conservancy
organizations (NGOs) and private individuals have taken
the lead in protecting ecosystems around the world. The Nature Conservancy is a nonprofit, nongovernmental
One of the main contributions to conservation that they conservation organization established in 1951 to protect
make stems from their greater flexibility, compared ecologically important areas around the world. Over
with that of governments. When private individuals the course of its more than half-century of operation,
are involved, setting up a protected area can be decided the organization has been active in the conservation of
by a personal commitment. For example, entrepreneur terrestrial, freshwater, and marine ecosystems, protecting
Douglas Tompkins, who founded the clothing companies nearly 500,000 km2 of terrestrial ecosystems and over
North Face and Patagonia, and media mogul Ted Turner, 8,000 kilometers of rivers. It also manages more than
who launched CNN, have created protected areas 100 conservation projects in the marine environment.
around the world totaling approximately 16,000 km2 The Nature Conservancy originally focused on
(6,240 mi2)—about twice the combined areas of the conservation in the United States and protecting critical
U.S. states of Rhode Island and Delaware. habitat for rare and threatened species or conserving very
In the case of a nongovernmental conservation small examples of regionally distinctive environments.
organization, a decision to allocate funds to protect Today, the organization has increasingly taken a
an area with potential conservation value may only larger-scale, more inclusive approach, emphasizing
require a positive vote from a board of directors. the conservation of whole ecosystems and landscapes.
There are hundreds of international and national Wherever The Nature Conservancy operates, it strives
nongovernmental conservation organizations actively to integrate its conservation programs with the broad
working to sustain biodiversity, and they have preserved economic interests of the local community, working

THE NATURE CONSERVANCY IS ACTIVE IN MORE THAN 30 COUNTRIES AROUND THE WORLD
?
Does the involvement of
business and financial
interests in The
Nature Conservancy’s
operations help or
hinder its conservation
mission?
Countries in which The Nature Conservancy is active
The Nature
? FIGURE 4.27 Beginning as a nongovernmental organization dedicated to conserving biodiversity in the United States, The Nature
Conservancy has expanded its mission and now works around the globe. (Information from www.nature.org)
Conservancy approach with stakeholders ranging from academic scientists and fund that could support Costa Rica’s national parks in
has emphasized conservationists to industrial and financial leaders. It has perpetuity.
working mostly out more than 1 million members and is active in more than
of the public eye to 30 countries (Figure 4.27).
acquire and protect ! Think About It
areas important Forever Costa Rica
1. In many regions of the world, the business
to biodiversity The Forever Costa Rica project provides an example of community resists the establishment of new
conservation. What are how The Nature Conservancy helps protect natural areas protected areas, arguing that such areas depress the
some complementary through partnerships with governments and private economy. How might the conservation community
approaches to this individuals. Costa Rica is famous for being one of the address such concerns?
work adopted by other most biologically rich spots in the world—a tiny country
NGOs? that is home to 5% of all species. By the early 2000s, it 2. How might governments, conservation-related
had set aside 25% of its land in preserves, which meant NGOs, and academic institutions partner to protect
that it was closing in on one of the most important ecosystems and landscapes? (What each does
metrics under the Convention on Biodiversity. best: Governments administer and protect; NGOs
Unfortunately, its terrestrial parks were struggling use flexibility to pursue emerging conservation
with financial survival, and the country was protecting opportunities and raise funds from private sources;
very little of its marine diversity. In 2010 The Nature
academic institutions teach and research.)
Conservancy brokered one of the largest debt-for-nature
swaps with the U.S. government. A debt-for-nature swap
occurs when a developed nation forgives the debt of a
developing nation in exchange for conservation pledges. 4.11 Sustaining biodiversity
Under the 1998 Tropical Forest Act, for instance, the and ecosystem services
U.S. Treasury can forgive up to $20 million worth of requires active management
a country’s debt each year if that country can make
a case that it will use the funds to preserve a tropical In most situations, you cannot simply declare an area
forest in perpetuity. Like many developing countries, “protected” and expect that the species and ecosystems
debt-for-nature swap Costa Rica was indebted to the United States for loans included in the area will sustain themselves. Managing
A transaction wherein a
from the U.S. Agency for International Development protected areas to sustain their conservation value
developed nation forgives the
debt of a developing nation (USAID). The Nature Conservancy used funds freed requires attention to the many environmental factors
in exchange for conservation up from a debt-for-nature swap, combined with funds known to influence biodiversity, such as keystone species
pledges. from conservation partners, to create a $56 million trust and disturbance.

119
Sustaining Crucial Species succeeded in controlling saltcedar and restoring native

vegetation (Figure 4.28).
One of the most important parts of managing a natural
?
area is to ensure that important species are present and
Fire, Succession, and Management
their populations are healthy. These crucial species
generally fall into the categories we mentioned earlier Fire is a critical factor for maintaining a wide variety
as foundation species, ecosystem engineers, and keystone of ecosystems, including grasslands. In protected areas What safeguards need
species. Reintroducing wolves to Yellowstone National within the temperate grassland biome, periodic fires are to be in place before
Park was a conscious decision, in part, to help restore necessary to keep succession from converting grasslands introducing another
an ecosystem degraded by high populations of elk. to shrublands or forests (Figure 4.29). Lightning causes species to control an
After the wolves’ reintroduction, it has been crucial for fires in grasslands naturally. However, humans began
invasive species?
field biologists like Doug Smith to monitor the wolf setting fire to grasslands long ago to encourage fresh
population and track their movements inside and outside growth by grasses that would attract game. Today,
?
the park. Although the wolf has been relatively successful managers of grasslands in places like the Konza Prairie
at multiplying on its own, other species, such as the Preserve in eastern Kansas and the Tallgrass Prairie
peregrine falcon, required years of captive breeding to National Preserve use fire to prevent encroachment by
help recover their numbers. trees and shrubs. Without this active fire management, What does the need for
the grasslands these preserves were created to protect active management of
Controlling Invasive Species would disappear and be replaced by forests. In other protected areas suggest
conservation areas, managers may suppress fires to
In ecosystems seriously damaged by invasive species,
about the stability of
achieve other management goals such as restoring
many land managers have instituted programs to control previously cleared forest.
ecosystems?
them and restore native species. For example, several
such programs are aimed at controlling large-scale
infestations of saltcedar across the American West.
! Think About It
Historically, managers have used a wide range of tools 1. Assuming that grazing and fire are sources of
for control and restoration, such as mechanical removal disturbance to grasslands, how would you manage
combined with spraying herbicides and managing grazing intensity and fire frequency to maximize
flooding to favor reproduction of native cottonwood species richness in a grassland preserve?
and willows. More recently, beetles that feed on saltcedar
have been imported from saltcedar’s native range in Asia 2. Why is simply putting a fence around an area
and released in heavily invaded areas in North America. and declaring it protected no guarantee that the
Using a combination of these tools, managers have biodiversity in the area is secure?
CONTROLLING INVASIVE SALTCEDAR, TAMARIX SPECIES, IN THE WESTERN UNITED STATES

(International Boundary and Water Commission)
(Courtesy of Anna Sher Simon)
(USDA photo by Bob Richard)
Mechanical control of saltcedar Tamarix beetle feeding on saltcedar Restored cottonwood-willow riparian forest
FIGURE 4.28 Managers have used mechanical removal to control invasive saltcedar in many protected areas. Some beetles that
primarily feed on saltcedar, in its native range, have been imported and released in western North America to help control the invasive
species. Thousands of hectares of native cottonwood and willow forest have been restored following saltcedar control.

itself. However, such problems have been reduced

FIRE IS IMPORTANT IN TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT
substantially where managers and residents of
surrounding communities work cooperatively. Such
cooperative relationships arise where local communities
derive clear economic benefits from the protected area
and its surroundings.
One method of ensuring these direct benefits is to
establish buffer zones around the core of a protected
area in which the local community can pursue a number
of economic activities, such as harvesting of wood,
fishing, and some agriculture, while highly restricting
activity in the core of the protected area (Figure 4.31).
Involving the local community in the management of
(U.S. Forest Service)
protected areas can yield additional benefits.
Community Integration Provides Protection

FIGURE 4.29 Managers of grasslands commonly use controlled burns, such as the one The Guanacaste Conservation Area in Costa Rica
shown here, to discourage replacement of grassland vegetation by shrubland or forest. provides a model for the integration of a protected
area with the local community. Situated in the dry
tropical forest on the Pacific coast, Guanacaste has
?
more than 100 full-time employees, 80% of whom
4.12 Integrating are from the surrounding communities. In addition,
conservation with local the conservation area offers dozens of part-time and
What economic communities can help seasonal positions, and over the years local people have
activities should be been heavily involved in ongoing biodiversity studies.
allowed in each of the
sustain protected areas The scientific knowledge resulting from studies in the
zones pictured in Figure One of the most serious threats to protected areas is reserve is also being used to help farmers and ranchers
encroaching development in surrounding areas. As the in the surrounding agricultural lands.
4.31? Which should be
environment surrounding a protected area becomes The Guanacaste Conservation Area has also taken
prohibited?
increasingly degraded and fragmented, the protected creative approaches to protecting the preserve by
area itself becomes an increasingly isolated habitat employing known poachers as game wardens, as well
buffer zone A zone around
(Figure 4.30). In addition, many protected areas are as known fire-starters for fire protection. Finally,
a nature reserve or protected
area in which limited economic further compromised when local people illegally Guanacaste has developed a variety of educational
activity is allowed. remove plants and animals from the protected area materials, emphasizing environmental education, and
has become an educational center, where students
from the surrounding area take several field trips per
ENCROACHMENT BY DEVELOPMENT CAN ISOLATE AND THREATEN year (Figure 4.32). Through these multiple efforts, the
PROTECTED AREAS Guanacaste Conservation Area has become a source of
economic gain, educational opportunity, and pride for
the people of northwest Costa Rica.
Looking Beyond the Boundaries

Protected areas can be threatened by events taking place
far away. For example, toxic chemicals dumped in the
water can decimate freshwater and marine populations
(Jeffrey Greenberg/Science Source)
in distant protected areas. Toxic gases and pollutants

can drift from industrial and urban areas into parks.
Carbon dioxide emitted in one country can alter global
temperature and precipitation patterns all over the
world, threatening all protected ecosystems on Earth.
Protecting natural ecosystems and the biodiversity
they sustain is a key to sustaining Earth’s biodiversity.
FIGURE 4.30 Where intensive development encroaches, a protected area becomes However, protected areas cannot be sustained as islands
increasingly island-like and more vulnerable to invasion by invasive species. Such
conditions eventually lead to reduced biodiversity within the protected area.
of exceptional biodiversity in a matrix of degraded
ecosystems. The long-term security of protected areas

121
A BUFFER ZONE CREATES A GRADIENT OF ECONOMIC ACTIVITY
PROTECTED AREA CORE

No economic activity
BUFFER ZONE
Low economic activity
BUFFER ZONE
Moderate economic activity
FIGURE 4.31 Buffer zones allow some level of economic activity in regions around protected areas, which decrease in intensity
toward the core of a protected area. By providing economic benefits, such buffer zones can help build and sustain support for
?
protected areas within nearby communities.
depends on developing a comprehensive and integrated 2. What are the dangers if protected areas are What are the
approach to sustaining healthy regional and global completely isolated from human communities? implications of global
environments.
3. What would be a viable middle ground regarding climate change to the
functions of protected
! Think About It protection versus use of biodiversity reserves?
areas over the long term?
1. What dangers to biodiversity conservation
may occur if human communities are allowed
unrestricted access and use of the protected areas? 4.9–4.12 Solutions:
Summary
EDUCATIONAL OUTREACH CONNECTS
The Convention for Biological Diversity set the
PROTECTED AREAS WITH COMMUNITIES
stage for efforts to protect ecosystems and their
biodiversity. Protected areas are a key part of
this solution, and today there are more than
100,000 of them across the globe. A second key
to effectively conserving Earth’s biodiversity
is involving a broad range of stakeholders,
including local communities and NGOs
such as The Nature Conservancy. Sustaining
biodiversity requires not only the establishment
(Courtesy Área de Conservación Guanacaste)
of protected areas, but also management

through maintenance of keystone species,
regulation of the fire regime, and control of
invasive species. In many situations, sustaining
the biodiversity values of protected areas
may be enhanced by integration with human
communities beyond their boundaries.
FIGURE 4.32 The Guanacaste Conservation Area acts

as a center for environmental education for the surrounding
communities. Local students, in grades 4 to 8, take several
guided field trips, such as this one, each year to educational
centers located in the conservation area.

Central Question: How can we protect Earth’s diverse ecosystems?

• How do species and ecosystem diversity differ? • How does habitat fragmentation affect
biodiversity?
• What are the major characteristics of terrestrial
and aquatic biomes? • What are valuable ecosystem services
and what factors threaten them?
• How does species diversity vary by latitude, in
biodiversity hotspots and on islands? • How do invasive species change terrestrial
and aquatic ecosystems?
• What types of species have especially great
influences on biodiversity?
• How does biodiversity change during ecological

succession?
• What are the similarities and differences

between allopatric and sympatric speciation?
Species and Ecosystem Diversity ! Join and become active in conservation organizations.
and You If you don’t have enough time to volunteer, consider becoming
It is the rare individual who can establish a large protected area on his an active member of a conservation organization such as Sierra
or her own. However, there are many opportunities to contribute to the Club, Audubon Society, The Nature Conservancy, or the Natural
protection of natural ecosystems through organizations dedicated to Resources Defense Council. As a member, your voice will be
nature protection or through work on established protected areas. The first amplified through an organization with far more influence than any
step in getting involved is to learn about the opportunities. single individual. Such membership also provides many opportunities
to learn more about conservation programs and challenges across
! Learn about conservation opportunities in your region. your region and around the world.
Familiarize yourself through the Internet with the size, location, and
conservation mission of nearby protected areas. Once you have
! Support wildlife-friendly products.
explored neighboring nature reserves online, visit those that interest Whenever you can, put your buying power to work by purchasing
you most, if possible. wildlife-friendly products. Again, the average person cannot
make a large financial difference, but as such products become
! Get involved with protected area management. more popular, they become more competitive. There are many
initiatives around the world to help sustain wildlife and their habitats
Most conservation areas operate on limited budgets and need
through wildlife-friendly farming, ranching, and forestry practices.
volunteers or interns to help with the management of protected areas.
You can easily learn more about such efforts online. Check out
There are often opportunities to work on habitat restoration, invasive
www.goodguide.com to see how many household products “score”
species control, and many other conservation-related projects. Check
on an environmental level.
out local state fish and game agencies or departments of natural
resources who need volunteers. A summary of government-related
volunteer programs across the United States may be found at www.
volunteer.gov.
H O W C AN W E PROTECT E ARTH ’ S DIVERS E ECOSYS TEMS ?

• What are the stated goals of the Convention on
Biological Diversity?
• How has the number of protected areas grown

over time?
• What unique roles can NGOs play in

conserving species and ecosystem diversity?
• What factors make active management

necessary for sustaining protected areas?
• How does integrating protected areas with

local communities help sustain biodiversity?
Chapter 4 c. Equal to the annual gross product of the U.S.

d. Nearly twice the total gross product of the globe
10. Which policies will most likely secure a
protected area over the long term?
a. Strict isolation of the protected area from the
Review Questions 6. Which of the following will likely support surrounding community
the fewest forest interior species? b. Restricting access to the protected area to
1. Which represents the highest species a. A small forest fragment near a large forest professional scientists and students
diversity? b. A large forest fragment far from a large forest c. Allowing local communities unlimited access to the
a. 10 species with 1 abundant and 9 rare species c. A small forest fragment far from a large forest protected area
b. 10 species, each equally abundant d. A large forest fragment near a large forest d. Integrating management with the local community
c. 5 species, each equally abundant
and providing direct economic benefits
d. 9 species but no estimates of relative 7. Invasive species can have which of the
abundance following impacts?
a. Reduced river flows Critical Analysis
2. What produced biodiversity hotspots?
b. More frequent wildfires 1. Are there any biomes (see Figures 4.3 and 4.6)
a. Higher speciation rates
c. Extinctions of native species underrepresented among biodiversity hotspots? Are
b. Lower extinction rates
d. All of the above there any that are overrepresented?
c. Higher species immigration and speciation rates
and lower extinction rates 8. What is the main way that habitat corridors 2. What criteria should be used to decide where
d. Higher species immigration rates improve the functioning of protected areas? to establish protected areas? How large should
a. Provide convenient water sources during drought protected areas be?
3. How does an ecosystem engineer affect
b. Promote the movement of individuals through 3. How might the discoveries of Elinor Ostrom (see
ecosystems?
protected areas Chapter 2, page 54) be used to forge a sustainable
a. By altering the physical environment
c. Provide habitat for keystone species relationship between protected areas and
b. Through its predatory behavior
d. Increase rates of extinction among pests surrounding communities?
c. Through its large size and abundance
d. By competing with keystone species 9. How can ecological succession affect 4. How can a country balance forest conservation
management of protected areas? and economic development?
4. What life history characteristics make
r-selected species good pioneer species? a. Once areas are protected, ecological succession 5. Using Figure 4.13 as a guide, explain how the
a. Large size c. High competitive abilities does not influence protected areas. Yellowstone ecosystem is affected by the removal or
b. High dispersal rates d. Late maturity b. Management of protected areas is aimed at addition of wolves.
reducing disturbance and promoting succession.
5. What is the approximate global value of c. The effects of succession on management Find additional resources and links online at www.
ecosystem services? depend on the purpose of the protected area. macmillanhighered.com/launchpad/molles1e.
a. Equal to the annual gross product of China d. In general, managers of protected areas attempt
b. Equal to the annual gross product of the E.U. to suppress succession.
we achieve sustainable
human populations? Explain the distribution and dynamics
of global human populations.
(Jorg Hackemann/Shutterstock) SCIENCE

C H A P T ER 5
Human Populations
Analyze the environmental impact of fertility, Discuss the social, political, and economic
development, resource consumption, and migration. factors that support sustainable human populations.
126 C HAPTER 5 HU M AN POP ULATIONS
(AP Photo/Pavel Rahman)
Reflecting a population so large that services are overwhelmed, a crowd of Bangladeshis occupy the roof of an overcrowded train, seeking
transportation to their homes to celebrate an annual festival, while thousands more wait for their chance.
Bangladesh’s Lessons for

Environmental Scientists
The challenges faced by the people of Bangladesh dramatically demonstrate issues arising
from a population growing beyond the capacity of its environment to support them.
T ink. Tink. Tink. This is the sound of monsoon rains

pinging against the tin roof of a shack in Bangladesh.
Imagine, for a moment, that this is where you grew up:
each day. One of your siblings has diarrhea, another
hunger pangs.
Life in Bangladesh, one the world’s most densely
Each night you sleep on the dirt floor, squeezed into the populated countries, is not easy. Nearly 150 million people
same tiny room with four or five other members of your live on this flood-prone river delta between India and
family. Your entire home is about 100 square feet in size, Burma, a region about the size of Iowa. Today, the country
25 times smaller than a typical American home. When is notorious for having some of the most poorly paid
your mother cooks on the wood-burning stove, choking workers, who labor under harsh conditions at garment
black smoke fills the house. You make do with just 10 liters factories that produce clothing for international companies
of water per day for both your washing and drinking water. such as Benetton and Walmart. In April 2013 an eight-story
By comparison, the average American uses 380 liters factory collapsed, killing 1,129 workers and injuring more
H O W CAN W E ACHIEV E SUSTA I NA B LE HUMA N POP ULATIONS ?

127
than 2,500. For people who live in dire poverty and need to interested in demography, the
feed their families, such jobs are the only option they have. study of the statistics of human demography The statistical study
of populations, generally human
populations. The United populations, including their density,
Nations christened it the “Day growth, age structure, birthrates,
“The key problem facing humanity of Seven Billion,” when the and death rates.
in the coming [21st] century is how world’s population crossed that
threshold. “Our world is one of terrible contradictions,”
to bring a better quality of life—for Ban Ki-moon, the UN secretary-general, said at a news
8 billion or more people—without conference. “Plenty of food, but one billion people go
hungry. Lavish lifestyles for a few, but poverty for too
wrecking the environment entirely in many others.”
the attempt.” Rich or poor, these 7 billion bodies require food,
Edward O. Wilson, distinguished ecologist water, and other natural resources to build their homes
and feed their families. Not only does this place a heavy
toll on the functioning of natural ecosystems and our
Sadly, their options will only get worse as Bangladesh’s global economy, but many environmental scientists
population continues to expand. Researchers estimate that believe that the resources we depend on are running
population will reach 218 million by the middle of this out. The richest may see their quality of life decline,
century, with most residents living in slums, lacking proper while the poorest among us have little hope. The World
sewage disposal and electricity. The country hasn’t produced Wildlife Fund’s Living Planet Report predicts that,
enough food for its people since the 1950s, and agricultural if present trends continue, by 2050 the productive
land has only declined since, replaced by living spaces. By capacity of nearly three Earths will be needed to
2060 there may be none left at all. meet the needs of the world’s 8 to 11 billion residents
Bangladesh’s struggles provide a cautionary tale for the (see Chapter 1, page 20). It’s a problem that ecologist
wider world. Prior to the Industrial Revolution, the human Paul Ehrlich famously called the “population bomb,”
population on Earth numbered less than 1 billion. It has and population growth represents one of the most
soared over the last 200 years. Halloween day of 2011 was fundamental challenges when it comes to balancing
a particularly frightening day for environmental scientists human rights and environmental sustainability.
Central Question
How can we achieve sustainable
human populations?

(Jorg Hackemann/Shutterstock)
5.1–5.3 Science
H uman population density lies at the root of
environmental damage. In order to minimize the
environmental impact of human societies, we need to
and immigration rates are lower, population density
declines.
Today, populations around the world are becoming
know where people live today and where they will be increasingly concentrated in cities as people migrate
concentrated in the future. from rural to urban areas. By 2014 over half the world’s
population was living in cities, with that proportion
expected to rise to two-thirds by 2050. However, in some
5.1 Human population countries the proportion of the population living in cities
?
density varies significantly is already much higher. For example, in 2014, over 80%
of the populations of the United States and Canada were
across Earth urban, while in Japan and Belgium that proportion was
In Bangladesh, people are crowded together with an over 90%. One of the consequences of this migration has
What might be
average density of nearly 1,000 people on every square been the formation of mega-cities with populations of
the impacts on the kilometer of land (or 0.39 square miles). Australia, more than 10 million (Table 5.1). The urban population
environment of by comparison, has an average of just 3 people in the of Earth will continue to grow, as rural to urban migration
concentrating the same-size area. Such regional contrasts provide a graphic remains high through the middle of the century.
population in densely demonstration of how human population density varies.
populated cities Within countries, the highest population densities are
versus spreading the generally found along coasts and river valleys. The TABLE 5.1
population across the lowest population densities occur mainly in extreme THE 10 LARGEST MEGA-CITIES
landscape? environments such as deserts and arctic tundra. The In 2014 there were 28 mega-cities scattered around the world.
Ganges river delta in Bangladesh was historically a very Shown here are the 10 with the largest populations—six in Asia,
advantageous place to settle because it could support a two in Latin America, one in Africa, and one in the United States.
relatively high population density with its fertile soil and City Population in Millions
ample water, whereas Australia’s outback, in its recent Tokyo, Japan 38
history, has been better suited to kangaroos and lizards Delhi, India 25
population density The than to people (Figure 5.1). Shanghai, China 23
number of individuals in a We know that people don’t always stay in the place Mexico City, Mexico 21
population per unit area.
where they were born. Population density results from Mumbai, India 21
immigration The movement a combination of the rates of birth, death, immigration São Paulo, Brazil 21
of individuals into an area, or (movement of individuals into a population from the Osaka, Japan >20
country, to which they are not outside), and emigration (movement of individuals Beijing, China <20
native. away from a population to another area) (Figure 5.2). Cairo, Egypt 18.5
On a regional scale, in places where rates of birth and New York–Newark, USA 18.5
emigration The movement of
individuals out of one area, or immigration exceed rates of emigration and death, Data from United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population
country, to another. population density will increase. In regions where birth Division, 2014.

129
HUMAN POPULATION DENSITIES VARY GREATLY ACROSS THE GLOBE
POPULATION
DENSITY
(Inhabitants
per km²)
<1
1–4
5–24
25–249
250–999
1,000 +
HIGH-POPULATION-DENSITY AREAS LOW-POPULATION-DENSITY AREAS

The highest population densities are generally found along The lowest population densities occur mainly in extreme
coasts and along river valleys. environments such as deserts and arctic tundra.
(© Ton Koene/age fotostock)
(© Patagonik Works/Alamy)
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Mongolia
FIGURE 5.1 Some environments typically support higher population densities compared with others, often depending on the local
climate and natural resources like water, soil quality, and raw materials.
POPULATION DENSITY: A DYNAMIC BALANCE BETWEEN OPPOSING PROCESSES
Births and Deaths and

Births immigration add emigration remove Deaths
individuals to a individuals from a
population. population.
POPULATION SIZE
Immigration Emigration
FIGURE 5.2 Population density is the outcome of the interplay of immigration and births versus emigration and deaths.

! Think About It population to grow to twice its size is growing shorter. For
example, it took all of human history for the population to
1. How do you explain the higher population reach 3.2 billion in 1963. The population grew by another
densities in coastal areas around the world? 3.2 billion people by 2004, requiring only 41 years. As of
2015, the rate of global population growth had slowed to
2. Europe, Canada, and the United States are within the point where the doubling time for the global population
about 10% of each other in terms of land area. had increased to 66 years. However, it is unlikely that the
However, their population densities differ markedly population will double again, since the trend is for continued
(Europe: 70 per km2; United States: 31 per km2; declines in population growth rates. As a result, the best
Canada: 3.2 per km2). What factors likely account current population models predict a leveling off of the global
for these differences? population at a size far lower than double its size in 2015.
The global population has followed a J-shaped curve over
3. What factors are attracting people from rural much of the past five centuries (Figure 5.3a). Although the
areas to cities? global population (total population number) continues to
increase, it is not increasing as quickly as it formerly did
5.2 The global population will (Figure 5.3b). In other words, the growth rate is slowing
grow into the middle of this down. The population growth rate peaked in the late 1960s
and early 1970s and has been decreasing steadily since then,
century as birthrates have fallen worldwide. The current theoretical
Some 60,000 years ago, a few thousand people in East doubling time of the population is 66 years. However,
Africa began a historic migration into the Middle East, population biologists predict that the growth rate will keep
Europe, Asia, and beyond. While there is some debate slowing into the next half-century (Figure 5.3c), which will
among archaeologists and geneticists about the exact increase doubling time as population growth slows. A slowing
timing and process of human dispersal from Africa, we global population growth rate will resemble an S-shaped
?
know that, in the early years, the global human population curve (for more on J- and S-shaped curves, see Chapter 3).
grew very slowly. Then, with the shift from hunting and Does leveling off of the human population sometime this
gathering to agriculture, approximately 10,000 years ago, century mean that we will be at carrying capacity? In
At its rate of growth populations began to swell—but numbers remained in Chapter 3, we defined carrying capacity as the average
in 2015, the U.S. the few hundred million. About 500 years ago, the global number of individuals in a population that the environment is
population would population began to grow more rapidly, climbing to capable of supporting over the long term. Recall that if present
double in 91 years. 1 billion by 1804. The rate of population growth increased trends in population growth and resource consumption
with the Industrial Revolution in the mid-1800s, because of continue, by 2050 we will need the productive capacity
Given this growth
improved sanitation, health care, and increased agricultural of nearly three Earths to support the expected human
rate, what sorts of population over the long term. Some scientists have estimated
production. Consequently, the global population grew to 2
changes in housing, that Earth could supply enough food to support a population
billion by 1930 and to 3 billion just 29 years later, in 1959.
population density, and of 9 to 10 billion humans—but only if we were all vegetarians.
One way to think about the quickening pace of human
infrastructure would population growth is to calculate the population doubling However, human carrying capacity is influenced by a host
you expect to see in time, the amount of time required for a population, of environmental factors besides food, including supplies of
your lifetime? growing at a particular rate, to double its size. As shown in freshwater, availability of critical energy supplies, and capacity
Table 5.2, the doubling time for the global population has of built and natural systems for waste disposal. What is clear
been declining—that is, the amount of time it takes for the is that the human carrying capacity will be determined by a
combination of limits set by the natural environment and by
the choices we make as individuals and societies.
TABLE 5.2
DOUBLING TIMES FOR THE GLOBAL POPULATION ! Think About It
The doubling time for the global population has decreased
markedly during historic times. 1. What environmental factors produced the very
Population Doubling Time rapid growth of human populations following the
Years Change in Years Industrial Revolution?
500 BCE to 600 CE 100 to 200 million 1,100
600 to 1200 200 to 400 million 600
2. Why is it impossible for the global population to
1200 to 1750 400 to 800 million 550
sustain J-shaped population growth indefinitely?
population doubling 1750 to 1900 800 million to 1.6 billion 150
(Hint: Check out Chapter 3 for more on J-shaped
time The amount of time 1900 to 1963 1.6 billion to 3.2 billion 63 growth curves.)
required for a population,
growing at a particular rate, to
1963 to 2004 3.2 to 6.4 billion 41 3. What environmental factors may ultimately limit
double its size. Data from U.S. Census Bureau, International Data Base (IDB), 2010. global population growth?

131
THREE VIEWS OF GLOBAL POPULATION 5.3 The age structure of a

GROWTH population gives clues to its
HUMAN POPULATION GROWTH
growth or decline
You may have heard that the U.S. Social Security system,
a. During the past 12,000 years, the global population has followed
a J-shaped trajectory. which provides support to retirees, is under threat.
How is it that every working member of the population
8
is required to give part of his or her salary to Social
GLOBAL POPULATION (IN BILLIONS)
Security, but the fund is still running dry? The answer

6 Year 2010 comes back to demography. Because people are living
longer and having fewer children, the number of workers
supporting retirees has been decreasing over time. In
4
1960 there were approximately five workers for each
person receiving Social Security benefits. By 2005 the
2 ratio of workers to beneficiaries had fallen from 3.3 to
1, and demographers predict that the ratio of workers to
beneficiaries will fall to 2 : 1 by 2060. Today, about 12%
0
of our population is over the age of 65, but by 2080 that
BC BC BC BC BC 0 AD
,0 00
80
00
60
00
40
00
20
00
20
00 number will almost double. The only way to pay for these
10
YEAR retirees is to increase taxes on the working, decrease
benefits for retirees, or reduce the number of retirees by
b. However, the annual rate of growth as a percentage of the raising the retirement age.
population has been in decline since the late 1960s.
As you can see, demography is critical to planning for
the needs of any population. In an aging population, that
GLOBAL POPULATION INCREASE (%)
2.5
could mean Social Security and elder-care facilities. In
2.0 a young, growing population, that might mean building
Year 2010 more schools. To predict future trends in population
1.5 growth, demographers study the age structure of a
population. Age structure is a tally of how many males
1.0
0.5
and females there are at different ages in a particular
population, region, or country. The distribution of ages
of a population reflects whether a population is growing,
?
Imagine visiting a city
stable, or declining, and we can visualize it with an age
0 structure diagram (Figure 5.4). in Iceland, Yemen, or
1950 1970 1990 2010 2030 2050 Ukraine on a festival
YEAR or market day, when a
Contrasting Population Trends
cross section of people
c. The recent and projected slowing of global population growth One way to predict growth trends is to compare the
can be seen in a growth pattern that is beginning to show signs is on the streets. Given
of leveling off. relative number of children in a population with the
relative number of reproductive-age adults. Consider
their contrasting age
10
structures, what would
GLOBAL POPULATION (IN BILLIONS)
the triangular-shaped age structure of the population

in Yemen (Figure 5.4), a country on the southwestern be your likely impression
8
tip of the Arabian Peninsula. The age structure diagram of each population?
6
reveals that young children far outnumber adults.
As these children grow up, they will reproduce and
Year 2010
4
contribute to a future population boom. In contrast, the age structure The
age structure in Ukraine, a country southwest of Russia proportions of individuals of
2
bordering the north shore of the Black Sea, is constricted various ages in a population;
at its base, indicating a relatively small proportion of the relative proportions of
individuals of reproductive and
0
children—too few to replace the adults in the population. pre-reproductive age indicate
1950 1970 1990 2010 2030 2050 That population is in decline. Finally, the straight-sided whether a population is
YEAR age structure of Iceland’s population indicates that the growing, stable, or declining.
FIGURE 5.3 The perspective you develop on population number of children is just sufficient to replace the adults
growth is significantly affected by how you examine it. For in the population—this population is nearly stable. total fertility rate An estimate
example, although total global population is still increasing, the of the average number of
pace at which the population is increasing has slowed over the
The contrasting age structures of Yemen, Iceland, children that a woman in a
past 40 or so years. (Data from U.S. Census Bureau, International and Ukraine result mainly from differences in total population gives birth to during
Data Base, 2010) fertility rate, which is an estimate of the average number her lifetime.

CONTRASTING POPULATION AGE STRUCTURES
ICELAND: Approaching stability UKRAINE: Declining YEMEN: Growing rapidly

Iceland’s population has a relatively even distribution Ukraine’s population includes relatively few children. In contrast, a relatively large proportion of Yemen’s
of individuals between reproductive-aged adults and population is made up of children.
children.
AGE AGE
AGES
90+ 90+
85–90 85–90 Postreproductive
80–84 80–84 Reproductive
75–79 75–79 Children
70–74 70–74
65–69 65–69
60–64 60–64
55–59 55–59
50–54 50–54
45–49 45–49
40–44 40–44
35–39 35–39
30–34 30–34
25–29 25–29
20–24 20–24
15–19 15–19
10–14 10–14
5–9 5–9
0–4 0–4
15 12 9 6 3 0 3 6 9 12 15 2.0 1.6 1.2 0.8 0.4 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.0 1.6 1.2 0.8 0.4 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0
Males Females Males Females Males Females
POPULATION (in thousands) POPULATION (in millions) POPULATION (in millions)
FIGURE 5.4 Differences in age structure can indicate whether a population is stable (or approaching stability), in decline, or
growing. (Data from U.S. Census Bureau, International Data Base, 2013)
of children that a woman in a population gives birth because some children die before reaching reproductive
replacement-level fertility
The total fertility rate required to during her lifetime. A fertility rate of fewer than age. In developed countries, such as Iceland and Ukraine,
to sustain a population at its 2 births per woman tells us that a population is not replacement-level fertility is approximately 2.1 births
current size, which varies from at replacement-level fertility. The total fertility rate per woman. In developing countries, replacement-
approximately 2.1 births per in Yemen (4.5) far exceeds that of Iceland (1.9) and level fertility is 2.5 births per woman or higher. These
woman in the more developed
Ukraine (1.3), meaning that a woman in Ukraine is not differences in total fertility rate translate to the rapidly
countries to 2.5 or higher in
the least developed countries, producing the two babies necessary to replace each pair growing population of Yemen, the stabilizing population
where mortality rates are of adults in the population. In fact, true replacement- of Iceland, and the declining population of Ukraine
higher. level fertility tends to be slightly higher than 2. That’s (Figure 5.5).
THREE PATTERNS OF POPULATION CHANGE
ICELAND UKRAINE YEMEN

Iceland’s population is approaching stability. Ukraine’s population is in decline. Yemen’s population is growing rapidly
400 60 80
POPULATION (IN THOUSANDS)
70
POPULATION (IN MILLIONS)
50
300 60
40
50
200 30 40
30
20
100 20
10
10
0 0 0
1950 1975 2000 2025 2050 1950 1975 2000 2025 2050 1950 1975 2000 2025 2050
YEAR YEAR YEAR
FIGURE 5.5 The patterns of population change in Iceland, Ukraine, and Yemen nearly span the range of population change among
countries in the early 21st century. (Data from U.S. Census Bureau, International Data Base, 2006)

133
U.S. AGE STRUCTURE DOES NOT PREDICT

children are added to the population. In 2015 the annual
CURRENT POPULATION TRENDS birthrate per 1,000 individuals in the United States was 12;
the death rate was 8 per 1,000. Population momentum in
UNITED STATES the United States will eventually stop once the birthrate
a. Despite an age structure that suggests a stable population or one equals the death rate, but it will be especially significant in
approaching stability. . . a nation such as Yemen (see Figure 5.4), which has a large
AGE
proportion of children in the population. The same is true
90+ of almost all the countries of sub-Saharan Africa.
85–90 Reproduction at replacement rate should eventually
80–84
75–79 cause the U.S. population to stabilize—but this assumes
70–74 no migration into or out of a population. We know that
65–69
60–64 the U.S. population is not closed and has long received
55–59 large numbers of immigrants. Immigration, which was
50–54
45–49 responsible for approximately 48% of the growth in the
40–44 U.S. population in 2015, will continue to add significantly
35–39
30–34 to U.S. population growth well into midcentury.
25–29
! Think About It
20–24
15–19
10–14
5–9
0–4
1. Immigration accounts for some of the projected
15 12 9 6 3 0 3 6 9 12 15 population growth in the United States shown in
Males Females Figure 5.6. What contribution does immigration
POPULATION (in millions) make to the projected growth for the world
population shown in Figure 5.3?
b. . . . the population of the United States is projected to continue
growing beyond midcentury. 2. Could a population such as that of Ukraine
500 (see Figures 5.4 and 5.5) show population
momentum if total fertility rates were to increase to
400 replacement levels? What would be the nature of this

momentum?
300
200
5.1–5.3 Science:
100 Summary
After thousands of years of relatively slow
0
1850 1900 1950 2000 2050 growth, the human population began to grow
YEAR rapidly during the past 500 years, mainly
FIGURE 5.6 (a) The age structure of the U.S. population in response to increased food supplies and
suggests a stable population. (b) Analysis by the U.S. Census improved sanitation and health care. Population
Bureau predicts that the U.S. population will continue to grow density, which varies around the world, results
through 2050. (Data from U.S. Census Bureau, International
Data Base, 2013)
from a dynamic interplay between rates of
birth, death, immigration, and emigration.
Demographers predict that the global
Population Trends in the United States population will begin to level off sometime
With a replacement-level fertility rate of 2.1, the United during the mid-21st century, eventually
States seems like a perfect example of a stable population approximating an S-shaped pattern of
(Figure 5.6a). However, the U.S. population is still growing population growth. The distribution of people
at a rate of 0.9% annually, and demographers predict it of different ages can indicate population trends.
will reach nearly 400 million people in 2050 (Figure 5.6b). Population growth occurs in young populations,
What’s going on? such as in Yemen, whereas population declines
The tendency of a population to grow even though occur in aging populations, such as the Ukraine.
fertility has fallen to replacement levels or lower is called Even though the U.S. population has a stable population momentum
population structure, it continues to grow due Population growth as a
population momentum. A lag period occurs because a consequence of a large
large proportion of individuals remain in their childbearing to population momentum and immigration. number of women reaching
years, most of whom will still be living long after their childbearing age.

5.4–5.7 Issues
T he human population and the demands it makes on
the environment lie at the core of environmental
science. The food we eat, including the variety, its level of
FOOD FOR A WEEK CONTRASTS LEVELS OF
CONSUMPTION IN DIFFERENT POPULATIONS
processing, and the amounts, is one the most fundamental

indicators of consumption by a population. Figure 5.7
contrasts the foods consumed by three families during
a typical week. This stark contrast shows clearly that the
pressure a population puts on Earth’s resources is a product
of not just the size of a population, but also the rate at
which individuals in a population consume resources.
(Ben Lister/Daily Mail/Solo Syndication)

Typically, the level of resource use in a population increases
?
with economic development.
5.4 Fertility ranges greatly

Is population planning
more of a global or
among countries and regions
regional problem? In 2007 developed countries around the world had total Family in the United Kingdom
fertility rates at or below the replacement level of fertility
Perhaps both? Explain
of 2.1 (Figure 5.8). Consequently, populations in these
your answer.
countries, such as those of Iceland and Ukraine, are now
generally stable, approaching stability, or decreasing
in size. Meanwhile, high levels of fertility and rapid
?
If you were planning
population growth, as in Yemen, continue in many
nations of sub-Saharan Africa, parts of the Middle East,
and southern Asia.
Each of these population trends presents a unique
for social services, what challenge. Populations with very low levels of fertility
changes would you have a shrinking workforce of younger people who face
(Abir Abdullah/Oxfam)
need to anticipate over the prospect of supporting a larger number of aged

the next 40 years in individuals in the population. On the other hand, high
sub-Saharan Africa? In levels of fertility mean a large number of young in need of
Europe? education, proper nutrition, and health care. Family in Sri Lanka
As a consequence of differences in fertility and
population momentum, population trends differ a great
deal among regions (Figure 5.9). Studies by the United
Nations and others indicate that Europe’s population
will decline over the next half-century, whereas the
populations of Latin America, Asia, and North America
will grow slowly. The same studies also predict moderate
population growth in North Africa and Oceania. In
contrast, rapid growth will continue in sub-Saharan
Africa, where projections indicate that the population will
more than double in the 40 years between 2010 and 2050.
(Tom Pietrasik/Oxfam)
FIGURE 5.7 These families, who posed with all the food
they will eat in a week, give a visual demonstration of the great
differences in consumption across societies. Family in Ethiopia

135
TOTAL FERTILITY RATE DIFFERS GREATLY AROUND THE WORLD
TOTAL
FERTILITY
(births per woman)
7.0
highest
6.0–6.9
5.0–5.9
4.0–4.9
3.0–3.9
The highest total fertility rates occur in the nations of sub-Saharan
lowest
2.0–2.9
Africa. Relatively high total fertility rates are also found in a
2.1
number of countries in the Middle East and southern Asia.
FIGURE 5.8 Many populations around the world have total fertility rates at or below the replacement level of 2.1 live births per
woman. Many other populations are very close to replacement-level fertility. However, regional population trends in places like sub-
Saharan Africa should not distract us from the great variation in trends among individual nations, each with its own specific qualities
and needs. This is particularly significant in Africa, where, for example, variation in total fertility rate is higher than in any other major
region. (Data from United Nations Human Development Report, 2009)
! Think About It
1. What types of age structure do you think you’d 2. Which regions have the highest total fertility
find in sub-Saharan Africa? In Europe? (Hint: See rates? Which regions have the greatest variation in
Figure 5.4.) total fertility rates among countries?
VARIATION IN REGIONAL POPULATION GROWTH
POPULATION CHANGE 2009–2050
Sub-Saharan Africa 137%
North Africa 59%
Oceania 41%
North America 30%
Latin America / Caribbean 29%
Asia 27% While the population of sub-Saharan

Africa is projected to more than
double in 40 years, the population of
Europe −4% Europe is projected to decline by 4%.
World 38%
FIGURE 5.9 Population growth rates between 2009 and 2050 are projected to differ widely across the major world regions.
(Data from U.S. Census Bureau, International Data Base, 2010)

5.5 Development varies the more choices they have over the lives they lead.
Economists typically compare countries based on their
widely among countries gross domestic product, or GDP, which is the total
?
As discussed earlier, Bangladesh is one of the world’s market value of all the goods and services produced
poorest and least developed countries, which obviously within the borders of a nation during a given year. To
has a wide range of consequences for the population in compare economic conditions among countries, we
terms of its health, educational level, and quality of life. divide GDP by population size, resulting in per capita
The king of Bhutan
Those consequences are also reflected in the population’s GDP. As shown in Figure 5.10, per capita GDP is over
proposed that 100 times higher in countries with the highest levels
impact on the environment. Compared with the average
noneconomic aspects of development compared to those with the lowest
American, a Bangladeshi citizen uses far fewer resources.
should be given greater He eats less meat, requires less electricity, and is less likely development. Bangladesh has a per capita GDP of
emphasis in evaluating to throw out an old cell phone in order to buy the latest $1,883, which puts it above quite a few African
development and model. Still, because of Bangladesh’s high population countries, but far below the $49,965 per capita GDP of
proposed an index density, the population’s local impact on its surroundings the United States. Countries with a low GDP generally
called the “Gross has already been significant: polluted water supplies, have a lower cost of living. However, importing
National Happiness.” dirty air, and vanishing farmland. manufactured goods and food from richer countries
How would you Development, therefore, is a double-edged sword can be a challenge.
go about assessing with the potential to raise the standard of living while To take a closer look at what money really means for
happiness? also threatening future prosperity through the depletion development, it’s often useful to examine population
of resources. To some extent, this is happening in statistics. For instance, life expectancy at birth, the
Bangladesh. As poverty has declined from 57% of predicted average life span of individuals born during
the population in 1992 to 32% in 2010, the average a particular year, reflects the state of health in different
Bangladeshi has had a larger impact on the environment. regions and countries. In highly developed countries, life
This means that understanding the impact of a expectancy at birth averages 80 years. Compare that with
population on the environment requires an accurate many countries in sub-Saharan Africa and Afghanistan,
gross domestic product measurement of that population’s level of development. where people are expected to die by their early to mid-
(GDP) The total market 50s. In Africa, this reflects the ravages of AIDS in many
value of all the goods (e.g., populations, while in Afghanistan, it might be due to
Measuring the Health and Well-Being of
manufactured articles or
agricultural crops) and Populations poor sanitation, minimal access to medical care, and
services (e.g., transportation decades of war.
When it comes to development, the basic currency is
and banking services) Another measure of health is child mortality rate, the
money: how much people make and how much they
produced within the borders of number of children per 1,000 live births that die before
a nation during some period of spend. After all, the more money they have available,
reaching 5 years of age. The level of child mortality can
time. See per capita GDP.
be as much as 20 times higher in the poorest countries
per capita GDP The than in the richest ones (Figure 5.11).
market value of the goods GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT (GDP) VARIES The poorest countries often have the worst educational
(e.g., manufactured articles DRAMATICALLY WITH LEVEL OF DEVELOPMENT systems, and many children never learn to read. Lack
or agricultural crops) and of educational opportunities may be one of the key
services (e.g., transportation 40 impediments to improving the lives of people in such
GDP PER CAPITA (IN THOUSANDS OF US$)
and banking services)

produced within the borders Compared with less developed
countries, while high levels of literacy and commitment
of a nation per individual in its countries, per capita GDP is more to education are essential to sustaining high levels of
than 100 times higher in countries
population. 30
with the highest level of development. development in rich countries.
As you might imagine, although a country’s GDP
life expectancy at birth
The predicted average life
is the engine that drives development, a country’s
20
span of individuals born during history and politics also have significant influences. To
a particular year. gauge levels of development, the United Nations (UN)
combines health, economic development, and education
child mortality rate The 10
into the Human Development Index, or HDI. The
number of infants per 1,000
live births who die before
HDI ranges from 0 to 1.0, a theoretical situation in
reaching 5 years of age. which the health, education, and economic potential
0
Low Medium High Very high of individuals are all maximized. The HDI uses life
Human Development Index LEVEL OF DEVELOPMENT expectancy at birth as an indicator of health in a
(HDI) An index of national population, average number of years of schooling as
development that includes FIGURE 5.10 A measure of material wealth, per capita GDP
life expectancy at birth, differs more among countries with different development status an indicator of educational opportunities, and per
educational opportunities, and than many of the other major indicators of development. (Data capita income as a measure of economic development.
economic productivity. from United Nations Human Development Report, 2009) When the UN evaluated 187 countries in 2011, their

137
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DEVELOPMENT AND

CHILD MORTALITY
! Think About It
1. What factors are used to calculate the Human
Development Index, or HDI? What does each
?
120
indicate about a population?

100
2. Are there any aspects of human development
(PER 1,000 LIVE BIRTHS)
UNDER-5 MORTALITY
80 left out of the HDI? What other factors would you The Human
add to the index, if you were to make your own Development Index
60
independent assessment of human development (HDI) is calculated
around the world? on the basis of three
40
different factors
20
5.6 Population growth (education, life
and development generally expectancy, and per
capita GDP). Are these
0
Low Medium High Very high increase environmental elements independent
LEVEL OF DEVELOPMENT impact or is there, in fact, a
FIGURE 5.11 The probability of a child dying before he or In 1971 ecologists Paul Ehrlich and John Holdren made causal interrelationship
she reaches age 5 decreases dramatically with development. In one of the first attempts to quantify the impact of human
2009 the proportion of children dying before 5 years of age in
among them?
populations on the environment. They recognized that
countries with the lowest development is nearly 20 times higher
than in countries that have attained very high development.
a population’s environmental impact is not simply a
(Data from United Nations Human Development Report, 2011) matter of the number of people in the population. It’s
also important to consider how affluent the population
is and measure that affluence in terms of per capita
resource consumption and waste production. Generally,
HDI values ranged from 0.286 for the Democratic the average level of resource consumption increases with
Republic of the Congo, which ranked 187th, to 0.943 for rising levels of affluence.
Norway, which ranked 1st (Figure 5.12). Bangladesh In addition, one needs to factor in technology used in
ranked 146th. production of, for instance, consumer goods, because some
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX (HDI) SCORES
HUMAN
DEVELOPMENT
INDEX (HDI)
Very high
High
Medium
Low
No data
FIGURE 5.12 Geographical variation in human development shows regional clustering of higher and lower levels. HDI scores are
highest in North America, Western Europe, Japan, and South Korea in the Northern Hemisphere and in Australia, New Zealand, Chile,
and Argentina in the Southern Hemisphere. Meanwhile, the lowest HDI scores are concentrated in sub-Saharan Africa and southern
Asia. (Data from United Nations Human Development Report, 2011)

?
technologies consume more energy and produce more have less environmental impact than do individuals in
waste than others. Ehrlich and Holdren recognized that more affluent countries, such as the United States.
some technologies, such as more fuel-efficient vehicles,
can lower the environmental impact of a population. In The Ecological Footprint and Development
How might
their article in the journal Science, Ehrlich and Holdren
technological The IPAT equation was, in many ways, a precursor to the
proposed what they called the IPAT equation:
developments reduce ecological footprint, which we introduced in Chapter 1;
the environmental it is an estimate of the area of land and water required
I ! P " A " T, where:
impacts of populations? for a human population to provide the natural resources
it uses (see page 20). You may notice that as a country’s
I ! impact on environment (loss of resources,
development level increases, its per capita ecological foot-
degradation of ecosystems)
print also tends to increase (Figure 5.12 and Figure 5.13).
P ! population (total number in population)
That’s not always true, and while development in many
A ! affluence (a shorthand for per capita resource
countries has been bought at a very high environmental
consumption)
cost, some rich countries have achieved high levels of
T ! technology (processes and products that require
development with lower impacts.
energy and resources)
The total impact of a population on the environment
One of the main conclusions we can draw from the IPAT can be estimated by multiplying the number of people by
equation is that individuals in less affluent countries, their per capita ecological footprint. Figure 5.14 shows the
such as those of sub-Saharan Africa and southern Asia, relative population sizes in the world’s major regions, along
GLOBAL VARIATION IN PER CAPITA ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT
FIGURE 5.13a The largest per capita

ecological footprints in global hectares PER CAPITA
ECOLOGICAL
(gha) are concentrated in North America, FOOTPRINT (gha)
Europe, northern Asia, Australia, and
Very large >6.0
New Zealand. The lowest per capita
Large 4.0–6.0
ecological footprints occur in Africa, Medium 2.0–3.9
southern Asia, and Latin America. (Data Small <2.0
from WWF [World Wildlife Fund], 2006; No data
WWF, 2012)
PER CAPITA ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT INCREASES WITH DEVELOPMENT
12
Qatar
10
ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT (gha)
Kuwait Denmark
UAE
8
FIGURE 5.13b Human development Belgium USA
requires investment in health care, Russia Canada
Australia
6
education, and economic infrastructure.
UK Norway
Resource consumption increases as Ukraine
a consequence. However, how much 4
Lesotho Yemen Brazil
resource consumption increases with Italy Germany
development varies widely. Many countries Congo, DR Indonesia Chile
2
have attained high levels of development Cuba
with much smaller ecological footprints
India China Costa Rica
than others. (Data from United Nations 0
Human Development Report, 2011; WWF 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
[World Wildlife Fund], 2012) HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX (HDI)

139
SOME REGIONS HAVE DISPROPORTIONATELY LARGE ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINTS
PROPORTION OF
GLOBAL POPULATION
PROPORTION OF
GLOBAL ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT
?
Which world region
Asia-Pacific 55% Asia-Pacific 39%
shown in Figure
Africa 14% Africa 9%
5.14 has the largest
per capita ecological
Europe 11% Europe 21%
footprint? Which has
Latin America / 9% Latin America / 10%
Caribbean Caribbean the smallest?
Middle East / 6% Middle East / 6%
Central Asia Central Asia
United States 5% United States 15%

and Canada and Canada
FIGURE 5.14 The United States, Canada, and Europe have much larger total ecological footprints relative to their population sizes,
compared with other regions. With a combined population of just over 1 billion, these regions have a combined ecological footprint
nearly as large as the Asia-Pacific region, with a population of nearly 4 billion. Africa, by contrast, has a proportionately smaller
footprint relative to population size. (Data from WWF [World Wildlife Fund], 2012]
with their total ecological footprints. One of the clearest Irish potato famine over 150 years ago, 1 million Irish
conclusions we can draw from this comparison is that, came to the United States. However dramatic, this event
relative to their sizes, the populations of North America— involved a small fraction of the millions of people from
mainly the United States—and Europe have a much higher all over Earth who now seek better prospects: Sri Lankan
total impact on the environment than do the populations boat people seeking asylum in Australia, Nicaraguans
of other regions. Consider that if everyone on Earth lived entering richer Costa Rica, Eastern Europeans moving
like Americans did in the year 2012, we would need four into Western Europe, young Africans stumbling onto the
Earths to sustain the current population. beaches of southern Spain, or Mexicans immigrating to
the United States (Figure 5.15).
! Think About It
1. Using Figure 5.13, compare the relative ecological
DEVELOPED COUNTRIES FACE AN INCREASING FLOW OF ILLEGAL
footprints of an individual in the United States and
IMMIGRANTS
an individual in China.
2. Using the estimates you determined above,
compare the total ecological footprints of the two
countries. (Note: In 2012 the population of China
was 1,343,000,000 and that of the United States was
314,000,000.)
3. How does your own ecological footprint compare
with that of other individuals living around the
world? (See the ecological footprint calculator at
www.footprintnetwork.org.)
(© Franco Cufari European Press Agency/Newscom)
5.7 Developmental
differences between
populations create
migration pressures
The Statue of Liberty in New York Harbor is one of the
most well-known monuments to immigration. Indeed,
the Americas have received large numbers of immigrants FIGURE 5.15 Here, Italian immigration police detain a boatload of people attempting to
from all over the world. For instance, in the wake of the enter Italy illegally.

?
These encounters among people, often with different regions. The main sources of immigrants are poor
cultures and languages, have commonly involved countries in Asia, Latin America, the Caribbean, and
competition for land, jobs, and other resources. Africa, whose principal destinations are rich countries
How does one reconcile Consequently, immigration is one of the most sensitive in North America, Europe, Australia, and New Zealand
the aspirations of and complicated issues related to human population (Figure 5.17). In the richest countries, the number of
immigrants with the dynamics, and history is filled with attempts to stop or immigrant residents totaled over 111 million in 2013, or
control the flow of immigrants (Figure 5.16). about 11% of the overall population. About 2.5 million
concerns of many
people migrate from one country to another every year.
residents in countries Migration and Population Dynamics Of this total, approximately 1 million, or 40%, legally
attracting high flows of Today, migration augments population growth in some immigrate to the United States. Another several hundred
immigrants? regions and contributes to population declines in other thousand persons per year illegally enter the United
States. Most of the others go to Europe, Canada, or
Australia.
BARRIERS BUILT TO CONTROL HUMAN MOVEMENTS HAVE A LONG HISTORY High rates of immigration have been associated with
some incidents of political and social conflict. In South
Africa, for example, controversy over immigration from
surrounding countries, both legal and illegal, exploded
into widespread rioting and violence in 2008 and 2015.
In the United States, a number of local governments and
states frustrated by the number of illegal migrants have
made life harder for immigrants by preventing them
from getting driver’s licenses or arresting them when
they cannot show proof of legal status. These legal moves
have drawn opposition from the U.S. federal government
(Blasco de Avellaneda/AFP/Getty Images)
and have become flashpoints for debate among political

parties, citizen groups, and the U.S. Supreme Court
(Figure 5.18).
Immigration policy in the United States is governed
by the Immigration and Naturalization Act, which
limits permanent immigrants to 675,000 annually. U.S.
immigration policy has historically given priority to
Border fence between Spain and Morocco reuniting families, admitting immigrants with skills
valuable to the U.S. economy and providing shelter to
refugees. Many naturalized citizens, human rights groups,
and business owners worried about their labor force have
called for immigration policy reform.
! Think About It
1. In setting immigration policy, what criteria can
be used to screen immigrants? Are some criteria
unethical? Explain your answers.
2. Do developed countries have an obligation to
(Frederic Brown/AFP/Getty Images)
accept immigrants from developing countries

with large populations? Do poor countries have a
right to expect that rich countries will accept their
immigrants?
Border fence between the United States and Mexico
FIGURE 5.16 The border fence between the Spanish city of Melilla and Morocco is intended to
reduce illegal migration into Spain from Africa. The border fence between the United States and
Mexico is intended to reduce illegal migration into the United States along its southern border.

141
IMMIGRANTS USUALLY GO TO AREAS OF BETTER ECONOMIC OPPORTUNITY
Europe
North
America
Asia
Africa
Latin Oceania
America /
Caribbean
Intra-regional
migration
FIGURE 5.17 The major flow paths of international immigration mainly connect Latin America, the Caribbean, Africa, and Asia with
North America, Western Europe, Australia, and New Zealand. However, significant flows of immigration also occur between countries
within regions, where there are differences in economic opportunity—for example, to South Africa from nearby less developed
countries. (Data from United Nations Human Development Report, 2009)
IMMIGRATION: A SIGNIFICANT ISSUE IN MANY COUNTRIES

5.4–5.7 Issues:
Summary
Understanding the impact of a population on the
environment requires an accurate measurement of its
level of development. The United Nations incorporates
life expectancy, wealth, and access to education into
a single index of development called the Human
Development Index, or HDI. The two main factors
influencing its impact are the number of individuals
in the population and the per capita consumption of
natural resources. These effects can be summarized
by the IPAT equation: I (environmental impact) =
(Michael Rieger/Zuma Press/Newscom)
P (population) " A (affluence or resource consumption)

" T (technology). Ecological footprints, which are
on average higher in more developed countries, also
quantify the impact of populations on the environment.
Migration has had a significant influence on human
populations throughout history. Today, migration
augments the population growth of many countries,
FIGURE 5.18 In the United States, intense debate swirls around the issues of how while contributing to population declines in others.
to reform immigration policy and to deal with the millions of illegal immigrants in the Immigration can be a significant contributor to
country. Here, some demonstrators protest a controversial immigration law passed population growth trends and, in some situations, may
by a state legislature, while others show support for it. lead to social conflict.

A conversation about unsustainable population growth
represents an opportunity to preserve the environment
and improve people’s lives. Consider that in southern
world are also bearing children at an unsustainable rate.
Consequently, some of these countries have adopted
national policies to lower fertility. By contrast, Japan
Somalia, young girls get married in their teenage years and and some European nations with the lowest fertility
start having children almost immediately. Across Africa, levels and a declining workforce are promoting higher
women have an average of six children. The lives of these fertility. Still other nations, particularly in the Americas,
?
women are almost entirely consumed by childbearing, pursue policies of nonintervention in fertility decisions
cooking, cleaning, and water collection. That means there’s (Figure 5.19). Before considering how individual
no time for education or entrepreneurship. There’s little countries attempt to manage fertility, let’s step back and
How might cultural and chance to advance in their lives or to give their children consider the factors that have traditionally led families
ethical considerations more options than they themselves had. to produce many children.
help or hinder efforts Having a large family is, of course, a personal choice,
which is one reason why population growth remains one The Historical Norm: High Fertility Rates
to control population
of the most daunting and controversial environmental
growth? Give specific The lack of effective contraceptives in the past is one
challenges of our day. Nevertheless, when countries design
examples. of the major reasons why family size has historically
ethical policies to encourage population stability, everyone
been so large. But there are also good reasons why people
has a chance to benefit.
have wanted to have large families. Poor nutrition,
sanitation, and health care meant that many children
5.8 Most nations have would die shortly after birth or at a very young age.
national policies aimed at Large families provide a hedge against loss of children
managing population growth to disease and accidents. As you probably know from
growing up, children are a free source of labor to their
The problem of high fertility rates is not limited to sub- parents. They can do chores such as tending crops and
Saharan Africa. Women in Asia and other parts of the livestock, and they can help sell goods at the market. As
NATIONAL POLICIES FOR MANAGING FERTILITY RATES VARY WIDELY
The northern countries

across Europe and Asia
along with Australia,
where total fertility
rates are low, generally
Governments in the promote higher fertility.
Americas are fairly
evenly divided between
policies encouraging China and other countries
reduced fertility rates scattered around the world
and those involving no work to maintain current
intervention. fertility levels.
Most countries
in Africa and
POPULATION POLICY southern Asia,
Decrease fertility
the regions of
highest fertility
Maintain fertility
levels, promote
Increase fertility reduced fertility.
No intervention
FIGURE 5.19 The population policies of countries range from those promoting lower fertility, increased fertility, or maintaining
current fertility levels to those involving no efforts to influence fertility decisions. (Data from United Nations, World Population
Policies, 2007)

143
CONTRACEPTIVE USE DIFFERS LITTLE AMONG WORLD REGIONS
CONTRACEPTIVE USE (% OF WOMEN)
U.S. / Canada 73%
Latin America / Caribbean 71%
Australia / New Zealand 69%
Asia 68%
Europe 67%
North Africa 60%
Sub-Saharan Africa 21.5% Reproductive-aged women in sub-Saharan

Africa use contraceptives much less
frequently than do women in other regions.
FIGURE 5.20 The major exception to the prevalence of contraceptive use among reproductive-
aged women, defined by the United Nations as women between the ages of 15 to 44, occurs in
sub-Saharan Africa. (Data from United Nations, World Contraceptive Use, 2007)
parents and grandparents age, children can help take care can reduce fertility rates substantially. For instance, in
of them. African countries where contraceptive use is prevalent,
birthrates are nearly as low as in the most developed
Access to Contraceptives and Birth Rates countries.
Let’s examine the history of two countries that have
Today, birth control pills, condoms, sterilization, and
invested heavily in population planning. Two of the most
other forms of contraception are a key element in most
prominent examples of national population policies are
national programs for reducing population growth. The
United Nations encourages the use of contraceptives
to reduce birthrates where population growth is rapid.
Abortion of unwanted and dangerous pregnancies,
AS CONTRACEPTIVE USE INCREASES, TOTAL
though controversial, also plays a role in some programs. FERTILITY RATE DECLINES
The UN has stated, “All couples and individuals have the
basic right to decide freely and responsibly the number Fertility rates remain high where contraceptive use is lowest.
and spacing of their children and to have the information, Conversely, where contraceptive use is high, birthrates are low.
education, and means to do so.” The United Nations

recognizes the importance of controlling population 8 Africa
growth in a manner that respects local laws and customs Asia
Europe
and encourages all countries to provide “universal
(BIRTHS PER WOMAN)
6 Latin America /
access to a full range of safe and reliable family-planning Caribbean
TOTAL FERTILITY
North America
methods and related health services which are not against Oceania
the law [emphasis added].” 4
In a 2007 study, the United Nations found that

contraceptive use varies little among most world regions 2
(Figure 5.20). Worldwide, the range of contraceptive
use by reproductive-age women among most regions
varied only from 60% to 73%. The major exception was 0
0 25 50 75 100
sub-Saharan Africa, where the rate of contraceptive CONTRACEPTIVE USE (%)
use averaged 21.5%. However, contraceptive use varies
significantly within all regions, including sub-Saharan FIGURE 5.21 There is a clear relationship between
contraceptive use, as a percentage of adult population, and total
Africa. The pattern shown in Figure 5.21 indicates a clear
fertility rate. A significant decline in the fertility rate in countries
correlation between access to contraceptives and reduced with increased contraceptive use is found in all world regions.
birthrates. This relationship suggests that providing (United Nations, 1999; U.S. Census Bureau, International Data
access to family-planning information and contraceptives Base, 2000)

those of India and China, home to over 35% of the global TOTAL FERTILITY HAS DECREASED DRAMATICALLY
population. IN INDIA AND CHINA
India: A Pioneer in Population Policy India’s fertility rate has decreased by over 50%,
while China’s fertility rate has decreased by 75%.
Concerned that India’s economic development would
be disrupted by the rapid growth of its population, India 7
TOTAL FERTILITY (BIRTHS PER WOMAN)

developed the world’s first national policy on population
in 1952. Under India’s National Population Policy, the 6
government provides all citizens with the information and 5

means to make informed choices regarding childbearing.
However, participation in any family-planning service 4
is entirely voluntary (Figure 5.22). A key element of

3
India’s population program is collaboration between
national planners and local communities to improve 2
prenatal and postnatal health care and to provide access
1 India China
to contraceptives. The program also offers economic
incentives to couples that wait until the mother is 21 to 0
have their first child and to stop reproducing after their 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
YEAR
second child. Public-health campaigns reinforce the
advantages of small families over large ones. FIGURE 5.23 The population policies of the two most
populous countries on Earth have been successful in decreasing
Though available funds have been inadequate to entirely
total fertility to a fraction of their former level in a period of
meet the goals of its population policy, India has made decades. (Data from United Nations, World Population Policies,
remarkable progress over the past half-century. After 2007; U.S. Census Bureau, International Database, 2010)
1951 India’s total fertility rate decreased from 6 children
per woman to 2.6 children in 2012 (Figure 5.23). During
the same period, the infant mortality rate declined from education, employment, equality. Kerala’s school system
146 deaths to 32 deaths per 1,000 live births, while life boasts a 90% literacy rate, identical for boys and girls.
expectancy at birth increased from 37 years to 67 years. Educated women join the workforce before having
However, some regions of India have achieved exceptional children, and 63% (compared with 48% in India as a
results. For instance, the Indian state of Kerala adopted whole) use contraceptives. This has stabilized the state’s
a population-control plan centered around three “e’s”: birthrate at 2.0. Despite this progress, India’s population
will continue growing, though at slower and slower rates,
through 2050.
INFORMATION AND ADVISEMENT: ESSENTIAL IN POPULATION
MANAGEMENT China’s One-Child Family Policy
In 1970 the Chinese government introduced a
voluntary program that simply encouraged smaller
families. However, its population continued to swell,
and by 1979 China was home to nearly one-quarter
of the world’s population, living on 7% of Earth’s land
area. That’s when the government made the radical
decision to restrict the number of children a family
could have, punishing those who broke the rules.
The one-child family policy restricted most families
to a single child, a limit that is strictly enforced for
government employees and urban dwellers. In rural
areas, couples are generally allowed a second child if
(Mark Henley/Panos Pictures)
their first child is a girl. However, the policy stipulates

a span of five years between the first and second
child. The policy also allows ethnic minorities, such
as Mongols, Tibetans, and Uyghurs, as well as other
people living in remote areas with low population
FIGURE 5.22 Family planning that brings trained advisors together with individual densities, to have a third child. The one-child policy
women and couples is an essential part of India’s National Population Policy. is supported by a complex system of campaigns

145
promoting small families, reproductive education, CONTRASTING POPULATION TRENDS IN INDIA

universal access to contraceptives, and economic AND CHINA
rewards. These measures are backed up by an array of
punishments for noncompliance, including substantial Demographers predict that India’s population
will surpass China’s in 2030 and will continue
fines and confiscation of property. to grow past midcentury. Meanwhile, they
The program had dramatic impacts on China’s predict that China’s population will peak after
2030 and begin a slow decline.
population dynamics (see Figure 5.23). The total fertility
rate in China, which averaged 5.9 children per woman 2,000
in 1970, fell to 2.9 during the period of voluntary family
planning. However, following the establishment of the

strict one-child family policy, the total fertility rate fell 1,500
further, reaching 1.5 children per woman by 2010, well

below replacement-level fertility.
100
Demographers predict that China’s population
will peak sometime after 2030 and begin declining
thereafter. In contrast, India’s population is projected to 500
continue growing past mid-century to become the most
populous nation on earth (Figure 5.24). While effective, India China
China’s one-child policy is considered unethical by 0

some, particularly in Western nations, since it restricts 1950 1975 2000 2025 2050 2075
YEAR
the basic human right to reproduction and has been
accompanied by reports of forced sterilizations and FIGURE 5.24 The populations of the world’s two most
populous countries are on different trajectories as both,
abortions. Such concerns have led to some reforms in according to demographers, approach population stability.
the policy. (Data from U.S. Census Bureau, International Database, 2008)
China has been gradually loosening its infamous
policy. In 2013 it began allowing a second child when
one of the parents was an only child. Previously, both for this bias have faded, families continue to prefer sons,
?
parents had to be an only child in order to qualify. Then, a quest that has been assisted through sex-screening
in late 2015, it adopted a blanket two-child policy amid technology, such as ultrasound. Consequently, many of
growing concerns about the economic consequences of these populations have unbalanced sex ratios.
an aging population. A second concern has been over an An imbalance in the proportions of males and females How would you react
imbalance in the number of men and women in China’s may be one of the unforeseen outcomes of China’s one- if your government
population—because the culture has traditionally shown child family policy, where the sex ratio at birth was attempted to restrict
a preference for male children. This phenomenon is not 117 boys to 100 girls in 2001. This difference translates your reproductive
limited to China, however. into approximately 1 million excess male births in China
rights?
each year. Highly male-biased sex ratios at birth also
occur in other Asian populations, such as those in India
The Missing Daughters
and South Korea, countries that do not have restrictive
The natural sex ratio at birth of human populations, family-size policies in place. In fact, demographers have
defined as the ratio of male to female newborns, is documented sex ratios at birth as high as 126 :100 in
about 103 to 107 male births for every 100 female births. some regions of India. This suggests that prenatal sex
In other words, there are 3% to 7% more male births screening and sex-selective abortions may be the most
than female births. This imbalance evens out with age important factor distorting the sex ratio.
to a ratio of approximately 100 males to 100 females Countries across Asia have become alarmed about
in the population. That’s because males at all ages are unbalanced sex ratios. Young men in China, concerned
more likely to die from disease and accidents. Recently, by their limited marriage prospects, sometimes take
however, sex ratios at birth have become highly biased organized tours to neighboring countries, such as
toward males in a number of Asian populations. Vietnam, in search of a mate. Policy makers fear that
The prejudice among parents in North Africa, the populations with millions of single males with no
Middle East, and Asia is that sons are more valuable than prospects for marriage and family may lead to more
daughters. People in these regions believe that sons are violence and social instability. In response, several Asian
better able to do agricultural work and are more capable countries, including India and China, have outlawed
of supporting aged parents. They are also, by custom or prenatal sex screening and sex-selective abortion. India
law, the inheritors of family property and can continue has also increased educational and job opportunities for sex ratio at birth The ratio of
the family line. Today, even as the historical justifications girls. The government of China has passed laws making male to female newborns.

MASS COMMUNICATION IS IMPORTANT IN CHINA’S POPULATION

indicated that 37% of women expressed no preference
PROGRAM for a son or daughter, and equal numbers, about 6%,
preferred either a single daughter or a single son. The
remainder of those surveyed said that their ideal family
would include one son and one daughter. In India, similar
campaigns have begun to reduce sex-selective abortions.
In 2008, for the first time in many decades, female births
slightly exceeded male births in Delhi.
Global Trends in Fertility

As in India and China, total fertility rates are falling
(Peter Charlesworth/LightRocket via Getty Images)
rapidly the world over due to a “reproductive revolution”

caused by national policies, education, and contraception.
As shown in Figure 5.26, between 1990 and 2010, total
fertility rates fell significantly in countries at virtually
all levels of development. The richest countries showed
no change, in part, because fertility rates were already at
1.7 births per woman, well below replacement levels. At
the global level, these declines translate into a decrease
FIGURE 5.25 The Chinese government actively campaigns to
in fertility from 3.1 to 2.6 births in just two decades.
promote the advantages of small families and the value of both Demographers predict that total fertility for the world
daughters and sons. will decline to the replacement level of 2.1 sometime
before 2050.
it easier for daughters to inherit property and to provide
How might male-

? financial benefits, such as waived school fees, to daughter-
only families.
In addition, China has produced public awareness
! Think About It
1. When the least developed nations wish to provide
family-planning services and contraceptives for
campaigns aimed at warning of the social dangers of an
biased sex ratios lead to imbalanced sex ratio and extolling the inherent value of a their people but lack the funds to do so, should the
increased international child of either sex (Figure 5.25). Public attitudes appear most developed countries provide the necessary
tensions? to be changing in China, where recent surveys have funding?
?
THE WORLD IN THE MIDST OF A REPRODUCTIVE REVOLUTION
7 FERTILITY
What are some of the 1990–1995

6
serious social and 2005–2010
economic costs of 5 Fertility rates are decreasing rapidly across

having a population all developmental levels except the highest,
which are already below replacement levels.
with fewer young 4
than older members? 3

What are some ways
to reduce those costs 2
without creating other 1

problems?
0
Low Medium High Very high World
LEVEL OF DEVELOPMENT
FIGURE 5.26 A variety of factors, including government population policies that provide access
to family-planning information and contraceptives, have combined to produce significant decreases
in fertility worldwide. In 2009 populations with the highest development were below replacement
levels of fertility, whereas medium-development populations were rapidly approaching replacement
levels. (Data from United Nations Human Development Report, 2009)

147
THE FOUR STAGES OF DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION
DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION: SWEDEN
STAGE 1 STAGE 2 STAGE 3 STAGE 4

• High birthrates • High birthrates • Reduced birthrates • Low birthrates
• High death rates • Reduced death rates • Low death rates • Low death rates
• Stable population • Rapid population • Slowing population • Stable population
growth growth
50 10
BIRTH AND DEATH RATES (PER 1,000)
Birthrate Death rate Population
40 8
POPULATION (MILLIONS)
30 6
20 4
10 2
0 0
1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000 2050
YEAR
FIGURE 5.27 Demographic transition is a theoretical process proposed by demographers to
explain changes in rates of fertility and death rates observed during the history of mainly European
populations. How well the demographic transition model predicts demographic change in
populations outside of the developed countries where it has been observed has been a subject of
debate. (Data from Statistics Sweden; U.S. Census Bureau, International Data Base, 2006)
2. At what point do international campaigns for Because birthrates remain high, stage 2 populations grow
population control interfere with the rights of rapidly. As you can see in Figure 5.27, Sweden entered
nations to manage their own internal affairs? stage 2 during the late 18th and early 19th centuries.
Many developing countries, particularly in sub-Saharan
Africa, have fertility rates (see Figure 5.8, page 135) and
death rates that would place them in this second stage of
5.9 Human development demographic transition.
is associated with lower During stage 3, death rates keep dropping—but so do
birthrates, which translates to slower population growth.
fertility and reduced Declining birthrates may result from improved economic
emigration conditions, higher life expectancy, higher literacy
One question that development experts ponder is when particularly among women, and improved access to
Somalia and other sub-Saharan African countries will contraceptives and family-planning information. Today’s
shift from having high death rates and birthrates to developed countries moved into stage 3 sometime during
low death rates and birthrates. Such a demographic the 20th century. Most developing countries in Asia, Latin
transition, which occurs in response to improved living America, and the Caribbean are currently in stage 3.
conditions, has begun to take place in some African Populations stabilize at stage 4 when birthrates demographic transition
A theory proposing that, with
cities; it can be seen clearly through the history of a rich approximately balance death rates. The developing
improved living conditions,
European nation such as Sweden in response to improved countries currently in stage 3 of demographic transition human populations will undergo
living conditions. We can break down the demographic are expected to reach stage 4 sometime during the 21st a gradual change from an
transition into four stages. During stage 1, birthrates century. For example, a Central American country rapidly earlier state of high death rates
and death rates are high. Because birthrates and death approaching stage 4 is Costa Rica (Figure 5.28). As Figure and birthrates to a state of
low death rates and birthrates,
rates are approximately equal, a population in stage 1 is 5.28a shows, Costa Rica’s population is expected to
with improved living conditions.
stable or grows very slowly. As death rates decline, due stabilize by the year 2050. The quality of life in Costa Rica The demographic transition
to more dependable food supplies, improved sanitation, has improved dramatically as it has passed from stage 2 model fits the history of today’s
and drinking water supplies, populations enter stage 2. to 3 and approaches stage 4. By 2014 life expectancy at developed countries well.

development appears to help stabilize the populations of

COSTA RICA IS IN THE MIDST OF RAPID
DEMOGRAPHIC CHANGE
such countries (Figure 5.29 and Figure 5.30).
DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION: COSTA RICA Educating and Empowering Women

a. Costa Rica appears to be undergoing demographic transition. Whether in Asia, Africa, the Americas, or Europe,
Birth and death rates are expected to be equal by 2050, when
the country’s population is expected to stabilize.
women with more education and who are sufficiently
empowered to make critical choices in their lives bear
BIRTH AND DEATH RATES (PER 1,000) 70 Birth rate Death rate Population 7 fewer children. There are several reasons for this pattern.
First, educated women marry later and they wait longer
60 6
to have their first child. In addition, educated women are
POPULATION (MILLIONS)
50 5 more likely to use contraceptives and are more receptive
to family-planning information. Educated women also
40 4
tend to spend more time on their careers and have less
30 3 time to focus on raising many children. Finally, educated
women have greater influence on those around them, and
20 2
they become formal and informal educators themselves,
10 1 passing on their perspectives to those around them and
to succeeding generations.
0 0
1925 1950 1975 2000 2025 2050
YEAR
Easing Migration Pressures
As we learned earlier, population density depends on
b. Life expectancy at birth has increased from levels far lower not only population growth within a country’s borders,
than any country on Earth today to equal or exceed those in
but also immigration from other countries. One way
?
many highly developed countries. Infant mortality rates have
shown similar degrees of improvement. to reduce migration pressure is to lessen economic
disparities across borders. Such investment occurred in
INFANT MORTALITY (PER 1,000 LIVE BIRTHS
200 Infant mortality Life expectancy 100

Western Europe following the expansion of the European
Costa Rica was one Union (EU) in 1986 to include some of the then poorer
LIFE EXPECTANCY (YEARS)
of the first countries 150 75 countries of Western Europe, including Greece, Ireland,
in the world to Portugal, and Spain. The EU invested heavily in their
institute free and
obligatory education 100 50
for all (starting in

1869). Today, Costa 50 25
Rica has one of the TOTAL FERTILITY RATE DECLINES WITH
INCREASED DEVELOPMENT
highest literacy rates
in Latin America— 0
1925 1950 1975 2000 2025 2050
0
10
over 95%. How might
YEAR
education have helped FIGURE 5.28 Costa Rica is moving rapidly through
8
accelerate the country demographic transition, which is reflected in greatly reduced
infant mortality and increased life expectancy at birth. (Data
through demographic from Instituto Nacional de Estadistica y Censos de Costa Rica,
transition? 2006; U.S. Census Bureau, International Data Base, 2006)
6
?
What factors may
birth in Costa Rica increased to 78, two years lower than
in the United States, and its total fertility rate had fallen
to 1.9 births, lower than in the United States in 2014 and
2
0
equal to that in Iceland (Figure 5.28b). 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
sustain high rates While demographic transition theory explains HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX (HDI)
of fertility in some the history of today’s highly developed countries,
populations that have FIGURE 5.29 On average, countries with higher Human
demographers have suggested that some nations may Development Index scores have significantly lower total fertility
attained a high level of be trapped in a lower state of development by poverty, rates. (Data from United Nations Human Development Report,
development? overpopulation, and low literacy. That’s why investing in 2006; U.S. Census Bureau, International Data Base, 2006)

149
DEVELOPMENT IN INDIVIDUAL COUNTRIES CORRELATES WITH REDUCED FERTILITY
SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA NORTH AFRICA / MIDDLE EAST SOUTHERN ASIA LATIN AMERICA
Malawi Iran Pakistan Brazil

10 10 10 10
Botswana Morocco Bangladesh Guatemala
Mozambique Syria Indonesia Mexico
8 8 8 8
Time period:
1980–2007
6 6 6 6
Decrease in fertility:
6.6 −2.7= 3.9 Time period:
fewer births 1980–2007
4 4 4 4
Decrease in
fertility:
4.6 −2.4 =2.2
fewer births
2 2 2 2
0 0 0 0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX (HDI)
FIGURE 5.30 Improved Human Development Index scores from 1980 to 2007 were accompanied by reduced total fertility in
populations of developing countries in geographic regions around the world. Interpretations provided for the plots of Botswana
and Mexico as examples of how all country plots can be read. (Data from United Nations Human Development Report, 2009; U.S.
Census Bureau, International Data Base, 2010)
economic infrastructure; as a result of such investments

and local entrepreneurship, these countries entered
! Think About It
the 21st century much better off economically. As a 1. What do you think living conditions are like
consequence of improved opportunities at home, fewer during the four stages of demographic transition?
people emigrated from these nations; instead, they
became a destination for immigrants. However, the 2. How could you speed up the pace of demographic
economic downturn of 2008, which contributed to an transition? Be specific.
economic crisis across Europe, again sent many residents 3. Can you imagine a circumstance in which a
of these countries abroad, seeking better opportunities
country underwent significant development but did
elsewhere.
not evolve into a society in which both death rates
At the forefront of these developments was Ireland,
which quickly developed into one of the strongest and birthrates were low? Explain your response.
economies anywhere. In 2008 Ireland ranked 5th among
the nations of the world on its Human Development
Index score. At least partly influenced by improved 5.10 The challenge: Achieve
economic prospects at home, the status of Ireland high development and
changed from being a major source of immigrants to
being a destination for immigrants from around the
sustainable resource use
world. However, the economic recession near the end We often forget that at some point in their histories, the
of 2008 greatly reduced immigration to Ireland and populations of all of today’s developed countries went
by 2009 more people were again leaving Ireland than through a transformation from very low development
entering. However, with economic recovery, immigration to high development. Consider Iceland, which has an
to Ireland began increasing again after 2010; by 2015 infant mortality rate of less than 3 deaths per 1,000 live
one-third of Ireland’s population growth was the result births, one of the most favorable in the world. However,
of immigration. These patterns suggest that investment conditions were quite different as late as the 19th century.
in development in poorer countries will have multiple From 1840 to 1890, Iceland’s infant mortality rate was
benefits, including reduced population growth and 250 to 300 deaths per 1,000 live births, and in one
decreased immigration pressures. disastrous year, 1846, Iceland’s infant mortality rate rose

TWO MAJOR CHALLENGES RELATED TO HUMAN POPULATIONS
SMALLER
ECOLOGICAL
FOOTPRINT
12 • Reduced
consumption
The two-fold environmental challenge facing • More efficient
10 humanity is to develop the poorest countries technologies
ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT (gha)

and to reduce resource demands in the richest. • Improved
management
of resources
8
GOAL
4 DEVELOPMENT • High human
• Improved health development
• Improved education • Stable
populations
• Improved economy
2 • Lower resource
demand
0
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX (HDI)
FIGURE 5.31 The first challenge is development of the least developed countries, including
improved health care, education, and economic infrastructure. The second challenge is reducing the
ecological footprints of the more developed countries through lower consumption, more efficient
technologies, and better management of natural resources.
to 600 deaths per 1,000 live births. This is more than Iceland’s first woman prime minister, the head of the
3 times the infant mortality rate in any country on Earth government, in 2010.
today! Improvements in health, along with high levels of
According to an analysis by Icelandic economist education and literacy, a rich natural resource base,
Thorvaldur Gylfason, Iceland’s per capita economic and universal suffrage and empowerment of women,
output in 1901 was about $2,600, approximately that of contribute to Iceland’s high level of development.
Bangladesh in 2011. Since then, Iceland has grown its They are also key factors in its movement toward a
economic sector by about 2.6% annually, mainly through stabilized population. While we might consider Iceland
careful management of productive fishing grounds and exceptional in many ways, other countries have also
renewable energy sources, rising to a per capita GDP made rapid developmental progress in the recent
of about $42,000 in 2013, according to the World Bank. past. Costa Rica, a tropical Latin American country,
However, the most important contributor to this growth is making rapid progress toward population stability.
may come as a surprise: education. Like Iceland, Costa Rica’s success owes much to heavy
Literacy in Iceland stands at 99.9% of the population. investment in education at all levels, universal suffrage,
Education is compulsory through age 16 and attendance and empowerment of women. In 2014 the percentage of
through that age is estimated at 99%. According to women in Costa Rica’s Legislative Assembly was 33%,
Statistics Iceland, close to 27,000 Icelanders (nearly 10% compared with 18.5% in the 113th U.S. Congress. In
of the entire population) received university degrees addition, like Iceland, Costa Rica elected its first woman
between 1999 and 2008. Of this total, nearly twice as head of government in 2010: President Laura Chinchilla
many degrees went to women as men. Miranda.
Iceland has a democratically elected parliamentary
system of government in which all citizens 18 years or
The Challenge
older are entitled to vote for president and members of
parliament. Empowerment of women extends to the The challenge for humanity is to invest in human
highest levels of involvement in Iceland. Women made up development while reducing demand on Earth’s resources
30% of the Icelandic parliament in 2004, compared with (Figure 5.31). In this chapter, we have focused primarily
20% of the U.S. Congress. As a final testament to women’s on the need to reduce human population growth, which
empowerment, Jóhanna Sigurdardóttir was selected as may be achieved by providing access to family-planning

151
?
information and contraceptives and promoting the
development of the least developed countries. The 5.8–5.10 Solutions:
second task at hand is to reduce resource demands,
which depends on reducing per capita consumption by
Summary
If you had the authority
developing more efficient technologies and management Most countries have national population and the means to do
methods. These subjects are the main focus of Chapters 6 policies that promote decreasing, increasing,
so, how would you
through 14. or maintaining fertility levels, depending on
meet the twin global
The slowing of world population growth that we’ve the population trend in individual countries.
already reviewed (Figures 5.3b and 5.3c, page 131) Other nations, particularly in the Americas, challenges identified in
is a good sign of progress. Progress toward curbing have no official policies regarding fertility this section?
explosive population growth is, of course, being played levels. Educating and empowering women,
out within individual populations. Bangladesh, the which includes encouraging contraceptive use,
country discussed at the beginning of this chapter, has can reduce fertility rates in rapidly growing
made dramatic strides toward that goal, with family- populations. The national population policies
?
planning programs contributing to a reduction in of China and India have succeeded in reducing
its total fertility rate from 6.6 children in 1981 to 2.4 their rates of population growth. Prenatal
children in 2015. In addition, concern continues to grow sex screenings, coupled with sex-selective
in both developed and developing countries about the abortions, have produced an excess number How might
environment, including overconsumption of resources of males in several countries throughout Asia, development among
and waste. Perhaps most important, there is widespread an unintended result that is being addressed
the least developed
concern among the people of developed countries about forcefully.
the increasing gap between rich and poor worldwide Historical improvements in living conditions
countries be achieved
and strong public support for giving aid to developing in today’s developed countries led to without making them
countries. Achieving a sustainable relationship with the demographic transition, a shift from high to dependent on aid
biosphere is perhaps the most daunting challenge ever low death rates and birthrates. Most developing from more developed
faced by our species, and it will take all the intelligence, countries are now in the middle to late stages of nations?
wisdom, and sensitivity that we can muster. demographic transition. Worldwide investment
in development may accelerate the passage of
! Think About It developing countries through demographic
transition and slow the rate of global population
1. On average, what is the relationship between a growth. By reducing economic disparities across
nation’s Human Development Index and its per borders, investment in development in less
capita ecological footprint? developed countries may reduce incentives to
immigrate.
2. What is the environmental and sociological Development generally comes at an
significance of differences in ecological footprints environmental cost; on average, countries
among countries with similar Human Development with higher developmental scores have larger
Index scores? ecological footprints. However, some countries
have achieved high levels of development at a
3. How do the countries of Iceland and Costa Rica relatively lower cost to the environment. The
differ? How are they similar? two-fold challenge before humanity is to invest
in human development, while reducing demand
on Earth’s resources.

Central Question: How can we achieve sustainable human populations?

• What environmental factors influence variation • How do fertility rates vary among countries
in human population density? and regions?
• How has the global population varied during • What are the variables used to calculate the
human history? Human Development Index?
• What can you learn from age distributions? • What is the general relationship between
development and environmental impact?
• How do development differences affect

immigration rates and destinations?
The Human Population and You ! Support developmental initiatives.
The issue of human population is a personal one, related to our own Development encourages reduced fertility rates and stabilized
reproduction and how we conduct our lives. Now there is more urgency populations. Developmental efforts include initiatives to provide health
than ever, because it appears that we have already exceeded the long-term care, improve economic infrastructure, or increase food production
capacity of Earth to sustain us. In the face of such a challenge, what can you and availability. In the United States, there are many opportunities to
do to make a difference? help directly with development through programs such as the Peace
Corps, a government-run program, or Los Amigos de las Americas,
! Keep informed about the rapid pace of change. a nongovernmental, nonprofit program promoting development and
Population issues around the world are in a period of dynamic change. understanding in the Americas.
Likewise, perspectives and ideas about these critical issues quickly
become dated and irrelevant. Stay informed on human population
! Make commitments in your personal life.
and consumption issues by reading world news on population and One of the most direct contributions that any of us can make is to
sustainability—also check out the population data sheet (produced by adjust our personal lives to make them consistent with the goals
the Population Reference Bureau) and the CIA World Factbook. of stabilized populations and sustainable resource use. If you have
children or plan to, you may consider reproducing at a replacement
! Support international educational programs. rate of two children. Many tactics to reduce our personal ecological
Education is key to solving any problem, including problems related to footprints are discussed in the chapters to come.
the human population. Not only does education support the democratic
process, but there is also a direct relationship between education
and reduced fertility rates. You can support education by becoming
a teacher yourself or by supporting the educational mission of the
schools in your community. There are also opportunities to contribute to
international education initiatives, for example, the Central Asia Institute,
which has built more than 130 schools in Pakistan and Afghanistan
that emphasize educating girls.

153

• How have immigration policies affected
populations around the world?
• What is the relationship between human

development and population characteristics?
• How do we transition to sustainable human

populations?
Chapter 5 b. The types of technologies used in the population Critical Analysis

c. The level of resource consumption
d. All of the above 1. The doubling time of a population can be estimated
Review Questions by dividing 70 years by a population’s annual growth
7. How, in general, does economic opportunity rate percentage. What are the estimated doubling
1. Which of the following is the closest times for the populations of Lesotho, with an annual
influence immigration patterns?
estimate of the global population in 2012? growth rate of 0.3% in 2010; the United States, with
a. Levels of economic opportunity are unrelated to
a. 6 billion c. 8 billion an annual growth rate of 1%; and Yemen, with an
immigration patterns.
b. 7 billion d. 9 billion annual growth rate of 2.7%?
b. Immigrants generally move from areas of lower
2. For the past several centuries, the global economic opportunity to areas of higher economic
population has shown a J-shaped pattern of opportunity. 2. The per capita ecological footprints of individuals
increase. Does this type of increase continue in c. Economic opportunity influenced immigration in the United States and Canada are very similar.
the global population? historically but no longer does. However, the total ecological footprint of Canadians
a. Yes, J-shaped population growth continues. d. Immigrants generally move from areas of higher has not yet exceeded Canada’s capacity to produce
b. No, the global population is now stable. economic development to avoid higher taxes. resources, whereas the total of the U.S. population has
c. No, the rate of population growth (%) is declining. exceeded the country’s productive capacity. How does
d. No, the size of the global population is decreasing. 8. What is the present global trend in total this difference affect the way you view the impacts of
fertility rate? the two populations?
3. The age structure of the United States a. The global total fertility rate has already decreased
suggests that its population is stable, yet it 3. How much variation is there in ecological footprints
below replacement level.
continues growing. Which of the following best among countries with Human Development Index
b. The global total fertility rate has stabilized.
explains continued population growth in the scores of 0.8 (the UN’s approximate threshold for
c. The global total fertility rate continues to increase.
country? “very high” development) or higher (see Figure 5.13,
d. The global total fertility rate is decreasing.
a. A relatively young population combined with page 138)? What are some of the implications of this
immigration 9. How are death rates and birthrates related variation?
b. High immigration rates during demographic transition??
4. Immigration, both legal and illegal, is a significant
c. Population momentum due to the relative youth of a. Declines in birthrates follow declines in death rates.
issue in countries around the world, particularly those
the population b. Declines in death rates follow declines in birthrates.
that receive large numbers of immigrants. What
d. A total fertility rate above replacement level c. Increased death rates stimulate decreased
policies on immigration would you institute, if you had
4. Which of the following regions is growing birthrates.
the power to do so? Explain how your policies would
the most rapidly? d. Death rates and birthrates are unrelated to
benefit the countries receiving immigrants, as well as
a. North Africa c. North America demographic transition.
the home countries of migrants.
b. Latin America d. Sub-Saharan Africa
10. How does higher human development 5. The Icelandic economist Thorvaldur Gylfason has
5. Which one of the following factors is appear to affect fertility rates in populations? suggested that investing in education has been key to
not included in the United Nations’ Human a. Higher human development appears to encourage Iceland’s achieving a high level of human development.
Development Index, or HDI? higher fertility. Can you imagine a population living in the midst of
a. Health c. Education b. Higher human development does not appear to natural resources as rich as those available in Iceland,
b. Emotional well-being d. Economic productivity affect fertility rates. but with a much lower level of human development?
c. Higher human development levels are associated Elaborate on your answer.
6. Which of the following potentially contribute with lower fertility rates.
to the environmental impact of a population? d. Higher development levels are associated with lower Find additional resources and links online at www.
a. Population size fertility rates on some continents but not others. macmillanhighered.com/launchpad/molles1e.
PASS 1

meet human needs for freshwater,
while avoiding or reducing Discuss the hydrologic cycle
environmental impact? and how climate can affect it.
(NASA) SCIENCE
PASS 1
C H A P T ER 6
Sustaining Water
Supplies
Analyze the global demand for water, as well as the Discuss the individual, industrial, and societal
factors and industries that affect its availability. tactics for sustaining water supplies.
156 C HAPTER 6 SU STAI NI NG WATER SUPPLI ES
(Photo by Cynthia Mendoza, U.S. Department of Agriculture)
By 2015, a historic three-year drought turned much of California’s San Joaquin Valley, one of the richest agricultural regions in the world, into a
virtual desert.
Fresh Water Supplies Shrink

as Demand Increases
The worst drought in 1,000 years destroys crops in California’s San Joaquin Valley and
triggers water rationing, a reminder that freshwater is essential to human welfare.
I nch by inch, California’s Central Valley is sinking. Three

unrelenting years of drought have wreaked economic,
agricultural, and environmental havoc in a region that
dries out and compacts layers of geologic sediments, causing
the ground above them to sink. Once compacted, the capacity
of the material to store water is permanently reduced.
supplies the nation with more than a quarter of its food, “Everybody is starting to panic,” a well driller named Steve
including 350 crops ranging from almonds to wheat. There Arthur told the San Jose Mercury News in March 2014.
was a time when a farmer could drill a few hundred feet “Without water, this valley can’t survive.”
into the ground and have enough water to supply his farm It’s the same story being heard all across the western
for years, but, in the last decade, Central Valley farmers United States. In April 2015 California’s Governor Jerry
began to hire rigs that could bore 1,000 feet or more into Brown ordered municipalities throughout the state to
the earth at a cost of hundreds of thousands of dollars. reduce water use by 25%. The city of Santa Cruz issued
Extracting water from these ancient groundwater aquifers a moratorium on outdoor watering. Lake of the Woods,
H O W CAN W E M EET HU M AN NEEDS FOR FR ES HWATER , WHI LE AVOI DI NG OR R E DUC I NG E NVI R ONME NTA L I MPA C T?
157
north of Los Angeles, has taken to trucking in their world. More than 1.1 billion people lack access to
drinking water. Las Vegas, Nevada, is drilling a new tunnel clean drinking water and more than 2.6 billion people,
underneath the Hoover Dam because water levels in Lake nearly 40% of the global population, lack sufficient
Mead are dropping below existing outlets. freshwater for basic sanitation. These shortages promise
to worsen since, as we saw in Chapter 5, the global
population is projected to increase by another 2 billion
“Water, water, every where, by the year 2050.
Nor any drop to drink.” Water shortages across Earth present one of the
most daunting environmental challenges of the
Samuel Taylor Coleridge, The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, 1798 21st century. Damming rivers and diverting water
can often solve water problems in the short term, but
can lead to larger problems in the future. And any use
For thousands of years, humans have built structures of water by humans can harm aquatic and terrestrial
to divert and store precious freshwater for drinking, ecosystems, which provide
sanitation, agriculture, and industry. However, there is a crucial services such as reducing freshwater Water with a salt
content, or salinity, below that of
growing mismatch between human needs—not to mention sediment or purifying runoff brackish water (i.e., salinity less
human wants—and the existing water supplies around the before it reaches the ocean. than 500 mg/l).
Central Question
How can we meet human needs
for freshwater, while avoiding or
reducing environmental impact?

(NASA)
6.1–6.2 Science
I magine you are visiting Earth from a distant planet.
As you approach, you see a blue world covered mostly
by vast oceans and enveloped by clouds of water vapor.
the salty ocean. Warmed by the Sun, this drop of
water evaporates and its molecules rise high into the
atmosphere, where they can fall to Earth again in the
The continents are dotted by lakes and ponds and laced form of rain or snow. The process by which Earth’s
with rivers and streams. You also see extensive areas near water moves among the oceans, atmosphere, terrestrial
the poles covered by snow and ice. If you had ground- and freshwater environments, and back to the ocean
hydrologic cycle The
penetrating sensors, they would also detect vast deposits of is called the hydrologic cycle. This is one of the most
movement of Earth’s water
between the oceans, underground water. Earth is awash in immense amounts critical of Earth’s natural processes because it sets limits
atmosphere, and terrestrial of water, but the problem is we can’t always access water within which we must work to sustain supplies of
and freshwater environments. when we need it, and much of it is too salty for most uses. freshwater.
What can’t be seen from this sky-high view is that water is
reservoir A body of water,
constantly moving over time, cycling around Earth. The Distribution of Earth’s Water
ranging in size from a pond to
an ocean, including below- The amount of water cycling through Earth is so vast
ground deposits of water; that we can’t talk about it in terms of liters or gallons. The
constructed dams retain 6.1 The hydrologic cycle typical unit of volume at this scale is the cubic kilometer
water in artificial reservoirs, moves water around Earth (km3) which is equal to 1 trillion liters (Figure 6.1). If
which are commonly used
to store and divert water for Pick a single drop of water and follow it from a it were spread out, 1 km3 of water would form a band
human use. mountainside spring down a freshwater river and into of water 1 meter deep and 25 meters wide that would
HOW MUCH WATER?
1,000 m
1,000 m
1m
FIGURE 6.1 Thinking quantitatively
about any feature of nature—whether
1m
distance, mass, or volume—requires
an appropriate scale. Familiarity with a
range of metric units of volume makes 1m 1,000 m
it easier to represent and discuss the
hydrologic cycle quantitatively. 1 liter = 1,000 cm 3 1 m 3 = 1,000 liters 1 km 3 = 1,000,000,000 m 3
159
?
completely encircle Earth at the equator. From a human
perspective, this is an immense quantity of water, yet it DISTRIBUTION OF EARTH’S WATER
is tiny in comparison to the water flowing through the
EARTH’S WATER FRESHWATER
hydrologic cycle. The total amount of liquid freshwater Would the water
on Earth’s surface and in the ground amounts to more deposited by precipitation
than 10 million km3. When you add all the water in the
move differently through
atmosphere, oceans, and ice caps, we are talking about a
an urban environment
total of 1.4 billion km3.
Earth’s water resides in pools called reservoirs. than through a temperate
The atmosphere, oceans, lakes, rivers, soils, glaciers, forest environment? How
snowfields, and groundwater are Earth’s main and why?
Glaciers and ice caps
reservoirs of water. The oceans make up the largest of
Groundwater
Earth’s water reservoirs, containing nearly 97% of all Lakes, wetlands,
rivers, and other
Earth’s water. All of the water in the oceanic reservoir surface water
is, of course, saltwater. The largest freshwater reservoir, Freshwater
containing over two-thirds of all the freshwater on Oceans, saline lakes, groundwater Water found in
and salty groundwater
Earth, is frozen in glaciers and the polar ice caps. Most the pore spaces in rock and
of the remaining third may be found in groundwater, FIGURE 6.2 The oceans contain the bulk of water on Earth. sediments beneath Earth’s
surface; feeds wells, springs,
located in the pore spaces in rock and sediment Meanwhile, most freshwater is presently frozen in the planet’s
glaciers and ice caps or found under Earth’s surface as and desert oases, and is Earth’s
beneath Earth’s surface. Groundwater is the source of second largest reservoir of
groundwater.
water into which wells tap and from which spring-fed freshwater.
oases emerge. Lakes, wetlands, and rivers collectively aquifer A geologic formation
contain only 0.3% of Earth’s freshwater. And the containing groundwater; gains
Groundwater flows from areas of recharge to areas of
atmosphere, one of the smaller of the reservoirs, holds water through the process
groundwater discharge, such as rivers, lakes, and springs,
only 0.04%, or about 13,000 km3. The remainder is held of infiltration and loses water
or directly into oceans. Aquifers made up of coarse, through groundwater flow.
in soils, as soil water or ice (Figure 6.2).
sandy materials generally support higher groundwater
A geologic formation containing a deposit of water table The uppermost
flow rates. The time required for groundwater to flow level of groundwater, which
groundwater is called an aquifer. The amount of water
from recharge to discharge areas can range from days forms the boundary between
present in an aquifer results from the balance of water
to thousands of years, depending on flow rates and the the saturated and unsaturated
flowing in via infiltration and draining out through zones.
distance traveled (Figure 6.3).
groundwater flow. The water table is the uppermost
A watershed, or catchment, is the area of land saturated zone The layers of
level of the groundwater, forming the boundary
collecting water, falling as precipitation, that flows into rock below the water table, in
between the groundwater and overlying soil or rock. which the pore spaces in the
an aquifer or a river system. For instance, the Mississippi
The layers of rock below the water table, in which the geologic formation are saturated
River watershed is the fourth largest in the world, and it
pore spaces in the geologic formation are saturated with water.
includes parts of 31 states and 2 Canadian provinces. The
with groundwater, are called the saturated zone; the unsaturated zone The layers
surface water in this watershed eventually passes through
layers above the water table, which are not saturated above the water table, which are
the Mississippi Delta and into the Gulf of Mexico. not saturated with water.
with water, are referred to as the unsaturated zone.
Groundwater gets recharged as water from rain or runoff The amount of water
Water Moves Among Reservoirs
melting snow infiltrates the ground, descends under falling as precipitation that flows
the force of gravity, and eventually flows to the water Water moves from one reservoir to another through off the land as surface and
subsurface flow.
table. The rate of groundwater recharge depends on processes such as precipitation, evaporation, and
the amount of precipitation, rate of evaporation, and runoff. This flux of water among reservoirs, which is the discharge In an aquifer, the
basis of the hydrologic cycle (Figure 6.4), is powered movement of water from the
permeability of the soil and rock. Infiltration rates
groundwater to a body of
are higher through coarse-grained, sandy soils than by the Sun, which causes water to evaporate. As water surface water (e.g., a river or
through fine-grained, clay soils. Precipitation that does vapor rises into the atmosphere, it cools and condenses, lake).
not infiltrate the soil or evaporate into the air moves forming clouds. Much of the snow and rain on land
watershed (catchment) The
across the land as runoff. originates from the evaporation of moisture from soils area of land that collects water,
When the soil is topped with leaf litter and other and from the loss of water from trees and other plants. which falls as precipitation and
organic matter, as well as broken up by tree roots and the More than one-third of this precipitation flows back to flows into an aquifer or river
burrows of animals such as earthworms, there will be a the oceans as surface runoff in rivers and streams or system.
significant amount of infiltration. However, in areas with as subsurface runoff, as groundwater discharges from flux The rate of flow of materials
few plants and animals, precipitation rates can easily land to the sea. This flux represents a very small fraction or energy across a given area
of the total volume of water circulated annually by the (e.g., the flow of water vapor
exceed rates of infiltration, resulting in high amounts
from the ocean’s surface to
of runoff. One example of this is the desert, where hydrologic cycle (less than 0.0003%), which is replaced the atmosphere or the flow
flash floods are common during infrequent but intense each year by precipitation that originates as evaporation of radiant energy between an
storms. from the oceans and falls onto land (see Figure 6.4). organism and its surroundings).

AQUIFER STORAGE: A BALANCE BETWEEN GROUNDWATER RECHARGE AND DISCHARGE
Discharge into springs
Unsaturated zone
Water table
Saturated zone Spring
Aquifer
Groundwater flow
Recharge
Discharge
Discharge into river
FIGURE 6.3 Recharge adds to groundwater in an aquifer, whereas discharge removes water. Groundwater flows slowly between
zones of recharge and zones of discharge.
This tiny fraction is the freshwater primarily available for 2. How many liters of water per person does annual
human use. runoff equate to, assuming a global population of
?
Is the movement of
! Think About It
1. How does Figure 6.4 explain why the 40,000 km3
7 billion?
3. Why is the number you calculated in response to

Question 2 not a practical indicator of the amount
water through the of annual runoff is our renewable freshwater supply, of water available to human populations?
hydrologic cycle which is a far smaller amount than the total volume
influenced by physical of freshwater in groundwater, lakes, rivers, and 4. Can we treat groundwater and surface water as
processes only? Explain. streams? separate resources and manage water sustainably?
THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE MOVES WATER ACROSS THE BIOSPHERE
OCEANIC About 10% of oceanic TERRESTRIAL

SUBCYCLE evaporation, 40,000 km3 , falls SUBCYCLE
as precipitation over land.
OCEAN–LAND
EXCHANGE
Over land, water vapor of

Evaporation from the Approximately 90% of oceanic origin is joined by
Total annual precip-
FIGURE 6.4 The hydrologic surface of the oceans yearly evaporation from about 70,000 km3 of water
itation on land
moves about 425,000 the oceans, 385,000 km3, vapor that evaporates from
cycle includes two major averages about
km3 of water into the falls back on the oceans soil and other terrestrial
subcycles, the oceanic 110,000 km3 of water.
atmosphere each year. as precipitation. surfaces or is transpired
and terrestrial subcycles, by plants.
connected by the 40,000 km3
of precipitation of oceanic
origin that falls on land and
the 40,000 km3 of runoff that
flows back to the oceans Balancing the water budget,
each year. (Differences surface and subsurface runoff
in arrow width represent totals about 40,000 km3.
differences in amounts of
water flux.)
161
6.2 The El Niño Southern TEMPERATURE AND ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE

Oscillation causes periods of DIFFERENCES ACROSS THE PACIFIC OCEAN
dry years and wet years DURING EL NIÑOS AND LA NIÑAS
Every three to five years, on average, the equatorial EL NIÑO CONDITIONS

Pacific Ocean off the coast of South America warms up
by a few degrees, leading to significant changes in rainfall
around a large part of the globe. This phenomenon,
known to the fishermen of Peru for centuries, brought
with it torrential rains, flooding on land, and poor fishing Cool, Warm,
high-density low-density
at sea. Because the periodic warming generally occurred air mass air mass North
during Christmastime, the local fishermen named it Asia America
“El Niño,” the Spanish name for Jesus Christ as a child.

Other observers noted that droughts also seemed to come
and go in cycles.
Today, we recognize the El Niño Southern Oscillation
as one of the most important influences on atmospheric
Australia
South
America
What are the

?
WESTERN PACIFIC OCEAN EASTERN PACIFIC OCEAN
circulation and surface temperatures across the Pacific • High pressure • Low pressure disadvantages of
Ocean. During typical conditions in the tropical Pacific, • Low sea surface • High sea surface living in a region
temperatures temperatures
the trade winds, which blow from the east, push warm strongly connected to
surface water westward. As this water moves westward, LA NIÑA CONDITIONS the El Niño Southern
cold water from the bottom of the ocean on the west coast Oscillation system?
of South America is drawn up to the surface, in a process
Might there be
called upwelling. However, as El Niño conditions develop,
advantages?
the trade winds weaken and the warm surface water flows
in the opposite direction—eastward. When it reaches Warm, Cool,
South America, this warm water moves north and south low-density high-density
North
air mass air mass
along the coast, pushing the normally cool surface water Asia America
downward.
Such changes in atmospheric circulation and
South
ocean surface temperatures influence the hydrologic Australia America El Niño Southern Oscillation
cycle globally. The warmer than average sea surface An oscillating climatic system
temperatures during an El Niño are accompanied by low involving variation in ocean
WESTERN PACIFIC OCEAN EASTERN PACIFIC OCEAN surface temperatures and
atmospheric pressure in the eastern Pacific Ocean. These • Low pressure • High pressure barometric pressures across
physical conditions favor the production of storms in the • High sea surface • Low sea surface the Pacific Ocean.
temperatures temperatures
eastern Pacific Ocean, as the water vapor in the warm
rising air condenses to form storm clouds. When this upwelling The movement
FIGURE 6.5 The El Niño Southern Oscillation moves
happens, conditions are wet and cool across the southern of cold subsurface water to
atmospheric circulation associated with storm generation to the
the ocean’s surface when
portion of the United States and northern Mexico during eastern Pacific Ocean during El Niños and to the western Pacific
warmer surface waters move
December through February. Meanwhile, Southeast Asia Ocean during La Niñas.
offshore under the influence
and Australia are dry. So, while the southeastern United of prevailing winds.
States faces torrential rains and flooding, Southeast Asia
and Australia brace for drought and wildfires. The climatic El Niño A period of warmer
than average sea surface
conditions associated with El Niño generally persist for such conditions, cloud formation is inhibited over temperatures and lower
a year, sometimes two, before the climate swings back the eastern Pacific Ocean, whereas on the western barometric pressure in the
toward average conditions or beyond, to the opposite Pacific Ocean more storms occur. December through eastern Pacific Ocean,
climatic extreme. February of a La Niña is characterized by dry and favoring the production of
The opposite of the El Niño is now known as La Niña, warm conditions across the southern United States and storms in the eastern Pacific
Ocean.
which develops about as frequently as El Niño— northern Mexico and wet conditions in Southeast Asia
approximately every 3 to 5 years. During a La Niña, and northern Australia (Figure 6.5). La Niña A period of lower
the trade winds are stronger than usual and push warm It took scientists most of the 20th century to than average sea surface
water even farther west across the tropical Pacific. piece together the global impact of El Niño and La temperatures and higher
Meanwhile, thanks to increased upwelling, sea surface Niña. Based on tree ring data, which correlates with barometric pressures in
the eastern Pacific Ocean,
temperatures are lower than average in the eastern Pacific precipitation amounts, and other evidence, scientists resulting in reduced storm
Ocean. Combined with cooler sea surface temperatures, estimate that El Niño-like conditions have been activity in the eastern Pacific
La Niña brings higher atmospheric pressures. Under occurring periodically for tens of thousands of years. Ocean.

Today, scientists can predict the onset of an El Niño year

about nine months in advance. 6.1–6.2 Science:
There is at present no clear consensus among climate
scientists as to how climate warming (see Chapter 14,
Summary
page 443) will influence the intensity and frequency of The hydrologic cycle, which is powered by the
El Niño and La Niña. While some climate models Sun, moves Earth’s water across the biosphere
predict higher frequencies and intensities of these and strongly influences sustainable water
events, other climate models predict the opposite. supplies. The oceans form the largest reservoir
Regardless, the long geologic history of this system of water on Earth, followed by polar ice caps and
suggests that the El Niño will continue to affect Earth’s glaciers, groundwater and freshwater lakes and
weather. From a water supply perspective, those rivers, and the atmosphere. Approximately one-
regions under the influence of the El Niño experience tenth of the water evaporated from the oceans
much greater fluctuation in precipitation than do annually (40,000 km3) falls as precipitation on
regions outside of its influence. land. Another 70,000 km3 of precipitation on
land originates as water that evaporates from
! Think About It soils and plants. El Niño and its opposite, La
Niña, are extremes in an oscillating climatic
1. The onset of an El Niño or La Niña can now be system involving variation in ocean surface
predicted several months in advance. How might temperatures and atmospheric pressures across
this predictive capability be used to the advantage the Pacific Ocean. Conditions during an El Niño
of water planners? favor the production of storms in the eastern
Pacific Ocean that cause the southern United
2. How might water planners and managers States and northern Mexico to experience periods
adjust to the challenges presented by the climatic of extreme wetness. During a La Niña, conditions
variation associated with El Niño and La Niña? favoring the production of storms move away
from the eastern Pacific Ocean, drying out
the United States and Mexico and delivering
moisture to Southeast Asia and Australia.
6.3–6.6 Issues
A pproximately 5,000 years ago, two Mesopotamian
city-states, Lagash and Umma, went to war over
water. They eventually signed the first known peace treaty,
6.3 Access to adequate water
supplies as a human right
but their skirmishes continued for the next 150 years. The environmental scientist Peter H. Gleick pointed out
Conflicts over water in Africa and the Middle East have in 1999 that water has not been included as a right in most
broken out periodically over the last century and, in 1995, international conventions on human rights. Although
then Vice President Ismail Serageldin of the World Bank these conventions recognize the human right to life and to
declared, “The wars of the next century will be over water.” adequate food, both of which depend on access to water,
No other resource is more important to human welfare they have managed to omit the life-giving liquid itself.
than water. The quality of our lives is directly linked to
water and the services it provides, but we are faced with Daily Water Needs
the fundamental problem of water scarcity in the face of a Defining the minimum amount of water a person needs
growing human population. Every liter of freshwater used to live is not easy. First off, it depends on the climate.
for someone’s crops, livestock, showers, and bottles of soda People living in warmer climates will obviously need more
potentially reduces the amount available to neighbors— water than people living in cooler climates. But it also
and to natural ecosystems. depends on the individuals, how old they are, how much
163
they weigh, and how active they are. An adult living in

AVERAGE PER CAPITA WATER USE
a moderate climate and engaging in moderate levels of
AROUND THE WORLD
activity needs to consume about 3 to 5 liters of water per
day. Daily water requirements increase with temperature,
AVERAGE WATER USE PER PERSON PER DAY
activity level, and body size. Furthermore, drinking is
only one of many ways we use water. We use water to United States
Australia
brush our teeth, wash our hands and clothing, and clean Italy
our dishes. Allowing for these purposes, Gleick, the Japan
Mexico
founder of the Pacific Institute in Oakland, California, has Spain
suggested a volume of about 50 liters (13.2 gallons) per Norway
France
day, budgeted as follows: 20 liters for sanitation services Austria
(mainly sewage disposal), 15 liters for bathing, 10 liters for Denmark
Germany
food preparation, and 5 liters for drinking (Figure 6.6). Brazil
The World Health Organization estimates that daily access Peru
Philippines
to between 50 and 100 liters of water is the minimum to United Kingdom
ensure adequate sanitation and health. India
China
Relative to the amount of water used in the United Bangladesh
?
States and other developed countries, 50 to 100 liters Kenya
Ghana
isn’t much (Figure 6.7). Even so, according to the Nigeria
United Nations, some 2.6 billion people around the Burkina Faso
Niger
world lack access to sufficient water to meet their Angola If you were limited to
basic sanitation needs, and 900 million don’t have Cambodia
50 liters of water per
Ethiopia
safe drinking water. Even in places where there is Haiti day, how would you
theoretically enough water for residents, they often Rwanda
Uganda cope with everyday
have no good way to obtain it. The average distance that Mozambique
tasks?
women and children in Asia walk to obtain water is
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
6 kilometers (3.7 miles), making less time available for LITERS
other work and for education. FIGURE 6.7 While people living in some countries use
hundreds of liters per day, elsewhere they make do with much
Water as a Human Right: The Challenges less. (Data from Data 360, www.data360.org/dsg.aspx?Data_
Set_Group_Id=757)
In 2010 the UN General Assembly at last adopted a
resolution recognizing “the human right to water
and sanitation.” The resolution passed by a vote of abstaining. Although the resolution passed, the debate
122 nations in favor, none against, with 41 nations over recognizing water as a human right continues.
Many of the countries that abstained during the UN
vote to recognize water as a human right—including the
United States, Canada, and Australia—have an economic
WHAT IS THE MINIMUM HUMAN NEED stake in water, viewing it as a commodity that should be
FOR WATER? managed like any other natural resource, such as wood,
minerals, and soils. They fear that declaring water as a
50
human right will interfere with the multibillion-dollar
Drinking water industry and with international water trading,
40
Food preparation creating thorny legal and political questions.
What if, for example, some nations were required to
LITERS PER DAY
Bathing
30 Sanitation
transfer water across international boundaries. Would
Canada then be obligated to transfer water to meet the
20 More than 2 billion people needs of a growing U.S. population? Another concern
around the world use less
than this proposed minimum is that if access to water is a human right, who bears
of 50 liters of water per day.
10 the responsibility of providing water and paying for the
infrastructure to do so? Meanwhile, those in favor of water
0 as a human right counter that the right to water is part of
Daily per capita minimum
WATER USE the public trust that belongs to all species. As we move
into the future, the proponents of these opposing views
FIGURE 6.6 Peter H. Gleick has suggested 50 liters per day
as a minimum water right for all individuals on Earth, based on will have to engage in an international dialogue, which
estimates of the minimum volumes required for drinking, food may lead to a mix of governmental and private business
preparation, bathing, and sanitation. (Data from Gleick, 1999) approaches that address the water needs of more people.

! Think About It HUMANS HAVE APPROPRIATED A MAJORITY

OF ACCESSIBLE GLOBAL RUNOFF
1. If water is guaranteed as a human right, how
much water should people be guaranteed? GLOBAL RUNOFF ACCESSIBLE RUNOFF
2. Should water-rich regions contribute water
to heavily populated arid or semi-arid regions?
Explain why or why not.
3. If water can be considered a human right, should
this right be addressed at the expense of other
species or the natural ecosystems of a region—for
Agriculture
example, endangered fish and amphibian species
?
Instream uses
living in arid regions? Industry
Municipalities
Reservoir losses
6.4 Humans already use Uncaptured floodwater Unappropriated
Should water be used Accessible runoff
for growing crops in the

most of the world’s accessible Remote runoff
desert that might be freshwater supplies

About 33% of total global Humans use about 54% of accessible
grown elsewhere? Even though the total amount of freshwater flowing runoff is currently runoff for myriad purposes, from
accessible to human use. agriculture and waste management
down mountainsides and into rivers and lakes should to recreation and industrial uses.
be enough to meet our global needs, much of it is not
practical to access. Half of all surface runoff each year FIGURE 6.8 As we consider renewable water supplies, we
occurs during heavy rains and flows straight out to the need to factor in the practical consideration of location of runoff
irrigation A system for relative to human populations. Much of the total runoff from land
sea. Another fifth of Earth’s freshwater runoff occurs in
artificially delivering water comes in the form of unpredictable flooding and in flow in remote
to crops so that they can remote, sparsely populated regions. The Amazon River rivers, such as those flowing into the Arctic Sea. (Data from
grow in areas with too little in South America and the Congo River in Africa carry a Jackson et al., 2001)
precipitation to support them large fraction of the world’s freshwater runoff, but there’s
otherwise. no easy way for humans to make use of it. This leaves
uses and to farms for irrigation. As the human populations
about one-third of the world’s runoff, about 12,500 km3
instream uses Benefits, in water-scarce regions continue to grow, these regions
such as dilution of sewage per year, accessible to human population centers.
grapple with water supply problems (Figure 6.9).
and recreational fishing and Currently, humans use more than half of this accessible
boating, that result from water runoff. The largest fraction of this, more than 20%, is
flowing in river or stream Droughts and Floods Make Water Planning
for crop irrigation, a system for artificially delivering
channels. Difficult
water to crops so that they can grow in areas with too
dam A structure that blocks little precipitation to support them otherwise. The next A flood occurs whenever a river or stream overflows
the flow of a stream or river; largest fraction of accessible runoff is used for diluting its banks and inundates the part of the surrounding
may be used to reduce sewage and other wastes, maintaining rivers as shipping landscape called the floodplain, the area of land that
downstream flooding or to channels, providing for recreation, and sustaining fish stretches from the water channel to the valley walls.
store water in a reservoir. The higher portions of the floodplain may be flooded
populations. We call these instream uses, that is, uses
flood A river or stream within the river or stream channel. Industries and once per century or even less frequently. Though they
overflowing its banks and municipalities combined use about 10% of accessible deliver abundant water, floods may damage water supply
inundating the surrounding runoff. Finally, a little more than 2% of accessible runoff systems, including dams, diversions, and pipelines, as
landscape known as the is lost through evaporation from flood control and water well as contaminate drinking water supplies. At the
floodplain. other extreme, a drought is an extended period of dry
storage reservoirs (Figure 6.8).
floodplain The area of land
weather that damages crops, impairs the functioning
that stretches from a water Arid Regions Have Maxed Out Their Water of natural ecosystems, and causes water shortages for
channel to the valley walls. Supplies human populations. When the weather cycles between
the extremes of flood and drought, it is often difficult to
drought An extended period Arid and semi-arid regions make up approximately one-
deliver enough water to cities and farms in different parts
of dry weather during which third of Earth’s land surface and support about one-fifth
of the country (Figure 6.10).
precipitation is reduced of the global population. Much of the water supply in
sufficiently to damage crops, these areas comes from dams, which capture runoff from
impair the functioning of Colorado River Basin
natural ecosystems, or cause
streams and rivers and store it in reservoirs to ensure a
water shortages for human consistent supply of water. This water is diverted to cities The Colorado River Basin encapsulates the challenges
populations. to provide water for drinking, sanitation, and industrial created by drought cycles and water shortages in arid
H O W CAN W E M EET HU M AN NEEDS FOR FR ES HWATER , WHI LE AVOI DI NG OR R E DUC I NG E NVI R ONME NTA L I MPA C TS ?
165
EARTH’S ARID REGIONS
60° N
30° N
0°
(Reto Stöckli, NASA Earth Observatory)
30° S
Arid regions
60° S
FIGURE 6.9 Water supplies are severely restricted for the people living in arid regions, which cover a large fraction of Earth’s land
surface.
regions. At the beginning of the 20th century, the (Figure 6.11). This system supplies water for people living
Colorado River, which drains an area of nearly 650,000 in seven U.S. states and two states in Mexico, including
km2, or about 8% of the 48 contiguous United States, was a irrigation water for approximately 1.5 million hectares
wild river, little modified by human activity or structures. (3.7 million acres) of farmland and water to support the
Today, 265 dams greater than 5 meters in height interrupt estimated 25 million people living in the region. The
the flow of the Colorado River, making it possible to Colorado River has become so heavily drawn upon that it
provide water for millions of people living over a vast area now rarely reaches the Gulf of California.
DROUGHT CAN BE HIGHLY REGIONAL
DROUGHT INTENSITY
Abnormally dry
Moderate drought
Severe drought
Extreme drought
Exceptional drought
FIGURE 6.10 There was a great amount of variation in drought conditions across the United States during the drought of
2015, which was the third of three consecutive record droughts in California. (Data from United States Drought Monitor http://
droughtmonitor.unl.edu/)

FIGURE 6.11 The Colorado River carving

the lands of western North America over the THE COLORADO RIVER BASIN: AN ARID REGION WITH A RAPIDLY
course of millions of years has produced some GROWING HUMAN POPULATION
of the most spectacular landscapes on Earth,
the best known of which is the Grand Canyon.
Spectacular landscapes and a pleasant
climate have attracted a large and growing
human population, which is on a collision
course with water shortages.
WY
NV
UT
CO
CA
AZ NM
(NPS Photo)
Colorado River
?
A complex combination of legal documents, including Native American tribes, and Mexico. Because early
international treaties, regulates the appropriation of appropriations were based on estimates of average runoff
water within the basin among the affected U.S. states, that were made during an unusually wet period in the
How would you Colorado River Basin, there is a disparity between supply
allocate the water of and allocation (Figure 6.12). Conflicts over these limited
water supplies are expected to increase with the growing
the overappropriated COLORADO RIVER WATER IS
population in the region and continued climate change.
Colorado River flow? OVERAPPROPRIATED
Existing and potential future claims on Colorado

! Think About It
River water far exceed average yearly runoff.
1. It is clear that water supplies in the historically
30 water-scarce regions of the world are becoming
Potential Native even more stretched. What are the options for water
25
RUNOFF (BILLIONS OF m3)
American
Existing Native
management in these regions?
Average available runoff
American
20
Wyoming 2. Water is removed from the Colorado River to
15
Colorado
supply the needs of arid areas such as Las Vegas,
New Mexico
Utah Nevada, and southern California. Critique this
10 Nevada transfer of water, including both the pros and cons.
Arizona
California
5
Mexico
6.5 Groundwater is being
0
Colorado River Water claims
depleted faster than it is
RELATIVE VOLUMES replenished
FIGURE 6.12 Over half a century of negotiations, court When there is no easily accessible runoff, people drill
decisions, and international treaties established the present wells and tap into the groundwater. Approximately one-
recognized claims to Colorado River water. Potential future
fourth of Earth’s population relies on groundwater, which
claims and changes in annual runoff may require further
negotiations of how to allocate Colorado River water, especially accounts for approximately 99% of liquid freshwater on
as forecasts of future available runoff become more accurate. Earth (Figure 6.13). In parts of North Africa, groundwater
(Data from Gelt, 1997; Bureau of Land Management, 2008) is being pumped at twice the rate it is being replenished
167
IN MANY REGIONS, WE ARE “MINING” GROUNDWATER
(NASA/GSFC/METI/ERSDAC/JAROS & U.S./Japan ASTER Science Team)
(California Department of Water Resources)

Irrigated fields, including crop circles, in Kansas High-volume groundwater pump
FIGURE 6.13 Agricultural production in many arid and semi-arid regions has been dependent on
pumping of groundwater faster than it is recharged. This photo shows the circular irrigated fields in
one such region in Kansas.
by recharge, resulting in rapidly falling water tables. As a twice the average yearly flow of the Colorado River during
consequence, groundwater-fed oases in the Sahara Desert the 20th century.
that people have relied on for centuries are drying out. In Unfortunately, the rate of withdrawal is approximately
2000 the depth to groundwater (i.e., the water table) in 2.5 times greater than the annual recharge rate (see
parts of the North China plain was dropping by as many Figure 6.14). As a result, the water table across the
as 4 meters (13 feet) per year; in southern India, it was Ogallala Aquifer has dropped an average of 4.3 meters
dropping by 2 to 3 meters (6.5 to 10 feet) per year. In the
central Great Plains of the United States, groundwater
levels in some areas have fallen more than 70 meters (230
feet) since the 1940s, an average of about 1 meter per year.
GROUNDWATER RECHARGE AND WITHDRAWAL
The problem is that while groundwater deposits IN AQUIFERS AROUND THE WORLD
are vast, approximately three-fourths of present-day
groundwater was deposited long ago and is renewed on GROUNDWATER RECHARGE OR WITHDRAWAL
timescales ranging from hundreds to thousands of years. (AS PERCENTAGE OF RECHARGE)
This “fossil” water, once used, will not be replaced for a
very long time (Figure 6.14). Pumping and utilization of Canary Islands Groundwater recharge
Groundwater withdrawal
these nonrenewable supplies of groundwater represent
the mining of a limited resource similar to the extraction Algeria/Tunisia
of fossil fuels such as petroleum and coal.

AQUIFER LOCATION
While recharge equals withdrawal

Gaza Strip in some heavily used aquifers. . .
Ogallala Aquifer
U.S., Ogallala . . .in other aquifers, groundwater
In the United States, some of the most productive farmland pumping far exceeds recharge.
in the High Plains depends on a massive groundwater

Saudi Arabia
resource, the Ogallala Aquifer. This aquifer underlies
approximately 450,000 km2 (174,000 mi2) of the High
U.S., Arizona
Plains, more than the combined areas of Nebraska and
Kansas. Pumping of water from the Ogallala Aquifer began 0 200 400 600 800 1,000
mainly after the 1940s, when farmers began to drill deep PERCENTAGE OF RECHARGE
wells into the aquifer, with the number of wells increasing
FIGURE 6.14 The sustainability of groundwater depends on
rapidly to approximately 170,000 by 1978. From 1949 the relative rates of recharge and pumping. Where pumping
to 1978, the yearly amount of water pumped from the rates are greater than recharge, groundwater use is not
Ogallala increased from 4.9 km3 to 28.4 km3. That’s nearly sustainable. (Data from Gleick, 2000)

CHANGES IN THE LEVEL OF THE OGALLALA AQUIFER
In the northern areas of the

SD Ogallala Aquifer, groundwater
WY levels are stable or rising.
WATER-LEVEL
CHANGES NE
Greatest rise CO
KS
Medium rise
Stable
Medium decline
OK
Greatest decline NM
Groundwater depletions are most

TX serious in the southern portions
of the Ogallala Aquifer.
FIGURE 6.15 From predevelopment to 2005, the water table in the Ogallala Aquifer has fallen
more than 70 meters (230 feet) in some areas, while it has risen more than 25 meters elsewhere.
The greatest water table rise has occurred along the Platte River Valley in Nebraska, which received
exceptionally high rainfall from 1980 to 1999 and where the geology is highly permeable to infiltration.
(14 feet). In some areas, such as Texas and Kansas, (200 feet) in just two years, and land was subsiding at the
the water table has dropped more than 30 meters unprecedented rate of 30.5 centimeters (1 foot) per
(100 feet). As a result of the imbalance between rates year. This rate of subsidence was greater than even the
of groundwater pumping and recharge, the Ogallala historic extent of land sinking in the San Joaquin Valley
aquifer may run out of water within a century (Figure (Figure 6.16). An unsustainable reliance on groundwater
6.15). We discuss changes in agricultural practice that is a global-scale problem. A 2010 analysis of the global
could greatly increase the expected life of the Ogallala extent of groundwater depletion, the amount of
Aquifer in Chapter 7 (see page 220). groundwater pumped in excess of recharge, found that
yearly depletion of groundwater more than doubled from
Subsidence and Depletion 126 km3 in 1960 to 283 km3 in 2000.
One common physical consequence of excessive
groundwater withdrawal is subsidence of the overlying ! Think About It
land surface into the spaces left as water is pumped out. 1. In response to the severe drought of the 1930s,
Such subsidence can substantially reduce the storage many farms in Nebraska and elsewhere in the Great
capacity within the aquifer and damage surface structures
subsidence A settling or
Plains were abandoned. By contrast, many fewer
in rural and urban areas alike. The U.S. Geological
sudden sinking, in the case farms were abandoned during the 1950s drought.
Survey estimates that an area in the United States
of sinkhole formation, of
roughly the size of New Hampshire and Vermont has Why?
a land surface as a result
of processes such as been impacted by subsidence. Particularly dramatic and 2. Based on Figure 6.15, which regions drawing
groundwater withdrawal or sudden subsidence occurs in Florida, with the appearance water from the Ogallala Aquifer appear to be closest
loss of organic matter in soil. of house-swallowing sinkholes. In some cases, hundreds
to using it sustainably? Which are using it at the
of sinkholes have formed following the installation and
groundwater depletion least sustainable rate?
The amount of groundwater pumping by a single irrigation well.
pumped from an aquifer The highest rates of groundwater depletion and land
in excess of recharge. subsidence in the United States in recent years have 6.6 Managing water for
Groundwater depletion can
result in land subsidence,
occurred in California’s San Joaquin Valley. Faced with human use threatens aquatic
an epic drought, farmers in the San Joaquin Valley were
which reduces the capacity of
pumping massive amounts of groundwater to compensate
biodiversity
an aquifer to store water and
can damage buildings and for the lack of water in storage reservoirs. In response, Building dams for irrigation, draining wetlands for
other infrastructure. water tables in some parts of the valley fell 60 meters agriculture, or filling a marsh to build an airport are
169
damage, they change the environment in many ways

GROUNDWATER DEPLETION CAN
and often threaten biodiversity (Figure 6.17). During
CHANGE THE FACE OF THE LAND
periods of drought, dammed rivers may dry up entirely.
Even where water continues to flow below a dam, the
river environment is never the same. Because reservoirs
trap sediments and nutrients, they reduce the amount
available to the river below the reservoir.
Dams also alter the temperature of rivers. When frigid
water is released from gates at the bottom of a reservoir
during the summer, the river temperature downstream
can drop by several degrees. Many species require floods
or low flows to complete their life cycles and are thus
harmed when dams prevent those conditions. River
ecologists estimate that dams and water diversions have
altered more than 75% of the 139 largest rivers in the
Northern Hemisphere. Within the United States alone,
there are more than 75,000 dams.
Dams usually prevent fish from moving up and down
the length of the river, which is especially harmful
DAMS SIGNIFICANTLY CHANGE RIVER

ENVIRONMENTS
(Richard Ireland, photographer/USGS (courtesy Devlin Galloway)
(Bureau of Reclamation)
FIGURE 6.16 Central California’s San Joaquin Valley, subject

to massive groundwater withdrawals, has set records for land Grand Coulee dam
subsidence in the United States.
The waters above a dam provide
a lake rather than a flowing water
environment and the reservoir acts
as a sediment and nutrient trap,
obvious examples of how humans destroy aquatic reducing the availability of sediments
The waters below a dam
and nutrients downstream of the dam.
ecosystems. Invasive species, such as Asian carp generally show less
fluctuation in water level
(see Figure 3.22, page 79), can compete with and displace and temperature, often
being colder in summer
native fish species. Straightening river channels to make and warmer in winter.
them better suited for shipping has also reduced the Reservoir
diversity of aquatic habitats along approximately half a Intake structure Dam Outflow
million kilometers of river channels around the world.
River
Dams and Aquatic Biodiversity

FIGURE 6.17 Dams, such as the Grand Coulee on the
To manage water supplies, we have built dams on rivers Columbia River, interfere with the movements of migratory
the world over. While dams help solve problems of fish, such as salmon and sturgeon. Dams can also alter river
variable water supplies and can protect against flood environments in more subtle but ecologically significant ways.

HUMAN IMPACTS ON FRESHWATER ENVIRONMENTS ENDANGER MANY SPECIES
(USFWS photo by Andy Roberts)
(Xu Jian/Nature Picture Library)

(Ben Kiefer/UDWR)
Endangered Colorado pikeminnow Endangered North American freshwater mussels Extinct Yangtze River dolphin
FIGURE 6.18 The Colorado pikeminnow, the largest minnow native to North America, has become endangered as a result of
dam building, altered temperatures, and the introduction of non-native species to its habitat. In addition, more species of freshwater
mussels are native to North America than anywhere else in the world. However, up to 70% of them are extinct or threatened by
overharvesting, dam building, sedimentation, and competition with invasive species. Finally, the Yangtze River dolphin, or Baiji, one of
very few freshwater dolphin species in the world, was driven to extinction in the late 20th century as a result of unintentional killing by
various fishing methods, pollution, and habitat alteration.
to migratory fish such as salmon (see Chapter 8). houses and other structures on a floodplain, they are
Nonmigratory species might also decline as a result essential to the health of wetlands. Floods disperse
of dam building. For instance, many of the native valuable nutrients into the soils of the floodplain and
fish populations of the Colorado River, including the rearrange the landscape; for example, they isolate old
Colorado pikeminnow (Ptychocheilus lucius), declined river channels, forming riverside habitats called oxbow
as the river was modified for water management. The lakes. Likewise, wetland ecosystems act as natural
Colorado pikeminnow was more monster than minnow, water purifiers capable of removing or reducing the
weighing up to 80 pounds and reaching lengths of concentrations of various contaminants (Figure 6.19).
5 feet. This fish had evolved into the top predator in the Building dams and regulating river flow directly
Colorado River over a period of millions of years but was harm these wetlands by preventing natural floods. A
brought to the brink of extinction in less than a century common manipulation of rivers is to channelize them,
oxbow lake A crescent- by dam building. The dams impact the pikeminnow an engineered change to the natural form of a stream or
shaped lake formed on a
river’s floodplain by rerouting
in several ways: They create the lake-like habitats of river, including straightening, deepening, or widening the
the main river channel, reservoirs to which this river fish is not adapted; they channel. While a channelized river may make navigation
generally during a flood. lower the water temperature below dams to levels easier, it disrupts the natural connection between a
unsuitable for reproduction; and they provide refuge for river and its floodplain (Figure 6.20). In addition, the
channelize To engineer a non-native predatory fish species, such as striped bass, sediment-free water released from dams has a higher
change to the natural form
of a stream or river, including
that feed on young pikeminnows. ability to carve away at the river channel below, causing
straightening, deepening, or The pikeminnow is just one example of how humans the water table to fall—sometimes below the rooting zone
widening the channel. have harmed aquatic organisms through their activities for riverside trees and other plants, often resulting in the
(Figure 6.18). Approximately 20% of the freshwater deaths of the trees. Finally, digging drainage canals and
riparian The transition fishes of the world are threatened with extinction or pumping out groundwater cause the water table to be
zone between a river or
stream and the terrestrial
are already extinct. Within the United States, nearly lower than the adjacent river or reservoir, further reducing
environment, generally half of the federally listed endangered vertebrate and the chance that a river will flood and refresh its floodplain.
inhabited by a biological invertebrate animals are freshwater species. Riparian areas, which form the transition zone
community distinctive from between a river or stream and the terrestrial environment,
adjacent aquatic and upland have been heavily impacted by dam building and flow
communities. Riparian zones Water Management and Wetland Biodiversity
naturally flood periodically and
regulation. These areas usually have shallow water tables
usually have shallow water When rivers flood their banks, water spills out onto the and depend on regular floods in order to support a
tables. floodplain. While floods may harm crops and destroy biological community distinctive from adjacent aquatic
171
FLOODING HELPS SUSTAIN THE HEALTH OF RIVERS AND ASSOCIATED

WETLANDS
Flooding by surface waters can carve out low-lying marshy areas and
oxbow lakes as well as transport nutrients and sediments onto the
floodplain, fertilizing riparian wetlands in the process.
River channel
Oxbow lake
Surface flooding
Marsh
Surface water
return flow
Groundwater
return flow
Groundwater flooding of
rooting zone and marsh
Water returning to a river from wetlands is generally Groundwater flowing through the riparian zone can
lower in sediments, nutrients, and contaminants renew water in the rooting zone of riparian trees and
?
compared to water entering riparian wetlands. supply water to oxbow lakes and marshes.
FIGURE 6.19 Flooding, both by surface water and groundwater seepage, is essential to the
natural functioning of rivers and associated wetlands.
Many wetlands were
drained to reduce the
incidence of mosquito-
and upland communities. Connections between rivers demand for water to supply municipalities and agriculture
transmitted diseases,
and wetlands are especially critical in arid climates, has been especially great, water diversions have commonly such as malaria. In
where riparian wetlands support unusually high levels of dried river channels entirely (Figure 6.21). Concerns such situations, how
biodiversity, compared with the surrounding landscape. about such impacts on biodiversity and productivity have would you balance
However, dams and channels in those areas have reduced stimulated efforts at riparian and wetland restoration disease control and
the frequency and intensity of flooding. Where the (see Solutions, page 181). wetland diversity?
HUMANS HAVE GREATLY SIMPLIFIED THE STRUCTURE OF RIVERS

(NPS Photo by Neal Herbert)
(Philip Lange/Shutterstock)
Channelized Rhine River, Dusseldorf, Germany Unmodified river in Kobuk Valley National Park, Alaska
FIGURE 6.20 As we have straightened river channels to ease navigation and built riverside levees to control flooding, we have
reduced the availability of habitats on which many species depend.

RIBBONS OF GREEN THROUGH DESERT LANDSCAPES
(Tim Roberts Photography/Shutterstock)

(Annie Griffiths Belt/Getty Images)
San Pedro River, Arizona Salt River, Phoenix, Arizona
FIGURE 6.21 Riparian forests and wetlands are generally areas of exceptionally high primary production and species richness
in arid and semiarid landscapes, such as here along the San Pedro River in southern Arizona. Periodic flooding is essential for
maintaining healthy riparian areas in arid lands, since many key riparian plant species require flooding for reproduction. By contrast, in
many urbanized landscapes in arid and semiarid regions, such as the Salt River in Phoenix, riparian wetlands and forests have been
nearly eliminated as watercourses have been dried and natural habitat replaced by engineered structures.
! Think About It water users, especially in arid regions. Only

1. Should the value of ecosystem services lost as a about one-third of freshwater runoff is
consequence of water management be considered as accessible to human population centers, of
part of the price of water delivered to consumers? which a majority has been appropriated for
human uses, including agriculture, waste
Explain.
dilution and disposal, shipping, recreation,
2. Municipalities and landowners generally have and residential and industrial uses. While
a legal right to use a certain amount of water per there are extensive deposits of groundwater,
year. Should there be legislation limiting human such reservoirs are slowly renewed and are not
water use and requiring minimum river flows to generally a sustainable supply on timescales that
match human needs.
protect endangered species?
Alteration of freshwater environments around
3. In the event of dwindling water supplies, what the world threatens many aquatic species,
type of use should be given higher priority and ranging from mollusks to fish. Dams, built to
which should be given lower priority? Why? store water and control floods, change river
ecosystems in many ways, including blocking
the passage of migrating fish, altering historical
6.3–6.6 Issues: patterns of flow, changing water temperatures,
and reducing the availability of nutrients and
Summary sediments in river sections below dams. By
Approximately 2.6 billion people around the reducing flooding, dams also decrease the
world lack access to enough water to meet their connection between rivers and riverside wetlands
basic needs. Continued population growth, and forests, which make particularly valuable
coupled with natural variation in water supplies, contributions to biodiversity and primary
will intensify the potential for conflict among production in arid and semi-arid landscapes.
173
H ow would you like to drink a nice, tall glass of toilet
water? In May 2014 the city of Wichita Falls, Texas,
began recycling 5 million gallons of sewage, treating it, and
6.7 Water conservation can
increase water use efficiency
sending it right back into the faucets of its residents. The substantially
program was a last-ditch effort by the city to cope with a It pays to fix dripping faucets. Water losses from leaks
devastating drought, but it’s not the first city to do so— in water supply systems can range anywhere from 10%
that honor goes to Windhoek, Namibia—and it certainly to 30% of the total water volume pumped. These losses
won’t be the last. With rivers overallocated, groundwater occur in both modern and old water systems and in cities
being depleted, and aquatic ecosystems dying off, finding small and large. The water supply system of Mexico City
innovative solutions to our water needs represents a loses enough water through leaks to supply Rome with all
fundamental challenge. The good news is that there are the water it needs!
fixes, large and small, that can have a major impact on
water consumption. And they don’t all involve drinking
Water Conservation in a Large City
toilet water. In this section, we focus on a variety of ways
to meet domestic water supply needs; in Chapter 7, we If all the water supply and wastewater lines in New York
address the water efficiency of agriculture, perhaps the City were laid out, they would stretch to California
biggest challenge of all. and back, twice (Figure 6.22). Keeping them in shape
TRY TO IMAGINE THE NETWORK OF WATER LINES

(Songquan Deng/Shutterstock)
FIGURE 6.22 The size and structural complexity of New York City present the managers of its water, which is delivered to every
residence and business on every floor of every building, with a substantial challenge.

is a monumental task. In the 1970s, flows of water and

WATER CONSERVATION SUCCESS IN A WIDE
wastewater in the New York City system began to exceed RANGE OF SETTINGS
safety limits and push pollution maximums. In response,
the city decided to conserve water. While New York City and Albuquerque have reduced
First on their list of priorities was a public education water use dramatically in recent years, there is room
for further conservation.
campaign to inform water users of the need for, and
means to achieve, conservation. The campaign included
Albuquerque
over 200,000 door-to-door informational visits,
during which residents were offered free low-volume
New York
COMMUNITY
showerheads and a free leak inspection. In addition, the
city offered rebates on low-volume flush toilets. Through
Windhoek
this effort, the city eventually replaced over 1.3 million TIME PERIOD
high-volume, conventional toilets—which use about Before conservation
Singapore After conservation
13.2 liters (3.5 gallons) per flush—with low-volume
toilets, which use 6 liters (1.6 gallons) per flush. As a
follow-up to the education program, the city installed 0 200 400 600 800 1,000
PER CAPITA WATER USE (LITERS PER DAY)
water meters in all unmetered residences to help the city
and individual residents track water use. Another major FIGURE 6.24 Four communities (New York City; Albuquerque,
effort focused on detecting leaks in the water distribution New Mexico; Windhoek, Namibia; and Singapore) that have
? system. The key to this effort was installing leak detectors ongoing programs promoting water conservation have achieved
significant water savings. (Data from http://www.cabq.gov/
on all the main water lines in the city. albuquerquegreen/green-goals/water, http://www.nyc.gov/html/
New York City’s conservation efforts saved nearly dep/html/home/home.shtml, http://www.windhoekcc.org.na/
What are some 1.2 billion liters (320 million gallons) of water per day index.php, http://www.pub.gov.sg/Pages/default.aspx)
implications of water (Figure 6.23). Surprisingly, the greatest volume of water
conservation achieved saved was associated with installing water meters in
by simply making water unmetered residences. It appears that when given the
meters accessible to means to keep track, many residents reduced their
water use from 1,056 liters (279 gallons) to 560 liters
individual water users? water use.
(148 gallons). Meanwhile, the residents of Windhoek,
the bone-dry capital of Namibia in southwestern Africa,
Gauging Conservation Progress
decreased their consumption from 309 liters (82 gallons)
Other municipal conservation programs around the to 196 liters (52 gallons) per capita per day (Figure 6.24).
world have resulted in impressive reductions in water While the results of these conservation efforts are
use. From 1988 to 2013, water conservation efforts in impressive, water consumption in these three cities far
Albuquerque, New Mexico, reduced daily per capita outpaces that in the Republic of Singapore, a tiny, densely
populated island faced with severe water constraints. Its
?
20 major reservoirs supply only half of its water needs,
and it must purchase the rest of its water from nearby
WATER CONSERVATION IN METROPOLITAN
Malaysia. Consequently, it has focused its efforts on
AREAS CAN NET LARGE WATER SAVINGS
How could you conservation and reduced per capita water consumption
personally contribute to 1,200 from 172 liters (45.4 gallons) per day in 1995 to 154
water savings in your liters (40.7 gallons) per day in 2013. The Singapore water
(MILLIONS OF LITERS PER DAY)
community? Prioritize
1,000 Home inspections authority believes that further progress is possible and
Leak detection and repair
aims to reduce consumption to 147 liters per day by 2020
the steps you would 800
Toilet replacement
WATER SAVED
Meter installation through its water conservation campaign. One suggestion

take to conserve water.
made by the Singaporean Department of Environment
600
and Water is for all residents to save water by reducing
400
Conservation efforts by New their length of showers by 1 minute.
York City between 1981 and 1998
produced a savings of over 1
billion liters of water per day.
200 Conservation by Commercial and Institutional
Buildings
0
CONSERVATION EFFORTS Commercial and institutional buildings, including office
buildings, hotels, commercial laboratories, and university
FIGURE 6.23 New York City’s water savings were achieved
through a combination of installing water meters and low-flow buildings, are major users of water. Conservation efforts
toilets in residences, finding and repairing leaks, and home have produced large water savings and reduced operating
inspections. (Data from U.S. EPA, 2002) costs in all these types of buildings. Of these, water
175
conservation by hotels may be the best documented and of water for the processes that occur naturally during
the most familiar. The hotel industry is responsible for the hydrologic cycle. Treated wastewater can be used
15% of commercial and institutional water consumption for a variety of purposes, including industrial processes,
in the United States. Three-fourths of hotel water use is irrigation, recharging groundwater supplies, restoring
for restrooms, laundry, landscaping, and kitchens. Faced wetland ecosystems, or even drinking water. In general,
with limited water supplies and increasing prices of water, the process of treating wastewater to make it safe for
the hotel industry has taken steps to be more efficient in reuse is called water reclamation. The more rigorous
their water use. A first step, as in private residences, has the treatment, the wider range of uses to which recycled
been to install more water-efficient toilets, showerheads, water can be put (Figure 6.25).
and faucets in guest rooms and to install more efficient
laundry and dishwashing equipment. Another essential Santa Rosa, California
element in hotel conservation efforts is to encourage
Santa Rosa, California, is a city of 170,000, about an
guests to conserve water by, for example, taking shorter
hour’s drive north of San Francisco and 50 kilometers
showers and reusing bath towels. Hotels are also water recycling Using
(31 miles) inland from the Pacific Ocean. The heart of
replanting their landscapes with more drought-tolerant treated wastewater for
the Sonoma Wine Country, the region around Santa Rosa
plants and installing more efficient watering systems. beneficial purposes, including
has a Mediterranean climate, with cool rainy winters and industrial processes, irrigation,
These efforts have produced impressive water savings.
warm dry summers. During the dry summers in the area, recharging groundwater
The Kalaloch Lodge in the Olympic National Park in
the flows of rivers and streams around Santa Rosa drop supplies, restoring wetlands
Washington set a goal of reducing its water use by 40% and aquatic ecosystems, and
to very low levels. Because environmental regulations
by the year 2020. In addition to making its water system augmenting drinking-water
do not permit Santa Rosa to discharge its wastewater
more efficient, Kalaloch Lodge issued a 5-minute shower supplies.
into rivers at a volume of more than 1% of river flow, the
challenge to guests and equipped all rooms with a timer
city had to find another way to handle its wastewater in water reclamation Any
set to 5 minutes. Their innovation paid off, producing
summer: recycling (Figure 6.26). process of treating wastewater
a 46% reduction in water use between 2011 and 2014.
The Santa Rosa water reclamation facility provides to make it safe for reuse or
Similarly impressive results have been achieved in large recycling.
tertiary treatment of its wastewater, including disinfecting
hotels in urban centers. For instance, by simply installing
the water by exposing it to ultraviolet light to kill any tertiary treatment
water-efficient fixtures, the 470-room Hilton Palacio
pathogens that it may contain. This reclaimed water, Advanced treatment of
del Rio Hotel in San Antonio, Texas, reduced its annual
which is used for a variety of purposes, meets rigorous wastewater, which follows
water use by 49% between 2004 and 2011. As a result, the
standards set by the California Department of Health for primary and secondary
hotel reduced its yearly water use by 26 million gallons treatment, that removes
full contact with the human body, irrigation of food crops
and saved about $160,000 annually in water, sewer, and dissolved organic chemicals,
and landscaping, and consumption by livestock. Some of nitrogen, phosphorus, several
energy costs.
the water is used to irrigate 2,590 hectares (6,400 acres) of other dissolved salts, and
land, including pastures, vineyards, vegetable fields, and pathogens.
! Think About It
1. How do the levels of water consumption in the
four communities shown in Figure 6.24 compare
with the proposed minimum consumption proposed POTENTIAL USES OF RECLAIMED WASTEWATER CHANGE WITH
as a water right (see page 163)? TREATMENT LEVEL
2. What are the water use issues in your community PRIMARY SECONDARY TERTIARY/ADVANCED
TREATMENT
and how are they being addressed? Removes suspended particles Removes additional Removes dissolved organic
suspended material; reduces chemicals, nitrogen,
3. How are water conservation programs aimed at dissolved organic matter, phosphorus, other dissolved
nitrogen, and phosphorus salts and minerals, and
private residences and at hotels similar? How might pathogens
they differ to be most effective?
None • Irrigation of orchards and • Irrigation of food crops
PERMISSIBLE USES
vineyards • Irrigation of landscaping

6.8 Reclamation and • Wetland restoration • Recreational impoundments
recycling are saving water • Industrial uses
• Recharge of nonpotable
• Recharge of potable aquifers
• Supplement surface
throughout the world aquifers reservoirs used for domestic
water supplies
Every liter of water that is reused reduces the amount
of water drawn from surface water or groundwater FIGURE 6.25 Wastewater receiving secondary treatment is suitable for uses where
supplies. When communities practice water recycling, there is little chance of direct human contact. Tertiary treatment creates the possibility of
they substitute engineered treatment, or purification, much wider uses because it is free of dissolved organic chemicals and pathogens.

RECLAMATION IS CENTRAL TO WATER MANAGEMENT IN SANTA ROSA, CALIFORNIA
(City of Santa Rosa, Water Department)
(George Rose/Getty Images)

Laguna Wastewater Treatment Plant, Santa Rosa, CA Vineyards near Santa Rosa, CA
FIGURE 6.26 The Laguna Wastewater Treatment Plant in Santa Rosa, California, provides tertiary treatment to 66 million liters
of wastewater per day. Vineyards such as these are some of the crops irrigated by water reclaimed at the Santa Rosa wastewater
treatment facilities.
urban landscapes. During the moist winter months when River, 650 kilometers (400 miles) north of the city.
irrigation is unnecessary, Santa Rosa discharges reclaimed As an alternative to expensive, long-distance water
water into a tributary to the nearby Russian River and into diversion, Windhoek turned to water reclamation and
storage reservoirs. recycling to help alleviate its water shortage. The first
In 2003 Santa Rosa began pumping water through water reclamation plant began producing clean, recycled
a pipeline to the Geysers steam field for injection into water in 1968. The capacity of that first reclamation
steam wells to generate electricity from geothermal plant was 1.7 billion liters of water per year. Upgraded
energy (see Figure 10.17, page 306). In 2008 nearly in 2002, the plant can now produce 7.7 billion liters of
50,000 m3 of recycled water was delivered each day to
the Geysers steam field, enough to generate sufficient
electricity to supply 100,000 households. The water
PAST, PRESENT, AND PROJECTED RECLAIMED
recycling program in Santa Rosa is one of many in
WATER USE IN CALIFORNIA
California, where the use of recycled water has grown
rapidly (Figure 6.27). 3,000
The increase in the use of

Windhoek, Namibia recycled water in California
RECYCLED WATER, MILLIONS OF m 3
2,500 has followed a J-shaped

growth curve.
The country of Namibia occupies some of the driest
regions of southwest Africa. Most of its territory lies 2,000
within the Namib Desert, one of the most spectacular Projected/
planned
deserts on Earth (Figure 6.28). Because of its arid climate
1,500
and perennial water shortages, Namibia has had to be
innovative in its use of its limited freshwater supplies.
The capital, Windhoek, was founded on a natural spring, 1,000
but it is a rapidly growing city whose size has increased

five-fold from just over 60,000 to 300,000 between 1970 500
and 2008 (Figure 6.29). Windhoek obtains its water
primarily from local aquifers and reservoirs that trap the
0
occasional flows of nearby intermittent rivers, which flow 1960 1980 2000 2020 2040
only during heavy rainstorms. YEAR
When local water supplies started to dry up in the FIGURE 6.27 Recycled water is viewed as critical to
sustaining California’s rapidly growing population and its
1960s, Windhoek began to work seriously on plans exceptionally valuable agricultural productivity, which depends
for the sustainable management of its local water. The heavily on irrigation. (Data from Gleick, 2000; www.owue.water.
nearest abundant source of freshwater is the Okavango ca.gov/recycle/)
177
reclaimed water per year. Like the city of Santa Rosa,

Windhoek puts its reclaimed water through a system of NAMIBIA IS A COASTAL NATION IN SOUTHWEST AFRICA
tertiary treatment, including disinfection, and tests it to
make sure it is free of disease-causing bacteria, viruses,
and toxic chemicals. But Windhoek goes beyond Santa
Rosa in using reclaimed water as drinking water. During
drought periods driven by periodic El Niños, reclaimed
water can supply up to 30% of domestic water needs.
Drinking treated wastewater sounds unappealing, but
treated wastewater has long been released into rivers by
one upstream city only to enter the drinking water supply
of the next city downstream. For instance, wastewater
from Dallas and Fort Worth, Texas, ends up in the Trinity
River, which feeds Houston’s water supplies.
(Galyna Andrushko/Shutterstock)
Industrial Water Reclamation
Worldwide, industrial water use exceeds that of
municipalities (see Figure 6.8, page 164), suggesting
significant opportunities for water reclamation and
reuse by industries. In fact, many industries are doing FIGURE 6.28 Most of Namibia is highly arid desert, with few freshwater resources. The
just that, including the paper, textile, and food and massive dunes shown here are in an area of the Namib Desert called the “sand sea.”
beverage industries. Their primary goal is to save
money, but an important by-product is reduced
pressure on water resources. For instance, the Bear use large volumes of water to produce beer and
Republic Brewing Company, a beer brewery in water- generate substantial amounts of solid and liquid waste.
stressed California, recently partnered with Cambrian Traditionally, breweries separated their solid wastes,
Innovation, a bioenergy and water provider. Breweries consisting mainly of spent grains, from liquid waste. They
NAMIBIA: A PIONEER IN THE USE OF RECYCLED WATER

(© Friedrich Stark/Alamy)
FIGURE 6.29 Rapid population growth in Namibia’s capital city, Windhoek, motivated the local government to develop
wastewater reclamation and reuse to make more efficient use of its limited water resources.

give the spent grains to farmers to feed their livestock,

DESALINATION OF SEAWATER AND BRACKISH
thus avoiding waste disposal fees. WATER REQUIRES ENERGY
The liquid waste, however, is less desirable. It contains
large concentrations of dissolved organic compounds,
40,000 Salt removed by desalination
which is costly to treat on site or to dispose of through a
waste treatment facility. Now, Cambrian Innovations has
SALINITY (mg PER LITER)

a method to convert this liquid into two components: 30,000
methane gas and clean water. The gas can be burned
for electricity. The water can be used to clean brewery
equipment. The result is a savings of water, energy, and 20,000
money. Similar opportunities for water reclamation and
reuse are being exploited in many other industries.
10,000
! Think About It
DESALINATION
0
1. How are water-recycling systems and the Sea Brackish Fresh
hydrologic cycle the same? How are they different? TYPES OF WATER
2. Reclaimed and recycled water in most places is Producing freshwater by removing salt from either
seawater or brackish water requires substantial energy.
mainly put to uses other than drinking, even where
recycled water more than meets health standards
FIGURE 6.30 The red area of each bar shows the amount
and is superior in quality to other water sources.
seawater Ocean water and of salt that must be removed to convert (average) seawater or
the water of seas, such as the The reluctance to drink recycled water has been (median) brackish water to freshwater with salinity less than
Caribbean and Mediterranean referred to as the “yuck factor.” To what do you 500 milligrams per liter. (Data from Art, 1993)
seas. The salinity of seawater attribute this resistance to drinking recycled water?
averages about 34,000 mg/l
(34 g/l), but ranges from 3. Relative to Question 2, how would you go about
30,000 to about 40,000 mg/l
(30 to 40 g/l). overcoming this resistance to drinking recycled resulting salt-free water vapor. The outputs from the
water? How would you safeguard public health? distillation process are freshwater and concentrated salt
desalination The process of brine (Figure 6.31). In 2012 distillation accounted for
removing salts from seawater approximately 15% of water produced by desalination
or brackish water to form
worldwide. Because it requires a lot of energy, this
freshwater. 6.9 Desalination taps Earth’s approach to desalination is generally expensive. However,
distillation A desalination
largest reservoir of water various engineering techniques have improved the
process that uses heat It’s a frustrating fact of nature that humans cannot efficiency of the process a great deal.
to evaporate water from survive on seawater. Although salt is an essential For example, it is possible to use the heat produced
seawater or brackish water
mineral, the problem is that seawater is approximately as a by-product of electrical generation as a source of
and condenses the resulting
salt-free water vapor to 3 times as salty as our blood, and drinking it would heat energy for desalination. This approach is called
produce freshwater. quickly overwhelm our kidneys and lead to death. While cogeneration, a term generally referring to the use
seawater may have 35,000 milligrams per liter of salt, of a single source of energy for multiple purposes.
brackish water Natural drinking water should contain less than 500 milligrams Cogeneration can be combined with other techniques,
waters with a salt content
per liter (Figure 6.30). Desalination, the process of such as reducing the atmospheric pressure in the
intermediate between
freshwater and seawater, turning saltwater into freshwater, is one solution to distillery. Because water boils at a lower temperature
commonly occurring near finding drinking water where natural sources are scarce. at lower atmospheric pressure, less energy is needed to
the mouths of rivers where In 2012 there were more than 16,000 desalination plants evaporate it. Still, because distillation processes are so
freshwater and seawater mix. in operation, generating over 28 km3 of freshwater energy-expensive, they are used principally in energy-
per year. That’s only 1% of freshwater used by humans rich, water-scarce countries of the Middle East and North
cogeneration Generally
refers to the use of a single from all sources, but the small flow of freshwater that Africa. These countries are responsible for more than half
source of energy for multiple it does produce is critical for sustaining some human the annual production of desalinated water.
purposes. communities. Reverse osmosis is a more energy-efficient desalination
The earliest approach to desalination involved process that uses semipermeable membranes to separate
reverse osmosis A
distillation, a process that uses heat to evaporate salts and water. The membranes are permeable to water,
desalination process that
uses selectively permeable water from seawater or brackish water (natural waters allowing water molecules to pass across, but they are not
membranes and pressure to with a salt content intermediate between freshwater permeable to salts. As in distillation, reverse osmosis
separate salts and water. and seawater) and then condenses (and captures) the creates two streams of water: (1) freshwater, which can
179
DESALINATION BY DISTILLATION: EVAPORATION AND CONDENSATION OF WATER
HEATER DISTILLATION CHAMBER
1 Saltwater is heated 3 Water vapor condenses

by steam generated on tubes passing cold
by a boiler. saltwater.
Steam from Cold saltwater

boiler
Condensing
water vapor
Hot saltwater
Water Freshwater
vapor
2 Water evaporates 4 Freshwater is

from surface of collected as it
hot salt brine. condenses.
Hot brine
Back to Concentrated
boiler salt brine Reduced atmospheric pressure in chamber
allows water to boil at a lower temperature.
FIGURE 6.31 Distillation is the oldest method of desalination. The basic technology is well developed
and dependable. Its major shortcoming is that the process requires a lot of energy. Lowering the
atmospheric pressure in distillation chambers reduces energy costs for distillation. To increase water
yield, several distillation chambers may be connected in series, each with a lower atmospheric pressure.
be up to 99.7% pure water that is piped into the water water fed into the system (Figure 6.32). As filters have
distribution system, and (2) higher-salinity water that is improved, the pressure needed to run these systems has
discharged back into the environment. The energy needed declined substantially, thereby reducing energy costs.
to drive the process is used mainly for pressurizing the However, there are also environmental impacts from
the disposal of the salt brine, which has about twice the
salinity of seawater, and the potential to harm marine life
that gets sucked into the intakes.
OSMOSIS MOVES WATER ACROSS A
SELECTIVELY PERMEABLE MEMBRANE The Tampa Bay Desalination Plant
Tampa, Florida, has turned to desalination to
Selectively permeable membrane allows
passage of water molecules but not salt. supplement its traditional water supplies, opening the
Pressure
largest reverse osmosis plant in the United States in 2007

(Figure 6.33). Now fully operational, the plant has the
capacity to produce 95 million liters (25 million gallons)
Water of freshwater per day, approximately 10% of freshwater
Salt consumption for the Tampa Bay region.
Direction of
Some unique local and regional factors reduce the
water flow financial costs of the Tampa Bay desalination plant.
First, because the salt content of the water in Tampa
Bay averages approximately 25% less than full-strength
seawater, the energy cost is reduced. Second, the plant is
NORMAL OSMOSIS REVERSE OSMOSIS
located next to an electrical generation plant that supplies
FIGURE 6.32 During the natural process of osmosis, water low-cost power. The power plant also shares a variety of
moves from the side of a selectively permeable membrane on infrastructure and services with the desalination facility.
which the concentration of salts is lower to the side on which For instance, the salt brine produced by the plant is
the concentration of salts is higher. Reverse osmosis changes
diluted in the cooling water released by the power plant
(“reverses”) this normal direction of flow by applying physical
pressure to the side of the membrane with higher salt content, at a 70 :1 ratio. As a result, no increases in salinity have
forcing water to move toward the side of the membrane with the been observed in Tampa Bay, even when the desalination
lower salt content. plant is operating at full capacity.

The costs of reverse osmosis have fallen sufficiently,

THE TAMPA BAY SEAWATER DESALINATION PLANT USES
as a result of more efficient filters and other refinements,
REVERSE OSMOSIS
to make it an attractive option to distillation plants.
Facilities have been built by the island nations of Cyprus,
Singapore, and Trinidad, where freshwater supplies are
limited but seawater is abundant. In 2005 Singapore
opened its Tuas reverse osmosis seawater desalination
plant; its output capacity is nearly 50% higher than the
Tampa Bay plant. Tuas can meet 10% of Singapore’s
total water demand. Singapore plans to increase its
desalination capacity 10-fold in order to meet 30% of its
projected water needs by 2060. Even more impressive,
desalination in Singapore has become so energy-efficient
that its plants have been producing the world’s least costly
(Courtesy Tampa Bay Water)
desalinated water.
Even as costs for desalinating drinking water continue
to decline, desalination will never be able to provide
a solution for the great demands of agriculture for
water. For instance, the U.S. Department of Agriculture
estimates that irrigation is responsible for over 90% of
FIGURE 6.33 The metropolitan area of Tampa Bay, Florida, uses desalination to
supply up to 10% of its needs for freshwater. The other 90% of freshwater for the consumptive water use in the western United States. We
Tampa Bay area comes from groundwater and treated river water. will discuss agricultural water use in Chapter 7.
GROWING RECOGNITION OF THE IMPORTANCE OF WETLANDS ENERGIZES RESTORATION
Why might Singapore

?
elect to invest in a
desalination plant
even in the face of the
prospect of purchasing
(USFWS Coastal Program)
(USFWS Coastal Program)
water from neighboring

Malaysia at a lower
cost?
Before restoration of shoreline vegetation, Chesapeake Bay After restoration of shoreline vegetation, Chesapeake Bay
(Natural Resources South Australian Murray-Darling Basin, Callie Nickolai)
(U.S. Army Corps of Engineers)
Restored habitat diversity, Missouri River New growth on young River Red Gums a week after watering
FIGURE 6.34 The numerous wetland restoration programs around the world include restoration of shoreline vegetation around
Chesapeake Bay, reconnecting the Missouri River with floodplain wetlands, and reestablishing conservation flows in Australia.
181
! Think About It These torrential flows also carried a large amount of

sediment that was deposited in sandbars along the
1. What are the major economic and environmental length of the river (Figure 6.35). Sandbars are especially
costs of a desalination plant? important in the Grand Canyon, where the quiet
backwater areas they create serve as critical nursery
2. Where would a desalination plant be most areas for the young of endangered native fish. Sandbars
appropriate for supplementing a domestic water themselves provide camping and pullout places for rafters
supply? Where would such a plant be least and backpackers. The size of the spring flows was greatly
appropriate? reduced, however, as dams were built on the river system.
Damming the Colorado River also reduced the amount
of sediment available in the river for forming sandbars,
6.10 Conservation and since reservoirs trap sediment.
The progressive taming of the river was largely done
restoration can protect in 1963, with the completion of Glen Canyon Dam 24
aquatic ecosystems and kilometers (15 miles) upriver from the Grand Canyon.
biodiversity The reservoir behind the dam, Lake Powell, extends
Technology is not the only solution to securing the future nearly 300 kilometers (186 miles) along its main channel
of our water resources. Restoring aquatic ecosystems and stores 30 km3 of water when full (Figure 6.36). In
can provide many benefits, such as purifying water and the absence of flooding and greatly reduced sediment
reducing erosion (Figure 6.34). The first step to restoring below Lake Powell, sandbars were being steadily lost
an aquatic ecosystem is ensuring that there is sufficient in the Grand Canyon. Colonization by invasive plants,
water to support populations of aquatic species. Many especially saltcedar, Tamarix species (see Figure 4.28,
?
states have laws requiring that some minimum instream page 119), has converted some sandbars into dense
flow be maintained in rivers. In other cases, river thickets of vegetation, while erosion gradually washed
managers have gone beyond minimum flows and have away others. The result was reduced quality of habitat for
restored some of the historical floods to approximate a both native fish and recreational rafters. What are the benefits
natural flow regime. River managers proposed controlled flooding to help of river restoration
sustain sandbars in the Colorado River. Their plan was to for both tourism and
use short pulses of high river flows to suspend sediments endangered fish?
Restoring Floods to the Colorado River
on the riverbed, which would settle out, forming
Historically, the Colorado River flooded each spring as sandbars as river flow receded. The first controlled
snow melted in its headwaters in the Rocky Mountains. flood below Glen Canyon Dam took place in the spring
THE WILD COLORADO RIVER CARRIED MASSIVE SEDIMENT LOADS

(Photo by E. C. Laure/NPS)
FIGURE 6.35 Historically, the Colorado River would flood each spring with snowmelt in the
Rocky Mountains, often producing torrential flows in the Grand Canyon. These flows carried
large amounts of sediment, which was deposited as sandbars as floodwaters receded.

deep by 100 meters (328 feet) wide (Figure 6.38a).

LAKE POWELL STORES SEVERAL YEARS OF COLORADO
RIVER FLOW
Because the canal was completely cut off from the
floodplain, the exchange of nutrients and organic matter
between the river and floodplain was eliminated.
The impact on biodiversity was dramatic. For instance,
the number of waterfowl declined by 90% and the
number of nesting bald eagles fell by 75%. In addition,
the canal became a sink for organic matter and dissolved
oxygen levels (the amount of oxygen molecules in the
water) fell, leading to the decline of a once thriving
sport fishery for largemouth bass, which require higher
oxygen levels.
The Kissimmee restoration project, which began in
1992, is the largest ecosystem restoration attempted
to date. When completed in 2015, the project will
have restored 100 km2 (40 mi2) of river–floodplain
ecosystem, containing over 8,000 hectares (20,000 acres)
of productive wetlands. Restoration goals also include
reestablishing 61 kilometers (40 miles) of meandering
river channel (Figure 6.38b).
The response of the biological community to
restoration has been rapid and impressive. Numbers of
wading birds in the restored river and floodplain areas
have increased five-fold. Numerous duck and shorebird
species that had been absent from the landscape for
decades have returned. Organic deposits in the riverbed
have been reduced by over 70% and dissolved oxygen
(Airphoto-Jim Wark)
levels have increased. Those increases in dissolved
FIGURE 6.36 The Colorado River backing up behind Glen CONTROLLED FLOODS IN THE GRAND CANYON
Canyon Dam formed Lake Powell, which largely eliminated spring ACHIEVED PREDICTED RESULTS
floods and traps the sediment they once carried through the
Grand Canyon.
of 1996, with others following in 2004, 2008, and 2012.

During controlled flooding, river managers leave the
floodgates open for about 3 to 5 days and time the floods
to follow inputs of sand from tributaries of the Colorado
(USGS/Matt Kaplinski/Northern Arizona University)
River. For example, the Paria River, which flows into the
Colorado River downstream from Glen Canyon Dam,
washed more than 1 million tons of sediment into the
river a few months before the 2004 controlled flood.
Controlled flooding has been successful at restoring
sandbars to the Colorado River shoreline within the
Grand Canyon (Figure 6.37).
Restoring River and Wetland Structure

The Kissimmee River in central Florida was altered FIGURE 6.37 One of the major goals of controlled flooding
below the Glen Canyon Dam was to sustain sandbars in the
dramatically in the 1940s during efforts to control
Grand Canyon, where they provide nursery habitat for native
flooding on private property. Flood control efforts fish and camping sites for rafters and backpackers. The sandbar
converted the meandering channel to a straight, shown in this photo was formed during the controlled flood in
90-kilometer-long canal, which was 9 meters (30 feet) the spring of 2004.
183
KISSIMMEE RIVER STRUCTURE: LOST AND RESTORED
(Photo by Brent Anderson, South Florida Water Management District)

(Photo by Brent Anderson, South Florida Water Management District)
a. Channelized Kissimmee River b. Restored reach of Kissimmee River
FIGURE 6.38 Flood control on the Kissimmee River involved replacing the complex channel structure of the river with a straight
canal, which severed the former connection between the river and its floodplain. Restoration of the Kissimmee River included
filling sections of the channelized river and rerouting river flow through the original channels, which once again overflow onto the
surrounding floodplain and wetlands during heavy rains.
oxygen and habitat complexity have been accompanied

by a resurgence of populations of largemouth bass and liters per day. Water recycling is also saving
other sunfish. water around the world. Wastewater can be
made safe for recycling through a variety of
! Think About It treatments collectively called water reclamation.
Depending on the level of treatment, recycled
1. The cost of restoring the Kissimmee River has
water is being put to a wide range of uses
been projected at about $500 million. What are the around the world, including industrial
potential benefits? processes, irrigation, recharging groundwater
2. Why do water managers need to coordinate supplies, restoring or augmenting wetland or
controlled flooding with sediment inputs from aquatic ecosystems, or even drinking water.
Desalination, which removes salt from water,
Colorado River tributaries below the Glen Canyon
can be used to convert seawater or brackish
Dam?
water into freshwater. Although desalination is
3. How might dam building and prevention of the energy-expensive, developments in cogeneration
historical floods on the Colorado River give an and reverse osmosis are rapidly increasing
advantage to invasive non-native fish species in efficiency and decreasing costs.
Restoring aquatic ecosystems involves
competition with native fish species?
establishing minimum stream flows and
reintroducing periodic flooding. For example,
controlled flooding is being used on the
Colorado River to sustain critical sandbar habitat
6.8–6.10 Solutions: within the Grand Canyon. The Kissimmee
River in central Florida was “channelized”
Summary to prevent flooding, which had disastrous
Water conservation can be very effective at consequences for the functioning of the river–
reducing water use—at both the individual floodplain ecosystem and associated biodiversity.
and city scale. A water conservation campaign Restoration has produced rapid recovery of the
in New York City has saved over 1 billion Kissimmee River system.

Central Question: How can we meet human needs for freshwater, while avoiding
or reducing environmental impact?
• How does the hydrologic cycle move water • How much water do humans require to live and
around Earth? should that be considered a basic human right?
• What effect does the El Niño Southern • How do humans use water and what are factors
Oscillation have on the hydrologic cycle? that affect water’s availability?
• What is the current state of groundwater and

what affects its availability?
• How does managing water affect aquatic

biodiversity?
Water Resources and You water-saving initiatives now exist and you see a need for them, you
might consider suggesting one or more through local media or by
Water is essential to our survival and well-being—it literally flows through
writing to the mayor or city council in your community.
our individual lives on a daily basis. As a result, we all have abundant
opportunities to contribute to solving the many water-related issues we face. ! Commit yourself to water conservation in your daily life.
! Learn about water supply, consumption, and issues in your

Consider how you might conserve water in your everyday life. As
a student, you may be able to find opportunities to encourage the
community.
installation of low-flow toilets or showerheads on campus, if your
Learn about your community water supply in detail. What is the source campus has not already done so. Wherever you live (e.g., in a
of water in your community? Is it mainly groundwater, surface water, dormitory, apartment, or house), you can report or fix leaky faucets or
or a fairly even mix of the two? How does water consumption in bathroom fixtures. The average time spent in the shower in the United
your community compare with other communities in your region and States is 8 minutes, which expends 68 liters (18 gallons) of water
elsewhere across the country and world? What are the major water when using a standard 8.3 liters (2.2 gallons) per minute showerhead.
supply issues in your community? What are the major water supply Use a timer on your smartphone or shower timer to limit the time you
issues in your region? If possible, tour the water treatment facilities in shower to 5 minutes—this can save over 25 liters (6.6 gallons) of
your community to learn about where the water you use goes and how water every time you shower!
it is treated.
! Become involved in river or wetland restoration.
! Actively support water conservation programs in your
Explore potential restoration opportunities with federal, state, or local
community. agencies or with nongovernmental conservation organizations in your
As you inform yourself regarding water supply and infrastructure, you area. Your active participation in restoration as a volunteer will help
will build a foundation for becoming involved in local and regional water reduce impacts on aquatic biodiversity as we supply water for human
issues. As opportunities arise, you may lend your voice to initiatives populations. It will also be an opportunity to explore key aspects of
designed to save water, such as water recycling, upgrading and aquatic biodiversity firsthand.
maintenance of the community water distribution system, or planting
of drought-resistant landscaping plants in public spaces. If no such
• What are some water conservation approaches

and how do they affect water availability?
• Where have water reclamation projects been

implemented and what effect are they having?
• How does desalination work and what are

some prominent desalination projects?
• What are some of the key ways in which water

conservation can protect aquatic ecosystems?
Chapter 6 6. Which of the following are problems with Critical Analysis

groundwater pumping around the world?
a. Falling water tables 1. Use the information in this chapter and other
Review Questions b. Land subsidence resources, such as Singapore’s national water
c. Low recharge rates agency, the Public Utilities Board (PUB, www.pub.
1. How many liters are contained in 1 km3 of gov.sg/Pages/default.aspx) to discuss the ways in
water? d. All of the above
which Singapore’s water supply issues and solutions
a. 100,000 liters are similar to or very different from those of Earth as
7. What fraction of large rivers in the Northern
b. 1,000,000 liters a whole.
Hemisphere has been altered by dams and
c. 1,000,000,000 liters
water diversions?
d. 1,000,000,000,000 liters 2. Use the information in the text to trace the potential
a. About one-tenth
paths a water molecule travels from the oceanic
2. How do El Niño and La Niña affect b. About one-third
subcycle to the terrestrial subcycle, back to the
Australia? c. Approximately half
oceanic subcycle.
a. El Niño brings wet conditions; La Niña brings dry d. Approximately three-fourths
conditions. 3. Apply the general principles of the hydrological
b. El Niño brings dry conditions; La Niña brings wet 8. What aspect of New York City’s water cycle and the regional patterns of water table fall
conditions. conservation program resulted in the greatest or rise (see Figure 6.15) to develop a long-term
c. El Niño brings wet conditions, while La Niña has no water savings? conceptual plan for sustainable use of the Ogallala
effect. a. Meter installation Aquifer, which occurs mainly under the temperate
d. El Niño has no effect, while La Niña brings dry b. Installing low-flow toilets grassland biome.
conditions. c. Detecting and repairing leaks
d. Home inspections 4. Using a variety of sources, design a sustainable
3. How many countries included in Figure 6.7 water-management plan for a region, such as the
have per capita water consumption rates less 9. What factor most limits the use of American Southwest, Northwest, or Southeast, in
than Gleick’s proposed 50-liter-per-day human desalination as a means of supplementing which precipitation and temperatures are strongly
right? water supplies? influenced by El Niño and La Niña.
a. One country c. Nine countries a. A sufficient source of saline water
b. The lack of effective technology 5. Compare river or wetland restoration projects that
b. Seven countries d. Eleven countries
c. The cost of energy to run the process have been successful with those that have failed.
4. How much of global runoff is now d. A general lack of interest in the process, even in Propose the best predictors of success or failure. An
appropriated for human use? water-scarce regions Internet search will yield abundant examples.
a. About 17% c. A bit over 50%
10. Although there are remarkably successful Find additional resources and links online at www.
b. About 31% d. Nearly 100%
examples of river and wetland restoration, macmillanhighered.com/launchpad/molles1e.
5. The arid regions of the world support what what factors make such restoration very
percentage of the global population? difficult in many situations?
a. Less than 1% a. Severe pollution
b. Approximately 10% b. Intensive urban development
c. Approximately 20% c. Local or regional groundwater depletion
d. Over 50% d. All of the above
we produce food and forest
products while minimizing Describe how the physical environment and biodiversity
environmental impact? influence the availability of terrestrial resources.
(Dudarev Mikhail/Shutterstock) SCIENCE

C H A P T ER 7
Sustaining Terrestrial
Resources
Analyze the environmental impacts Discuss tactics for minimizing the impact
of harvesting terrestrial resources. of farming, ranching, and forestry.
188 C HAPTER 7 SU STAI NI NG TER R ESTR I A L R ES OUR C ES
(Yuriy Chertok/Shutterstock)
High rates of erosion, which began around 7,000 BCE, have removed the soil cover of many landscapes in Greece.
Terrestrial Resources
Depend on Fertile Soils
Over 2,000 years ago, people understood that tending to the health
of soils is essential to sustaining the welfare of human communities.
S ometime around 2,400 years ago, the Greek philosopher

Plato gazed up at the dry, barren hills surrounding his
native Athens and came to a startling conclusion about
old trees and deep, fertile soils. These forests, he reasoned,
are what Athens must have been like during some past era.
In fact, Plato noticed that in the center of the city where
the impact of human agriculture over the preceding large trees no longer grew, there were buildings with wide,
centuries. A once-extensive forest had been cleared, and the wooden roof beams extracted from these long-lost forests. In
landscape had subsequently grown parched. “What now addition, he observed that many religious shrines in the area,
remains compared to what then existed,” he wrote, “is like which ancient Greeks typically sited near perennial springs
a skeleton of a sick man, all the fat and the soft soil having and streams, had no flowing water nearby. In the past, he
wasted away, and only the bare framework of the land reasoned, the combination of forested hills and deep soils
being left.” would have captured precipitation and slowed its passage
Like a detective, Plato gathered evidence to test his through the landscape. Deforestation had increased rates
theory by scouting the countryside. He noticed that forests of soil loss, which meant that water rapidly ran off the land
growing some distance from Athens included enormous, during rainstorms.
H O W CAN W E PRO D U CE FOOD A ND FOR ES T P R ODUC TS WHI LE MI NI MI Z I NG E NVI R ONME NTA L I MPA C T?
189
furs and meat. In other words, we lived entirely off the

“A good part of agriculture is to production of natural ecosystems. Then about 10,000
years ago, human communities around Earth began to
learn how to adapt one’s work to domesticate plants and animals, manipulating natural
nature, to fit the crop-scheme ecosystems to serve our needs.
to the climate and to the soil. . . . Managing terrestrial resources through ranching,
forestry, and farming has increased the amount of food
To live in right relation to the natural and forest products (e.g., wood) available to human
conditions is one of the first lessons populations, as well as reduced variation in supplies of
these resources. A more reliable food supply increased the
that a wise farmer or any other wise rate of human population growth (see Chapter 5, page 130),
man learns.” which led to the development of cities. Forestry cleared
land for crops and created pastures for ranching while
Liberty Hyde Bailey, The Holy Earth, 1915
also supplying building material and fuel. The benefits of
agriculture and forestry, however, were accompanied by
Athens was hardly unique. The changes Plato noticed unsustainable environmental costs as humans irrigated
in his backyard are just one part of the global story of how lands, replaced natural vegetation with crops, and cleared
humans have altered the world we live in. In the early days forests for land to support human populations. The need
of our species, we lived by gathering wild plant materials for careful management of Earth’s terrestrial resources
for food and shelter and hunting wild animals that gave us brings us to the central question of this chapter.
Central Question
How can we produce food and
forest products while minimizing
environmental impact?

(Dudarev Mikhail/Shutterstock)
7.1–7.3 Science
U sing photosynthesis, plants turn energy from the Sun,

carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, and moisture
and nutrients from the soil into leafy, green biomass. The
plenty of water and sunlight, so long as temperatures
are not so hot that the plants wilt or so frigid that they
freeze.
amount of biomass produced—called primary production
(see Chapter 2)—varies widely across natural terrestrial Species-Richness Effects
ecosystems. Through agriculture and forestry, humans
Natural ecosystems add layers of complexity atop these
use primary production in various ways, including for
environmental variables. More specifically, they contain
direct human consumption, fodder for livestock, and
a variety of plant species that interact with one another,
forest products for building materials. In this chapter,
and scientists have long suspected that a link exists
we explore how we can harvest these necessities from
between the number of species and the productivity of
terrestrial ecosystems sustainably. However, this extractive
an ecosystem—the idea being that each plant species has
view of these ecosystems should not distract us from the
slightly different growth requirements and strategies.
huge value of the other services they provide, which are
Together, they can take advantage of every beam of
discussed in Chapter 4 (see page 112). Three of the most
sunlight, drop of water, and soil nutrient.
significant influences on terrestrial primary production,
To test this hypothesis, in the early 1990s, an ecologist
and therefore on the availability of terrestrial resources, are
named David Tilman prepared 147 plots—10 feet by
climate, nutrients, and biodiversity.
10 feet—in the Minnesota prairie. He and his colleagues
seeded these plots with anywhere from 1 to 24 species
7.1 Climate, biodiversity, of native grasses. As predicted, they found that plots
and nutrients influence with more species had higher primary production levels.
In fact, a long-term study by Tilman’s research group
terrestrial primary found that primary production in the most diverse study
production plots was over 340% higher than in plots with a single
The Amazonian rain forest has a very different climate species.
than arctic tundra. The rain forest is moist and warm, Plant growth patterns and physiology suggest causal
with lush growth of countless varieties of plants; the mechanisms for these findings. Some root systems
tundra is dry and cold, with sparse growth of far fewer plunge deep into the soil, whereas others crawl along just
plant species. Clearly, the climate of an area, especially under the surface, which means that each plant takes up
its prevailing temperature and precipitation, affects the nutrients and moisture from different parts of the soil
biomass and the type of vegetation that grows there. column. Also, some plant species make the environment
Climate is also one of the main factors influencing more favorable for other species by, for example, adding
variation in primary production (Figure 7.1). As any nitrogen to the soil or providing shade for species that
gardener knows, most plants grow best when they have prefer the community understory. These positive effects
191
FIGURE 7.1 Primary

THE GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION OF NET PRIMARY PRODUCTION CLOSELY MATCHES THE DISTRIBUTION
production is highest in
OF EARTH’S CLIMATIC ZONES AND BIOMES equatorial regions where
the natural vegetation is
tropical forest. Temperate
forest regions support the
next highest levels of primary
production. Meanwhile,
the lowest rates of primary
production occur in the cold
dry tundra and in deserts,
which may be cold or hot
but are always dry. Between
these end members are
boreal forests, temperate
grasslands, and savannas,
which support medium levels
of primary production. (After
Del Grosso et al., 2008)
PRIMARY PRODUCTION
Lowest Highest
Regions with abundant precipitation Regions with low precipitation

and moderate temperatures during and unfavorable temperatures
the growing season during the growing season
can facilitate greater productivity where multiple species colleagues, they learned that study plots with more plant
grow together. species were better able to take up and retain nitrate, a
chemical form of nitrogen useful to plants but subject to
Soil Nutrients leaching through the soil by water. More plant species
on a single plot retained more nitrogen, and therefore
Although climate and plant diversity have substantial
overall primary production was higher (Figure 7.2).
effects on levels of terrestrial primary production,
gardeners also know that the amount of fruits and
The Nitrogen Cycle
vegetables they harvest is affected by soil fertility. Soil
fertility is especially connected to levels of certain key Nitrogen, like other essential nutrients on Earth, cycles
elements, such as the availability of nitrogen, the soil from soil to water to air. The chief reservoir of nitrogen,
nutrient that most commonly limits terrestrial primary an essential component of protein and nucleic acids
production. Consequently, retaining nutrients in soil is and thus critical for life, is the atmosphere, where
critical for sustaining primary production. During one elemental nitrogen, N2, makes up 78% of atmospheric
of the field experiments conducted by Tilman and his gases. However, most organisms cannot use elemental
FIGURE 7.2 Seeding with
greater numbers of grassland
species in experimental field
BIODIVERSITY APPEARS TO INFLUENCE NUTRIENT RETENTION BY ECOSYSTEMS plots resulted in lower
concentrations of nitrate, an
20
easily leached form of soil
nitrogen, below the reach
of roots in grassland plots.
(Data from Tilman et al., 1996)
NITRATE (mg PER kg SOIL)
15 Study plots seeded with a greater diversity These results indicate lower
of plants had lower nitrate concentrations
below the plant rooting zone. nutrient loss by leaching from
the topsoil of higher-diversity
experimental grassland
10
ecosystems. Tilman’s study
included 147 experimental
plots covering an area of
9 square meters (100 square
5
(David Tilman, UMN)
feet), seeded with a range of

plant species native to North
American prairies: 1, 2, 4, 6,
or 8 species (20 plots each),
0
David Tilman’s field study site at Cedar Creek, MN 1 2 4 6 8 12 24 12 species (23 plots), or
NUMBER SPECIES SEEDED 24 species (24 plots).

FIGURE 7.3 Nitrogen

makes up 78% of dry THE NITROGEN CYCLE
air. However, only a few
microorganisms are capable
of nitrogen fixation, a process
that requires breaking the KEY PROCESSES
strong bonds that join the
two atoms in N2 molecules. 1 NITROGEN FIXATION
Specialized bacteria in soil, root Atmospheric nitrogen (N2)
Once incorporated into the nodules, and water convert atmos-
molecules, such as amino pheric nitrogen (N2) into ammonia.
acids and nucleic acids, of A small amount of nitrogen is fixed
by lightning. 4
which these nitrogen fixers
are made, nitrogen can be
2 DECOMPOSITION and
cycled through an ecosystem.
AMMONIFICATION
Decomposer bacteria and fungi Food chain
consume animal, plant, and 5
nitrogen cycle The microbial waste products and
6
remains, thereby releasing
process whereby nitrogen ammonia and ammonium ions. Denitrifying
passes through and 1 Sedimentary 2 bacteria
between ecosystems, 3 NITRIFICATION rocks
involving several key Nitrifying bacteria convert ammonia
actions by microorganisms, and ammonium ions into nitrate ions.
including nitrogen Decomposer
4 NITROGEN ASSIMILATION Nitrogen-fixing bacteria and
fixation, decomposition, bacteria fungi
Plants absorb ammonium ions and
ammonification, nitrification, nitrate ions and incorporate them into
and denitrification. essential molecules such as amino
acids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
nitrogen fixation
Incorporation of atmospheric 5 DENITRIFICATION
nitrogen, N2, into nitrogen- In the absence of oxygen, specialized
bacteria in soil and water convert Ammonia Ammonium ions Nitrate ions
containing compounds by nitrate ions back into nitrogen gas (NH 3) (NH 4+) (NO 3–)
bacteria, living in association (N2), which returns to the atmosphere.
with plants or free living.
6 WEATHERING
ammonification The process 3
In ecosystems on nitrogen-rich
by which decomposers break sedimentary rocks, weathering can
down proteins and amino be a significant source of nitrogen
for plants.
acids, releasing nitrogen in
the form of ammonia (NH3 ) or Nitrifying
ammonium ion (NH4$). bacteria
nitrification The conversion

of ammonia or ammonium to
nitrites (NO3#) by nitrifying
bacteria. nitrogen to make essential nitrogen-containing producers can take up the nitrates and ammonium in
compounds. As a consequence, they are dependent on terrestrial or aquatic ecosystems.
nitrogen assimilation The nitrogen-containing compounds in soils and water that Once within the plant or alga, nitrate and ammonium
incorporation by plants of are released during the course of the nitrogen cycle. enter a process called (4) nitrogen assimilation, in which
nitrate and ammonium into
Six major processes drive the nitrogen cycle they are incorporated into essential nitrogen-containing
essential nitrogen-containing
organic compounds. (Figure 7.3). Elemental nitrogen from the atmosphere organic compounds, such as DNA and amino acids. When
enters the cycle through the process of nitrogen fixation, plants, or the consumers that eat them, decompose, the
denitrification The process during which specialized nitrogen-fixing bacteria convert nitrogen in their bodies returns to soil or water, completing
by which specialized bacteria
N2 to ammonia, NH3, which is incorporated into organic the nitrogen cycle.
in soil and water convert
nitrate ions back into nitrogen molecules such as amino acids, the building blocks of Nitrogen can also be lost from ecosystems through
gas (N2 ), which returns to the proteins. A small amount of nitrogen is also fixed by the process of (5) denitrification. Denitrification takes
atmosphere. lightning. Nitrogen fixation is a critical link between the place in poorly drained, poorly aerated soils, or in low- or
atmospheric pool of nitrogen, which cannot be used by no-oxygen environments in lakes and marshes, where
weathering The
fragmentation and most organisms, and soil and aquatic pools of nitrogen. denitrifying bacteria convert nitrates into elemental
decomposition of mineral Ammonia and ammonium ions are released from nitrogen gas. If nitrogen is not replenished by nitrogen
materials as a result of decomposing plant, animal, and microbial biomass in a fixation, denitrification may deplete the available
chemical, biological, and process called (2) ammonification. Some ammonium nitrogen within an ecosystem. In ecosystems developing
mechanical processes,
and ammonia are converted to nitrates through on nitrogen-rich sedimentary rocks, (6) weathering
resulting in the release of
nitrogen, phosphorus, and (3) nitrification, a two-step process in which bacteria can make significant contributions to the amount of
other elements. first produce nitrites (NO2#) and then nitrates. Primary cycled nitrogen.
193
! Think About It 7.2 Agriculture, forestry,

1. If you were to travel northward from the deserts and grazing systems are built
of the American Southwest, North Africa, or Central on the natural biomes
Asia, primary production would first increase and Humans establish their terrestrial harvest systems, such as
then decline as you continued north. Why? forestry, ranching, and farming, within the boundaries of
natural biomes (Figure 7.4). That means the same factors
2. Can you envision a scenario where two that influence primary production in nature—namely,
species growing together might decrease primary climate, nutrients, and biodiversity—will also play a role in
production? How does that fit into what we know these systems. With careful stewardship, all the biomes can
from David Tilman’s experiments? sustain production of resources useful to humans. terrestrial harvest systems
Ways of extracting production
3. How might different leaf shapes among plant from ecosystems, ranging
Farming from hunting and gathering
species cause diverse ecosystems to maximize
in unmanaged natural
primary production? The temperate forest biomes, with their moderate
ecosystems to nomadic
climates and fertile soils, can generally support intensive herding and small-scale
4. How would life on Earth change if all nitrogen- agriculture. This is particularly true for temperate subsistence farming to
fixing organisms suddenly became extinct? deciduous forests, which have been cleared of oaks, industrialized agriculture.
SYSTEMS THAT HUMANS HAVE DESIGNED FOR HARVESTING LAND-BASED RESOURCES ARE BUILT ON EARTH’S
TERRESTRIAL BIOMES
(USDA photo by Scott Bauer)

(Frontpage/Shutterstock)
TROPICAL FOREST TEMPERATE FOREST

Timber harvesting, clearing for Timber harvesting, mixed crop and
livestock production and grain livestock farming
and soybean farming
(USDA-ARS/Brian Prechtel)
(USDA-ARS)
TEMPERATE GRASSLAND DESERT

Large-scale grain and soybean farming, Irrigated agriculture in river valleys,
grazing in drier regions livestock grazing on uplands
(Alberto Giuliani/LUZphoto/Redux)
(Danita Delimont/Getty Images)
(Kara Jade Quan-Montgomery/
Maria Stenzel/Getty Images)

Shutterstock)
TROPICAL SAVANNA MEDITERRANEAN SCRUB TAIGA TUNDRA

Livestock grazing, limited crop Orchard and vineyard crops, mixed Timber harvesting, small-scale farming Nomadic herding and hunting
production livestock farming
FIGURE 7.4 People have found ways to acquire the resources needed to maintain themselves in all of Earth’s terrestrial biomes,
each presenting a unique set of opportunities and challenges.

maples, and other trees to make way for farms. For harvesting more difficult (see Figure 7.6). In temperate
example, the highly productive rice farming of China coniferous forests, soils are generally less fertile than soils
and Japan is concentrated in the temperate forest in deciduous forests because conifer needles are acidic.
biome. Some of the most fertile soils occur in temperate Taiga also has acidic soils and short growing seasons.
grasslands, which is why the prairie regions of North Thus, these biomes are better suited to supporting
America and Eurasia have been centers of wheat and forestry, the management of forests and woodlands for
maize farming. Faming in prairie and Mediterranean the harvest of timber or fuelwood, than agriculture.
regions often requires irrigation, which creates a
challenge to sustainability (see Figure 6.13, page 167).
! Think About It
Ranching 1. The United States is large and encompasses
several biomes with different potentials for
?
Large grazing and browsing animals, such as elk,
kangaroo, and musk ox, naturally exist on every agriculture and forestry. What problems might
continent, suggesting that ranching, the practice of smaller countries face in meeting their food and
raising domesticated livestock for meat, leather, wool, timber needs?
Why have the
and other products is possible almost everywhere.
indigenous herding 2. Are the biomes with the highest level of primary
Historically, migratory herding people inhabited the
cultures of both tundra production always the best places for agriculture?
tundra, desert, and semi-desert biomes because those
and deserts been largely biomes have the lowest levels of primary production and Why or why not?
nomadic? are unsuitable for farming. The practice of irrigation has
3. When humans replace native vegetation with
greatly increased the productivity potential of arid lands,
allowing ranchers to settle in one place; however, it is not agricultural crops or a second growth forest, how
without environmental cost and controversy. Temperate might primary production differ from the original
grasslands, especially those receiving greater amounts of plant community?
precipitation, are more fertile than deserts and, in their
native state, may provide some of the most productive
grazing habitats for livestock. 7.3 Soil structure and
fertility result from dynamic
Forestry processes
ranching The practice of Tropical biomes generally sustain high levels of Soils are more than just dirt. Plants depend on them
raising domesticated livestock primary production (see Figure 7.1) and are home to for physical support, water, and nutrients. They are also
for meat, leather, wool, and valuable hardwoods such as mahogany and rosewood. home to diverse underground organisms. Creatures
other products. However, because many tropical forests grow on living in soils range from microscopic bacteria to the
forestry The management of
old, highly oxidized soils from which abundant largest organism known—a honey fungus, Armillaria
forests and woodlands for the rains have washed most plant nutrients, reforestation can ostoyae, in eastern Oregon, which is 3 times the size of
harvest of timber or fuelwood. be a frustratingly slow process that makes sustainable New York’s Central Park (Figure 7.5). Soil development
TEEMING WITH LIFE, SOILS ARE HOME TO A VAST ARRAY OF BIODIVERSITY

(Hugh Spencer/Science Source; Colorization by Mary Martin
(D. Kucharski K. Kucharska/Shutterstock)

(Nigel Cattin/Science Source)
(stshank/Shutterstock)
Clover root nodules housing Soil fungi associated with plant roots Earthworm Pocket gopher
nitrogen-fixing bacteria
FIGURE 7.5 Many thousands of bacterial species can be identified from a single gram of soil. Shown here are just a few of the vast
number of life forms that inhabit soils.
H O W CAN W E PRO D U CE F OOD A ND FOR EST PR ODUC TS WHILE MI NI MI Z I NG E NVI R ONME NTA L I MPA C T?
195
COMBINED EFFECTS OF CLIMATE AND ORGANISMS PRODUCE MAJOR DIFFERENCES AMONG THE TYPICAL SOILS
OF EARTH’S BIOMES
TROPICAL FOREST TEMPERATE FOREST TEMPERATE GRASSLAND DESERT

Soils of tropical rain Usually fertile and neutral Neutral to slightly basic, Low fertility and little
forests generally infertile to slightly acidic; medium high to moderate fertility; organic matter; often
due to heavy rainfall and rates of decomposition can be deep and high high in salt content; may
high decomposition rates; foster accumulation of in organic matter; have a layer of stony
low organic matter nutrients and organic color ranges from material that impedes
content, which reduces matter in soil. brown to black. water infiltration.
nutrient holding capacity,
reflected in light soil
color; soils of tropical
seasonal forests usually
more fertile.
TROPICAL SAVANNA MEDITERRANEAN SCRUB TAIGA TUNDRA

Generally low fertility, Generally low to moderate Shallow and highly acid; Rich in peat and humus
often with impermeable fertility, organic matter low decomposition rates and usually with a layer
layer that retains water content moderate to low; slow soil building and tie of permafrost; freezing
near the soil surface. fragile and subject to up nutrients in plant litter. and thawing create
erosion. netlike surface features.
FIGURE 7.6 Differences in climate and dominant organisms in terrestrial biomes are reflected in variations in amounts of organic
matter, depth, color, and fertility of their soils.
and soil structure vary around the world largely because

BASIC SOIL STRUCTURE CONSISTS OF A
of differences in climate and the types and abundance VERTICAL SEQUENCE OF SOIL HORIZONS
of organisms present (Figure 7.6).
Soil Structure
SOIL HORIZONS
If you were to dig into a mature soil, you would find
a series of layers, called soil horizons. In a temperate O HORIZON
The O horizon is rich in organic matter
deciduous forest, these are known as the O, A, E, B, C, and supports a high biomass of soil
and R horizons (Figure 7.7). organisms, especially decomposers.
The surface layer, or the O horizon, is a site of A HORIZON

The A horizon consists mainly of
active decomposition of organic matter, such as leaves, inorganic material and is generally rich
twigs, and bark. Burrowing organisms and physical in nutrients but includes significant
amounts of organic matter.
processes, such as freezing and thawing, mix this
decomposing organic matter with the inorganic E HORIZON
An E horizon forms as clay particles and
clays and sands found in the lower soil horizons, dissolved material are transported down
producing the crumblike structure characteristic of the soil profile to the B horizon.
many fertile soils. B HORIZON
The A horizon, which sits beneath the the O horizon, The B horizon is a depositional soil layer
in which materials transported from the
is typically referred to as the topsoil. It is rich in A and E horizons accumulate.
essential plant nutrients, such as nitrogen, phosphorus, C HORIZON
and potassium, on which much plant production is The C horizon consists mainly of
moderately weathered parent material.
dependent. Although it contains significant amounts of O horizon The surface layer
organic matter, which is generally dark in color, the R HORIZON
The R horizon consists of lightly
of many soils, which is rich in
A horizon is predominantly an inorganic layer, weathered, consolidated bedrock. organic matter and a site of
consisting of a mixture of various proportions of sand, active decomposition.
silt, and clay. RELATIVE SOIL PARTICLE SIZES
A horizon (topsoil) Soil
layer immediately below
the O horizon that includes
significant amounts of organic
FIGURE 7.7 Mature soils under temperate deciduous forests Sand Silt Clay matter, generally expressed by
commonly have six horizons: the O, A, E, B, C, and R horizons. dark color.
S CI EN CE ISSUES S OLU T IONS

?
The proportions of sand (coarse and gritty), silt fluctuations, freezing and thawing in cold climates, and
(intermediate grain size), and clay (small grain size) in heating and cooling in hot climates, promote weathering
the topsoil determine soil texture. Soils dominated by of rocks. Weathering begins with fracturing and
Why are soils with one of the three types of mineral soil particles are called fragmentation of large rock, which eventually reduces
a deep A horizon sandy, silty, or clay soils. Meanwhile, a soil consisting of even great rock formations to small soil particles. The
approximately equal proportions of sand, silt, and clay is rate of soil development reaches maximum levels in the
generally considered
a loam. A loam soil, which has properties intermediate warm, humid tropics. Climate also indirectly affects soil
good for farming? between sandy and clay soils, is considered one of the development through its influences on the activity of soil
most desirable for agriculture. organisms and plant roots.
In well-developed soils, there can be an E horizon Wind and rain add nutrients as they deposit dust on
below the A horizon. The light-colored E horizon a landscape (Figure 7.9). Nitrogen-fixing bacteria and
soil texture The relative
results from clays and dissolved organic matter plants, such as legumes, produce most of the biologically
fineness or coarseness of a flowing downward to deeper soil layers, leaving pale- available nitrogen in soils. Runoff from rainfall can cause
soil, which is determined by its colored sand and silt. The subsoil, or B horizon, is a erosion of soils from the landscape, whereas rainfall that
proportions of sand, silt, and depositional layer, rich in materials that leached out of percolates into soils can remove nutrients and carry them
clay. the E horizon. The C horizon, the deepest soil layer, down the soil profile and into groundwater.
loam A soil consisting of typically contains unconsolidated weathered rocks from Though all soils are subject to erosion by wind or
approximately equal proportions the parent material from which soil develops. Parent water, those on steep slopes are more vulnerable. As
of sand, silt, and clay. material can be made up of rock, windblown or water- soils erode from higher ground, the soil remaining on
E horizon Soil layer between
transported sand, or organic matter, such as peat. At the the slopes is thin and prone to drying. Soils washed
the A and B horizons, from base of a soil developed on rock is the R horizon, which into valleys and other low points in a landscape, such
which clays and dissolved is partially weathered bedrock. as swales, cause a thickening and moistening in these
materials are transported down depositional areas.
the soil profile to the underlying
Soil Development
B horizon.
Soil forms as the environment interacts with parent
! Think About It
B horizon A depositional
soil layer in which materials material. The factors important to soil formation include 1. Why might some plants grow well on soils in the
transported from the A and climate, organisms, the nature of the parent material, early stages of development but not in later stages
E horizons accumulate. the topography (or form) of the land surface, and time (see Figure 7.8)?
C horizon The deepest soil
(Figure 7.8).
layer, consisting mainly of lightly Climate directly influences soil development 2. What properties might lead farmers to consider
weathered parent material. through temperature and precipitation. Temperature loam to be an ideal soil?
parent material The bedrock
or unconsolidated deposits,
such as windblown sand or silt,
SOIL DEVELOPMENT IS A SLOW PROCESS
from which soil develops.
R horizon The base of

a soil profile composed
of consolidated bedrock,
immediately below the A O O
C horizon.
A A
erosion A process that
removes geologic materials, B E
ranging from clay-sized particles
to boulders, from one part of B
a landscape to be deposited
elsewhere; increased rates C C
of soil erosion due to human C
activity can reduce soil fertility. HUNDREDS TO THOUSANDS OF YEARS
FIGURE 7.8 Soils form as a R R R

consequence of climate and organisms Early in soil development, By the middle stages of soil A soil developing under
acting on parent material over long physical processes and the development, distinctive A and temperate forest biome
periods of time. The sequence here activities of a few pioneer B horizons become apparent, conditions eventually acquires
plants and soil animals as materials are transported deeper O, A, E, and B horizons
sketches soil development in a climate begin to break down parent from the A to B horizons; a thin as a consequence of continued
that would support temperate deciduous material and add organic surface organic layer gradually transport of materials down the
forest at maturity. matter to the surface layer. builds up. soil profile to the B horizon.
197
SOIL STRUCTURE AND FERTILITY RESULT FROM A DYNAMIC INTERPLAY

OF PROCESSES
CO2 uptake during

photosynthesis
CO2 release
during respiration
Nutrient recycling Soil nutrient
by soil organisms
(plant litter fall uptake
and root exudate)
NUTRIENT ADDITIONS NUTRIENT LOSSES
• Deposition with • Erosion

rain and wind • Gaseous emissions
• Sedimentation • Leaching
• Nitrogen fixation
• Weathering of
parent material
FIGURE 7.9 Avenues of soil nutrient loss oppose several sources of nutrient addition. Soil
nutrients taken up by plant roots and carbon dioxide from the atmosphere are incorporated into
plant tissues during photosynthesis. Then as plant litter and other organic matter decompose (e.g.,
fallen leaves, dead roots, or shed bark), carbon dioxide is released to the atmosphere and soil
nutrients are returned to the soil.
3. How would differences in the main factors

influencing soil development (climate, organisms, independent of climate. These documented
parent material, topography, and time) influence relationships may help in the design of
sustainable agricultural systems.
the store of nutrients and organic matter in soils as
Different climatic conditions support a wide
depicted in Figure 7.9?
range of biomass production and different soil
4. If global climate changes such that the optimal types. This variation in climate and soils is linked
zone for grain production moves far to the north, to Earth’s terrestrial biomes, within which human
how might soils limit agriculture in this new populations have developed systems of farming,
ranching, and forestry to harvest primary
“climatically optimal” zone?
production for human use.
In a mature temperate deciduous forest, soils
have a distinct sequence of layers called the O,
7.1–7.3 Science: A, E, B, C, and R horizons. The main factors
important to soil formation include climate,
Summary organisms, the nature of the parent material, the
Climate, which includes temperature and topography (or form) of the land surface, and
precipitation, is one of the most important time. The supply of essential plant nutrients (e.g.,
factors influencing the amount of biomass an nitrogen and phosphorus) and organic matter
ecosystem produces. Careful experimental in soils is not static, but rather the result of a
research has revealed that biodiversity also has dynamic interaction between several processes,
a significant positive influence on productivity, such as erosion, deposition, and decomposition.

7.4–7.9 Issues
I n the early days of our species, humans lived off the
products of natural ecosystems, foraging for nuts,
berries, and other wild plant materials, and hunting wild
maintain soil fertility by rotating crops on two-, three-,
or four-year cycles; they alternated between grains,
which deplete nitrogen, and plants such as legumes,
animals, such as mammoths and musk ox. At the end which enrich it. Formal experiments with natural
of the last ice age, some 10,000 years ago, a radical shift fertilizers (e.g., bat guano and bone meal), which began
occurred as human communities began to domesticate in the 18th century, soon reduced the need for crop
food plants: corn and squash in the Americas, wheat rotation. By the 1920s, most farmers in the United States
and barley in the Middle East, and rice in China. We and Europe were cultivating monocultures, vast fields of
also began breeding livestock for a variety of purposes, single crops, which could be maintained year after year
including meat, milk, leather, and wool. As beneficial as with the application of natural and synthetic fertilizers,
such technologies have been to human societies, they have along with pesticides. These monocultures also had
inevitably had an impact on the environment, particularly the benefit of being easily tilled, seeded, fertilized, and
with the rise of industrial agriculture developed to meet harvested using tractors powered by fossil fuels, which
our rapidly growing urban populations. vastly decrease the amount of labor required on the farm
(Figure 7.10).
The gains in production made with industrial
7.4 Industrial agriculture, agriculture spread to the developing world with the Green
which increases production, Revolution, which was spearheaded by a dedicated plant
breeder named Norman Borlaug (Figure 7.11). Working
comes with environmental with wheat in Mexico, Borlaug made several thousand
impacts crosses between genetic varieties, producing high-yielding
At first, humans performed the work of cultivating and strains that could be grown in a wide range of ecological
harvesting crops with the help of simple tools and animal conditions and that were resistant to many diseases that
power. Haphazard gardens near settlements might have infect wheat. The results were dramatic. In just 25 years,
included a polyculture of multiple domesticated crops the national average wheat yield in Mexico increased four-
intermixed with useful wild species. With little or no fold, from 750 kilograms (1,650 pounds) per hectare to
knowledge of soil chemistry, early farmers learned to 3,000 kilograms (6,600 pounds) per hectare.
A QUEST FOR HIGHER PRODUCTION AND EFFICIENCY REDUCED BIODIVERSITY IN MODERN AGRICULTURE
polyculture The growing of

multiple domesticated crops
that may be intermixed with
useful wild species.
(© Johnny Greig Travel Photography/Alamy)
crop rotation A method

farmers use to maintain
soil fertility and reduce the
buildup of pests by rotating
(Matt Gibson/Shutterstock)
crops on two-, three-, or four-

year cycles.
monoculture A planting
of a single variety of crop,
generally over a large area, Polyculture: wheat and barley production under date palms Monoculture of wheat
that creates an attractive
target for pests and FIGURE 7.10 The apparent biodiversity in traditional polycultures contrasts sharply with the large tracts of land planted to
pathogens of the crop. monocultures in contemporary industrial agriculture.
199
Borlaug received the Nobel Peace Prize in recognition

NORMAN BORLAUG SHOWING THE RESULTS OF
WHEAT BREEDING EXPERIMENTS, WHICH WERE of his life-saving work there. But because the Green
KEY TO THE GREEN REVOLUTION Revolution involved intensive agriculture, with its range
of attendant problems (see Figure 7.24, page 207), it has
come under criticism. Even Borlaug recognized that
one of the ways to continue to increase production, with
reduced environmental impact, may be to return, at least
partly, to the past, by incorporating crop rotation and a
greater diversity of crops into agricultural systems.
! Think About It
?
(Art Rickerby/The LIFE Picture Collection/Getty Images)
1. In the mid-1960s, some scientists were predicting

widespread deaths due to famine by the 1970s. Although the Green
Luckily, this did not occur. How did the Green Revolution emphasized
Revolution alter the predicted course of history? the planting of single
varieties of wheat and
2. Because predictions of famine made half a other grains, why did it
century ago did not materialize, is there no cause depend ultimately on
for concern about future famines? biodiversity to make
FIGURE 7.11 Borlaug’s work at hunger relief drew on early life its gains in production
experiences. His childhood was spent working on his family’s 7.5 Common farming, possible?
farm in Iowa, where he developed a basic understanding of
farming methods and a feel for the problems faced by farmers. grazing, and forestry
His work during the Great Depression brought him in contact practices deplete soils
with people suffering the ravages of hunger, an experience that
motivated him to live a life dedicated to reducing hunger around In his 2005 best-selling book Collapse: How Societies
the world. Choose to Fail or Succeed, Jared Diamond describes
how soil depletion has contributed to the fall of ancient
civilizations, such as the Maya in Central America. Today,
The revolution that Borlaug began in Mexico spread, damage to soils, either through depletion of nutrients
first to other Latin American countries and, by the 1960s, or physical loss of soil, continues to be a major global
to India and Pakistan, which were facing famine. In 1970 environmental concern (Figure 7.12).
POOR AGRICULTURAL PRACTICE AND DROUGHT CREATED THE DUST BOWL
FIGURE 7.12 Dust (essentially blowing

topsoil) from this 1930s environmental
disaster filled the air in communities as far
(NRCS/ USDA)
away from the Great Plains as New York

City and set millions of refugees in motion
seeking a better life across the continent.

Soil Loss by Erosion fuels (through industrial synthesis). The losses of soil
organic matter can also reduce farm productivity because
Erosion is a natural land-forming process that moves soil
the crumblike structure of soil organic matter is key to
from one place to another. However, human activities
promoting the infiltration of water, aeration, retention of
can accelerate it—to devastating effect. In undisturbed
nutrients, and resistance to erosion.
temperate forest, soils are formed at a rate of about
1 ton per hectare per year, which is 100 to 1,000 times Conventional-Tillage Agriculture
greater than the natural erosion rate. However, when
people cut forests or churn up soils during agriculture Soil erosion is a potential problem associated with
or road-building, rates of soil loss skyrocket. Over the farming and ranching, and each has unique challenges.
past 150 years, erosion has removed more than 50% of Conventional-tillage agriculture involves tilling a field
?
the topsoil from the prairies of Iowa, which include some to break up soil clumps and smooth the soil surface
of the most productive farmland in North America. before planting, as well as weeding using specialized
Overall, soil losses in North America and Europe average machinery. Although conventional tillage can be very
approximately 17 metric tons per hectare (ha) per year. effective for seeding crops and controlling weeds, it
How might studies of
Soil losses in the croplands of South America, Asia, and exposes large areas of bare soil to wind and water, often
undisturbed natural resulting in erosion of topsoil (Figure 7.14).
ecosystems help design Africa are even greater, around 30 to 40 tons per hectare
annually.
sustainable agricultural Overgrazing of Rangelands and Desertification
Losses of topsoil to erosion can be broken down into
systems?
losses of mineral particles, organic matter, or nutrients. Grazing by livestock causes erosion in the same way
In one landmark 1992 study, Cornell University as conventional tillage, by reducing plant cover and
researchers reported that the 17 metric tons of topsoil disturbing topsoil. Livestock are generally heavy animals
lost per hectare in the United States contain an average of that consume a lot of plant material and compress soils
approximately 14.5 metric tons of mineral soil, 2 metric with their hooves. Overgrazed rangelands may lose up to
tons of organic matter, and nearly 0.5 metric ton of 100 tons of soil per hectare per year. Rangelands in hot,
inorganic nutrients (Figure 7.13). dry regions are particularly sensitive to erosion because
Those nutrients include potassium, phosphorus, they naturally support sparse plant cover, which can
and nitrogen, which are critical to agriculture and to be easily overgrazed. Severe erosion can occur during
maintaining soil fertility. Most replacement potassium torrential rains and flash floods (Figure 7.15).
and phosphorus comes from mining activities, which The impacts of overgrazing in arid and semiarid
have a significant impact on the environment and rangelands commonly lead to desertification, a
require substantial amounts of fossil fuels. In contrast, process of degradation of once fertile lands to a
replacement nitrogen is derived from the atmosphere desertlike condition of reduced plant cover and primary
in a process that also requires substantial use of fossil production. Desertification is a major problem in central
SOIL EROSION REMOVES MINERAL SOIL, ORGANIC MATTER, AND INORGANIC NUTRIENTS
AVERAGE ANNUAL
LOSS PER HECTARE
Mineral soil
14.5 metric tons
Organic matter
2.0 metric tons
conventional-tillage
agriculture Tilling a field
Inorganic nutrients
to break up soil clumps and 0.5 metric ton
smooth the soil surface before
planting, as well as weeding
using specialized machinery.
Under the conditions of conventional agriculture,
desertification A process losses of topsoil to erosion, including the organic
of degradation of once fertile matter and nutrients it contains, are substantial.
lands to a desertlike condition
of reduced plant cover and FIGURE 7.13 The average loss of soil on each hectare of agricultural land in the United States as a result of
primary production. erosion amounts to 17 metric tons annually. (Data from Pimentel et al., 1992)
201
CONVENTIONAL-TILLAGE AGRICULTURE EXPOSES BARE SOIL TO EROSIVE FORCES

(USDA Media by Lance Cheung)
FIGURE 7.14 Intensive annual cultivation, which is central to conventional-tillage agriculture, can result in
massive soil losses through erosion by both wind and water.
Asia, much of China, and of northern Africa, particularly grassland (or temperate forest) show evidence of soil
in the Sahel region (Figure 7.16). erosion? (See Figure 7.6.)
! Think About It 2. Why are the soils of mountain landscapes more

subject to erosion? (Hint: What force besides
1. How might a soil profile on a farm in a region water and wind power is especially influential in
that would naturally support either temperate mountain landscapes?)
OVERGRAZING HAS RESULTED IN HIGH RATES OF EROSION ON MANY RANGELANDS

(Lynn Betts/USDA)
FIGURE 7.15 The formation of gullies, such as the one shown here on an overgrazed pasture in
southern Iowa, is one of the most severe forms of erosion.

OVERGRAZING HAS CONTRIBUTED TO DESERTIFICATION
(Mark Edwards/stillpictures/Aurora Photos)
FIGURE 7.16 Semiarid grazing lands around the world have been converted to desertlike
ecosystems through desertification, a process that is increasing the extent of low-production
wastelands. The contribution of livestock to desertification of the Sahel region of northern Africa,
pictured here, is well studied.
3. Why haven’t the soils of the tundra and taiga Nations Food and Agriculture Organization’s Global
biomes been subject to higher levels of erosion, Forest Resources Assessment, updated in 2015, forests
compared with the soils of other biomes, at least to cover approximately 4 billion hectares, or 31% of the
this point in their history? world’s land area, and are being lost at a rate of 13
million hectares per year. This rate of deforestation is
slightly lower than it was in the 1990s, but forests are
still vanishing at an alarming rate. The highest rates of
7.6 Deforestation and deforestation are occurring in places with the highest
some forestry management levels of biodiversity, including Southeast Asia, South
practices deplete soils and America, and Africa. However, deforestation is also
increase flooding danger occurring at very high rates in temperate and boreal
forests. In Russia, over 400,000 km2 of boreal forest was
The Mekong River originates on the Tibetan plateau
cleared from the late 1990s to the early 2000s—that’s
and flows nearly 3,000 miles through the spectacular
slightly more than the entire state of Montana.
tropical forests of southeast Asia—a biodiverse region
that supports the livelihoods of some 70 million people.
Forest Harvest and Clearing
Over the last 40 years, however, these forests have been
shrinking dramatically: Cambodia has lost one-fifth of The practice of forestry involves the cutting and removal
its forests, Laos and Myanmar have lost one-quarter, of trees and other plant material for timber, fuelwood,
and Thailand and Vietnam have lost just under half. The and paper pulp. In temperate regions, foresters typically
people of Southeast Asia will not only be coping with a employ clear-cutting, an economically efficient
scarcity of timber as a building material and cooking fuel, technique whereby an entire area is cleared of its
but they will also see changes in the functioning of their trees. Because clear-cutting is often done with heavy
ecosystems. In a region known for heavy monsoon rains, equipment in steep terrain, it produces high levels of soil
the loss of forest cover will stimulate increased erosion, disturbance, which leaves the bare mountainside exposed
landslides, and degradation of soils. Rainwater normally to erosion (Figure 7.17). As erosion removes topsoil
collected and purified in forested basins will be cloudy from these forested landscapes, their potential to produce
with sediment, harming the freshwater fish that feed so future crops of timber is reduced.
much of the population. Many studies have been done to quantify the effects
clear-cutting An
economically efficient
The situation in the Greater Mekong Basin is part of logging on soil loss, which is often measured as the
technique whereby an entire of a larger story of the loss of forests around the world amount of soil transported by streams flowing out of
area is cleared of its trees. for timber and agriculture. According to the United forested stream basins, generally standardized as “sediment
203
LOGGING ACTIVITIES COMMONLY PRODUCE SIGNIFICANT SOIL DISTURBANCE
(© Robert McGouey/Landscape/Alamy)
FIGURE 7.17 Exposure of bare soil and disturbance of topsoil during logging, particularly due to road
building and log skidding, create conditions conducive to increased soil erosion.
yield” per square kilometer. One such study in the improve habitat for game animals. To protect valuable timber
mountains of southern British Columbia, Canada, resources, the U.S. Forest Service began a policy of fire
compared sediment yields in side-by-side stream basins. suppression in 1910, and tree densities have since increased
One of the two basins, Redfish, had the trees removed to hundreds or thousands per hectare (Figure 7.19b).
from approximately 10% of its area, whereas the other, When fires occur in these forests, which are now much
Laird, was unlogged. In addition, 19 kilometers of roads denser with woody growth, they generally burn larger areas
had been built in the Redfish Basin during logging
operations, whereas no roads had been built in the Laird
Basin. Despite the small area logged, logging in the
Redfish Basin was associated with a 50% increase in soil
STUDIES SHOW THAT LOGGING INCREASES
losses from erosion (Figure 7.18). RATES OF SOIL EROSION
Finally, slash-and-burn is a common technique
used in tropical countries to rapidly convert forestlands 8
SEDIMENT YIELD (METRIC TONS PER km2)
into temporary farms. Rather than harvesting the

Logging on the Redfish stream
timber, trees are burned, thereby releasing some of basin is associated with a 50%
increase in soil loss to erosion.
their nutrients into the poor tropical soils, which 6
remain fertile for several years. Slash-and-burn has
been an effective form of agriculture for regions with
low population densities. However, it is not an effective 4
or sustainable practice for large populations at an
industrial scale because widespread slash-and-burn
practice would result in massive erosion and loss of 2
soil fertility.
Fire Suppression 0
Laird—unlogged Redfish—logged
Forest ecosystems do not have to be logged to be STREAM BASIN
harmed. In the western United States, pine stands once FIGURE 7.18 This graph compares a nine-year average of soil
featured an open understory of widely spaced trees losses, as measured by sediments transported in the associated slash-and-burn A common
streams, in two stream basins. One of the basins, Redfish, had technique used in tropical
(Figure 7.19a), which was a consequence of frequent, countries to rapidly convert
been logged over 10% of its area and included 19 kilometers
low-intensity fires, caused by lightning or Native of logging roads, whereas the other basin, Laird, was unlogged forestlands into temporary
Americans, who traditionally cleared vegetation to and had no roads. (Data from Jordan, 2006) farms.

FIRE PROTECTION IN FORESTS OF THE WESTERN UNITED STATES HAS INCREASED THE DENSITY
OF TREE POPULATIONS
(Dennis Simmerman, USDA Forest Service)

(W. J. Lubkin, USDA Forest Service)
a. Bitterroot National Forest, Montana, 1909 b. Bitterroot National Forest, Montana, 1997
FIGURE 7.19 Historically, ponderosa pines in Arizona and elsewhere in the American West grew at low densities, producing a
parklike landscape. After decades of fire protection, however, the densities of ponderosa pines in these landscapes increased to
unsustainable levels.
?
Where livestock have
with greater intensity. The catastrophic 2011 Wallow
Fire in eastern Arizona that burned nearly 2,100 km2
(817 mi2) of forest, the most extensive in the history of
! Think About It
1. What are the consequences of the loss of forest in
been introduced and the state, is an example of such a fire (Figure 7.20a). the Mekong River Basin?
These high-intensity fires result in massive losses of
fires suppressed, North
soil carbon and nutrients from the fire itself as well as 2. What are some of the environmental damages
American grasslands from subsequent erosion (Figure 7.20b). Ironically, resulting from clear-cutting of forests?
have gradually changed fire suppression has made the forests of western North
to shrublands or America more vulnerable to fires and more susceptible to 3. How have fire suppression efforts altered forests
woodlands. Why? soil and nutrient loss. in the western United States?
OFTEN THE LONG-TERM CONSEQUENCE OF FIRE PROTECTION HAS BEEN, IRONICALLY,

CATASTROPHIC FIRE
(U.S. Forest Service, Apache Sitgreaves National Forest)
(U.S. Geological Survey)
a. Wallow Fire, Arizona, 2011 b. Soil erosion following forest fire
FIGURE 7.20 The Wallow Fire of 2011 burned with such intensity that it consumed more than 200,000 hectares (500,000 acres) of
forest in Arizona before firefighters could contain it. One consequence of intense forest fires, such as the Wallow Fire, is massive soil
loss to erosion.
205
THREE MAIN FORMS OF CROP IRRIGATION IN USE TODAY
(Tim McCabe/NRCS/USDA)
(Jeff Vanuga/NRCS/USDA)
(USGS)
a. Flood irrigation b. Central-pivot sprinkler irrigation and crop circles c. Drip irrigation
FIGURE 7.21 Flood irrigation depends on proper leveling of agricultural fields to move water at just the right speed to irrigate the
rooting zone of crop plants without wasting too much water. Central-pivot sprinkler irrigation, an automated system of spray irrigation,
is widely used in western North America, where it produces the circular agricultural plots visible to air travelers. Drip irrigation, which
delivers water to the rooting zone of plants, is another automated irrigation system that finds its widest use in the production of high-
value crops in regions where water is especially scarce.
7.7 Irrigation can damage The advantage of flood irrigation is that it does not
require expensive equipment. It can, however, waste a lot
soils of water.
One of the common ways to increase the agricultural Sprinkler, or spray, irrigation applies water to
productivity of farmlands in arid areas is through agricultural fields by pumping pressurized water through
irrigation, which is a system for artificially delivering
?
sprinkler or spray nozzles. The most common type of
water to crops. Digging ditches and other simple forms sprinkler irrigation, the center-pivot system, in which a
of irrigation date back thousands of years. Irrigation pipe bearing the sprinklers pivots around a central point,
can be sustainable, but it also has the potential to waste provides fairly even irrigation coverage. However, the
freshwater resources and damage soils. What criteria would
equipment is costly and water losses through evaporation
can be high (Figure 7.21b). you use for dividing up
Irrigation Systems Drip irrigation, which delivers water and often water supplies during
nutrients directly to the rooting zone of crop plants, is wet periods and during
As we saw in Chapter 6, irrigation places one of the
perhaps the most precise and efficient irrigation system droughts?
largest demands on Earth’s supplies of freshwater. By
current estimates, irrigation accounts for nearly 70% in common use (Figure 7.21c). But because this system is
of water withdrawals from surface and groundwater expensive, farmers use drip irrigation only on high-value
around the world and threatens biodiversity by reducing crops, such as strawberries and tomatoes, in water-
the availability of water in freshwater ecosystems. This starved regions.
is a particularly serious concern in arid regions, where
Irrigation and Waterlogged and Saline Soils
freshwater ecosystems are most vulnerable to competing
water demands such as municipal and industrial use. Applying water to an agricultural field faster than it
In addition, although irrigation can increase crop drains, as can happen with flood irrigation, may produce
production, it can also damage soils in ways that reduce waterlogged soil, where the water table is at or near
crop production. the soil surface (Figure 7.22). Terrestrial plants require
There are many ways of applying irrigation water to sufficient soil moisture, but because waterlogged soil has
fields, but today the three main techniques are flood, its pore spaces filled with water instead of air, it therefore waterlogged soil A condition
sprinkler or spray, and drip irrigation. Flood irrigation deprives plant roots of the oxygen they need. in which the water table is at
Irrigation combined with inadequate soil drainage can or near the soil surface.
moves water across the surface of a field guided by
gravity and berms (raised barriers) or by a series of also result in soil salinization, a process of salt buildup salinization The process of
furrows (small channels in the ground) (Figure 7.21a). in a soil. If irrigation raises the water table, salts are not salt buildup in a soil.

IRRIGATION CAN RESULT IN WATERLOGGED SOILS AND SOIL SALINIZATION
WITHOUT IRRIGATION WITH IRRIGATION

The rates of water (and salt) input do not exceed rates of output The rates of water (and salt) input exceed rates of output with
with drainage. As a result, salts are leached through the soil drainage. As a result, salts build up in the soil column and the
column and the water table does not rise. water table rises. Rising water and evaporative water losses at
the soil surface concentrate salts in topsoil.
Precipitation INPUTS Precipitation INPUTS

Water and salt Irrigation Water and salt
water
Evaporative
water loss
Unsaturated zone
Water table
Salt buildup Capillary rise
Unsaturated zone of water
Leaching of salts
Water
table Saturated zone
rise
Water table
Saturated zone
DRAINAGE DRAINAGE
OUTPUTS OUTPUTS
Water and salt Water and salt
FIGURE 7.22 The amount of salt in soils and the depth to the water table are the result of a dynamic balance between water and
salt inputs with precipitation and, in the case of irrigated soils, irrigation and outputs of water and salts with groundwater drainage.
flushed away but rather deposited in topsoil as water 7.8 Intensive agriculture can
?
Why is soil salinization
evaporates from the soil surface.
Waterlogged and saline soils are a global agricultural
problem. Many millions of hectares of irrigated
cause pollution and promote
pesticide resistance
agricultural land, approximately one-third of the world’s Many approaches to improving agricultural production,
generally more of a total, have been damaged by improperly managed such as the addition of fertilizers and pesticides, can
problem in hot, dry irrigation, and the world loses an area larger than Ireland cause pollution (Figure 7.24). In Chapter 13, we examine
climates? to salinization every decade (Figure 7.23). the impacts of agricultural pollution, particularly
pollution resulting from concentrated animal feeding
operations and intensive agriculture, on aquatic
! Think About It ecosystems and populations; in Chapter 11, we examine
1. Avoiding soil salinization in irrigated fields them from environmental risk and human health
perspectives. Here, we focus our attention on pollution
depends on maintaining adequate soil drainage
by chemical pesticides and the evolution of pesticide-
so that salts are leached down the soil profile and
resistant organisms.
drained away with groundwater. How might this
practice affect the environment? Pest Control and Pollution
pesticide Generally a 2. Salinization of soils has taken place in many The leaf beetle Leptinotarsa decemlineata is about the
chemical substance used to landscapes that have never been irrigated. How can size of a pencil eraser and has a bright orange head
kill destructive organisms, with ten brown and yellow stripes along its back. It was
including insects (insecticide),
salinization in such places be explained?
fungi (fungicide), weeds
largely unknown until 1859, when an outbreak occurred
(herbicide), and rodents 3. How are waterlogging and salinization of soils, in on potato fields near Omaha, Nebraska. As the leaf
(rodenticide). fact, different aspects of the same general problem? beetle population expanded across the United States
207
WATERLOGGED AND SALINE SOILS SUPPORT REDUCED CROP PRODUCTION
(© Philip Gostelow/Anzenberger/Redux)
FIGURE 7.23 The filling of soil pores with water reduces root access to oxygen, and the buildup of salts
in soils puts most crop plants under physiological stress. Both of these impacts are reflected in the dead
trees and scrub vegetation in this once productive agricultural land in Australia.
and Canada to Europe and Asia, decimating crops in its crops valued at about $40 billion from pests, pathogens,
wake, it earned its common name, the Colorado potato and plant competitors. In spite of the application of
beetle. Since then, hundreds of chemicals have been massive quantities of pesticides, insects, pathogens, and
tested and developed to fight this beetle, making it a key weeds still reduce potential annual crop production in
focus during the development of the modern pesticide the United States by nearly 40% (Figure 7.25).
industry. The benefits of pesticides in crop protection
Today, U.S. farmers apply 500 million kilograms are accompanied by various costs, however. The
(1.1 billion pounds) of pesticides annually to protect annual price tag for pesticides in the early 2000s was
INTENSIVE AGRICULTURE IS A SOURCE OF SEVERAL MAJOR FORMS OF WATER AND AIR POLLUTION
CONCENTRATED ANIMAL FEEDING OPERATIONS

CULTIVATED AGRICULTURE (cattle, poultry, swine)
Ammonia, dust, Ammonia, dust,

pesticides hydrogen sulfide,
methane
Organic matter, Heavy metals, manure,

nitrogen, nitrogen, pathogens,
phosphorus, silt pharmaceuticals,
phosphorus
Surface water
Nitrates, Heavy metals,
pesticides nitrates, phosphorus
Ground water
FIGURE 7.24 Intensive agriculture can be a substantial source of pollution to air, land, and water.

MANY ORGANISMS REDUCE HUMAN FOOD SUPPLIES
(Science Source; Colorization by Mary Martin)

(Scott Camazine/Getty Images)
(© Joe Blossom/Alamy)
(© Nigel Cattlin/Alamy)
Corn borer consuming corn kernels Root-knot nematode attacking tomato root Weedy grass stunting soybean growth Brown rats infesting stored wheat
FIGURE 7.25 Herbivorous insects, such as this corn borer, attack the above-ground parts of crop plants, while soil nematodes
attack the roots of crop plants. Weeds can reduce crop production by competing with crop plants for nutrients, water, and light,
while rats and many insects consume stored grains.
approximately $10 billion. Additional environmental Pesticide Resistance and Loss of Insect Predators
and social costs resulting from pesticide use totaled
Pesticides have not proved to be a silver bullet in saving
$10 billion, including the costs associated with the
crops from insect damage. In 1952 farmers noticed
poisonings of domestic animals, wild birds, fish,
that the widely used pesticide dichloro-diphenyl-
and honeybees and other pollinators (Figure 7.26).
trichloroethane (DDT) was no longer effective at killing
Around the world, pesticide poisoning results in the
the Colorado potato beetle. In other words, the beetle
hospitalization of approximately 3 million people and
had evolved pesticide resistance. Soon farmers reported
more than 200,000 deaths each year, the majority of
resistance to other chemicals, and today the beetle has
which occur in developing countries. The estimated
evolved resistance to over 50 different pesticides. The
annual cost of human pesticide poisoning in the United
lesson from the potato beetle has been that intensive
States alone is over $1 billion.
use of chemicals on crops often creates environmental
conditions that favor the evolution of pesticide resistance
and outbreaks of crop pests (Figure 7.27).
PESTICIDE COSTS TAKE A BITE OUT OF PROFITS For instance, growing potatoes or other crops in
extensive monocultures creates an attractive target for pests
and pathogens. A large crop field is an easy target for insect
pests to find, colonize, and multiply their population.
Crop profits
Pesticide purchase cost Also, the physical homogeneity of monocultures reduces
Environmental and the amount of habitat available to support the natural
social costs
enemies, the predators and pathogens that attack
pesticide resistance herbivorous insects and other pest organisms. Then, as we
An evolved tolerance to a apply pesticides, we kill not only pests, but also the spiders
Environmental and social
pesticide by a pest population
as a result of repeated
costs include human health
impacts, domestic animal
and predaceous insects that help control them.
exposure to a pesticide, deaths, pollinator losses, In a final irony, applying chemical pesticides exerts
bird and fish deaths, and
ultimately rendering the groundwater contamination. strong natural selection for the evolution of resistance to
chemical ineffective. those same pesticides—the individuals that are resistant
to the pesticide survive and populate the next generation
natural enemies Predators FIGURE 7.26 The value of crops protected by pesticides in
and pathogens that attack the United States at the beginning of the 21st century totaled of insects, increasing the prevalence of pesticide
herbivorous insects and other $40 billion. Half of this value was consumed by the cost of the resistance. In a biological arms race, farmers are forced to
pest organisms. pesticides applied to protect them. (Data from Pimentel, 2005) apply more or different pesticides, increasing their costs
209
SPRAYING WITH CHEMICAL PESTICIDES EXERTS SELECTION ON CROP PESTS FOR PESTICIDE RESISTANCE
COTTON FIELD: COTTON FIELD: COTTON FIELD:

BEFORE SPRAYING AFTER SPRAYING MANY SEASONS LATER
Boll worms Boll worms

(feed on cotton plants) PARTIAL MORTALITY
Spray Boll worms
Over time
with
repeated
Parasitoid wasps Predatory beetles Parasitoid wasps Predatory beetles spraying Parasitoid wasps Predatory beetles
(lay eggs on (feed on MOSTLY KILLED MOSTLY KILLED
boll worms) boll worms)
The natural enemies of crop pests are generally With predatory pressures reduced and resistant
more sensitive to chemical pesticides and suffer to the chemical pesticide, the surviving members
higher morality with spraying. of the pest population increase rapidly, causing
great damage to the crop.
FIGURE 7.27 Intensive agriculture commonly creates environmental conditions favoring the evolution of
pesticide resistance and outbreaks of crop pests.
of production, creating additional environmental and from producing varieties that provide a more dependable
social costs, and exerting further selection for pesticide source of medicines to devising crops that are more
resistance in the pest population. nutritious. A genetically modified (GM) organism,
or GMO, has one or more new genes introduced into
! Think About It its genetic makeup by biotechnology, using an array of
engineering methods.
1. According to Figure 7.26, how much of the value When the new genes come from other species, as
of crops protected by pesticides is profit, once the is generally the case, GMOs are called transgenic
costs of pesticides have been paid? organisms. For example, genes from the bacterium
Bacillus thuringiensis have been inserted into the DNA of
2. How might research on alternatives to chemical several crops, including corn, to increase the corn plant’s
pesticides be affected if farmers and the chemical resistance to insects who chew on the plants. biotechnology The
industry paid all costs, including environmental In this process, a gene from B. thuringiensis, which codes application of engineering
and social costs, of pesticide use? for the insect-killing crystalline substance Bt, is inserted techniques to modify
into the corn’s DNA. Because the transgenic, or GM, corn organisms genetically for a
3. What role does the intensity of pesticide particular purpose.
now carries this bacterial gene, it incorporates Bt crystals
application likely play in the evolution of pesticide in its tissues as it grows. As a result, insects are poisoned genetically modified (GM)
resistance among agricultural pest populations? when they feed on one of these GM corn varieties (Figure organism (GMO) An
7.28). Meanwhile, natural enemies of these pest insects, organism into which one
or more genes have been
along with humans and other vertebrates, are seemingly
7.9 Genetically modified unharmed by eating Bt-containing tissue, which is only
incorporated using the
crops are sources of toxic at the high pH levels that are found in the pest’s gut.
techniques of biotechnology.
controversy and agricultural transgenic organism A GM

organism that contains genes
potential Status of GM Crops
from another species.
The pace of developing new varieties of plants and Most commercially grown GM crops have been
Bt Insect-killing crystalline
animals has quickened with the arrival of biotechnology. engineered with three traits in mind: (1) the capacity substance produced by the
Biotechnology uses engineering techniques to modify to produce insect-killing chemicals (e.g., Bt), thereby bacteria species Bacillus
organisms genetically for a particular purpose, ranging increasing crop plants’ resistance to pests; (2) resistance thuringiensis.

BACTERIAL GENES HAVE BEEN IMPLANTED IN SEVERAL CROP PLANTS TO MAKE THEM MORE
RESISTANT TO INSECT ATTACKS
TRANSGENIC Bt CORN Bt crystals—toxic to pest insects—are

now produced by the corn plant itself,
Bacterial gene coding for Bt crystals, which are reducing the amount of pesticides the
poisonous to the insect pests, is inserted directly farmer must use.
into the corn plant’s DNA.
Bacterium
(Bacillus Bt crystal
thuringiensis) gene
genome
Corn plant
Corn plant vulnerable genome Corn plant with increased
to insect pests resistance to insect pests
FIGURE 7.28 Corn engineered to contain spores of the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) kills herbivorous insects feeding on
its tissues, but it is not known to harm humans.
to chemical herbicides, allowing farmers to control weeds (Figure 7.30). GM crops may have the potential to
with herbicides without harming crops; or (3) resistance improve human health and provide food for a growing
to plant viruses, reducing losses of crop plants to these human population, but they have also engendered a great
pathogens (Table 7.1). deal of controversy.
The United States leads the world in the adoption of In addition to improved nutrition, proponents of GM
GM crops. For example, we grow more GM crops than crops indicate several ways in which they benefit the
in any other nation (see Table 7.1). Also, in 2010, farmers environment. A 2010 U.S. National Academy of Sciences
in the United States planted nearly 67 million hectares study reports that insecticide use has decreased with
(165 million acres) in GM crops, dwarfing the plantings increased planting of Bt corn and cotton. Herbicide-
in other nations (Figure 7.29). In addition, U.S. farmers resistant crops can improve soil health, particularly
show a high level of acceptance of GM crop varieties. where reduced tilling of fields lowers soil compaction
According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, by
2010, most of the corn (86%), cotton (93%), and soybeans
(93%) grown in the United States were GM varieties.
However, more and more farmers outside the United GROWING OF GM CROPS IS CONCENTRATED IN
10 COUNTRIES
States are also adopting these GM varieties.
? GM Crops: The Potential and the Controversy

Scientists are now developing many other GM crops,
U.S.
Brazil
Argentina
India
COUNTRY
Why do you think the with traits including greater drought tolerance, improved Canada
United States grows storage potential, and better nutritional quality. One of
China
Paraguay
Farmers in just 10 countries
planted over 98% of the GM
and consumes so many the best-known examples of a GM crop with improved Pakistan crop area around the world.
more GM crops than nutritional quality is “golden rice,” which produces South Africa
Uruguay
the rest of the world? β-carotene, a precursor to vitamin A. Since the first
golden rice variety was developed, scientists have 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
increased the β-carotene content of golden rice 23-fold. GM CROP AREA (MILLIONS OF HECTARES)
This concentration can make a difference in the lives of FIGURE 7.29 Among these countries, the greatest allocation
millions in developing countries who suffer from vitamin of land to GM crops is found in just three: the United States,
A deficiency, which can cause premature blindness Brazil, and Argentina. (Data from ISAAA, 2011)
211
TABLE 7.1
MAJOR GENETICALLY MODIFIED (GM) CROPS PLANTED AROUND THE WORLD IN 2010
GM Crop Bioengineered Traits Primary Uses of Crop Where GM Varieties Are Grown
Alfalfa, Medicago sativa Herbicide tolerance, insect Forage for livestock: hay, U.S.
resistance silage, grazed, or fed as
chopped greens
Canola, Brassica napus Herbicide tolerance Cooking oil, salad oil, Australia, Canada, Chile, U.S.
industrial lubricants
Corn (maize), Zea mays Herbicide tolerance, insect Livestock feed, human food Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Chile,
resistance (e.g., cereal, meal, oil) Czech Republic, Egypt, Honduras,
Philippines, Poland, Portugal,
Romania, Slovakia, South Africa,
Spain, Uruguay, U.S.
Cotton, Gossypium hirsutuma Herbicide tolerance, insect Textiles, paper, oil, Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Burkina
resistance livestock feed Faso, China, Colombia, Costa Rica,
India, Mexico, Myanmar, Pakistan,
South Africa, U.S.
Papaya, Carica papaya Viral resistance Fresh fruit China, U.S.
Poplar, Populus nigra Insect resistance Paper, lumber China
Potato, Solanum tuberosum Insect resistance Fresh consumption, snack Czech Republic, Germany, Sweden
foods
Soybeans, Glycine max Herbicide tolerance, insect Oil, textured vegetable Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Canada,
resistance, increased mono- protein, tofu, livestock feed Chile, Costa Rica, Mexico, Paraguay,
unsaturated fatty acid South Africa, Uruguay, U.S.
Squash, Cucurbita pepo Viral resistance Fresh consumption U.S.
Sugar beet, Beta vulgaris Herbicide tolerance Sugar Canada, U.S.
Sweet pepper, Capsicum Viral resistance Fresh consumption, flavoring, China
annuum coloring
Tomato, Lycopersicon Viral resistance Fresh consumption, or China
esculentum preserved by canning or drying
Data from ISAAA, 2011.
and erosion (see page 215). These benefits, coupled

GOLDEN RICE: BIOTECHNOLOGY THAT TARGETS
with improved yields in the face of plant diseases and
A GLOBAL SOURCE OF MALNUTRITION
droughts, have the potential to improve food security.
CREATING TRANSGENIC GOLDEN RICE On the other hand, skeptics of GM crops have identified
several areas of serious concern. Pest and weed populations
have developed resistance to Bt toxins and herbicides
through natural selection. If the genes that confer herbicide
resistance are transferred to weeds, they may become more
difficult to control or may spread to non-GM crops and
Corn
contaminate them genetically. Genes from GM corn have,
in fact, been documented in the native varieties of corn
in Mexico. Selection for herbicide tolerance has also been
documented in “superweeds” that have become too costly
Bacteria
to control. In addition, hundreds of insect populations
have evolved resistance to Bt tolerance, and when pests
targeted by Bt varieties decline, secondary pests that thrive
in the absence of Bt-sensitive pests can increase.
Use of herbicide-resistant GM crops also means that
farmers can use high levels of herbicides to control
weeds without harming crops, but this can lead to
White rice
B CAROTENE unintended consequences. For example, widespread
herbicide application has decreased milkweed abundance
FIGURE 7.30 Recent varieties of golden rice contain high

levels of β-carotene, which the body converts to vitamin A. The
developers of golden rice propose that it can help alleviate
vitamin A deficiency, which causes an estimated 250,000 cases
Golden rice
of blindness among children each year.

DEVELOPMENT OF GENETICALLY MODIFIED CROPS RAISES CONTROVERSY
GENETICALLY MODIFIED CROPS:

POTENTIAL BENEFITS AND CONCERNS
BENEFITS CONCERNS
• Lower insecticide use • Insecticide-resistant super pests
• Less tillage leading to • Herbicide-resistant weeds
healthier soils • Allergenic food
• Higher nutritional content • Killing of nontarget organisms
• Reduced soil erosion • Genetic contamination of traditional crops
• Disease tolerance • Insufficient regulation and research
• Drought resistance • Domination of global food production by a
• Greater food security few biotechnology companies
FIGURE 7.31 The application of biotechnology to the production of GM crops has led to a fierce debate between advocates and
opponents, pitting perceived benefits against serious concerns.
in North America, but milkweed is the sole host plant mandatory labeling of GM food because it implies that
of the Monarch butterfly caterpillar, which is also these products are nutritionally different from non-GM
now in decline. As more farmers use GM crops, the foods. Such labeling might lead to many consumers
diversity of planted crops goes down and the number of avoiding GM foods, resulting in higher food prices and
?
Should foods containing
monocultures goes up, both of which put crops at greater
risk of destruction by pests.
Critics also worry that the widespread adoption of GM
losses of profit.
Still, U.S. consumers can avoid GM products at present
(2015) by purchasing foods labeled as organic. As the
crops will take control of food production away from controversy over GM crops continues (Figure 7.31),
GM ingredients be individual farmers and place it in the hands of a few many food producers have begun labeling their products
labeled? What are the biotechnology companies. They are concerned over the as GM-free, providing another way for U.S. consumers to
arguments for and implications of this control to food security, food prices, make informed food purchases.
against such labeling? and the economic welfare and independence of farmers.
Many consumers are concerned that GM foods may
be harmful to human health. Although scientific reviews
! Think About It
of GM crops have found no evidence that that they are 1. What roles should environmental impact, human
unsafe, opponents of GM crops argue that there has been health, and economics play in the criteria for
insufficient testing and that much of the testing has been approving GM crops for commercial release?
done by industry researchers. They worry that conflicts of
2. Some argue that the developers of GM crops
interest may compromise some of the research findings.
should bear the costs of testing their safety; others
?
The development of GM crops has also raised
philosophical issues. Some opponents of biotechnology
argue that independent laboratories funded by
argue that the blending of genes from different species is government regulatory agencies should conduct
“unnatural,” creating so-called Frankenfoods. These critics such research. What is your position regarding this
What can be done to
suggest that moving genes from one species to another research and why?
reduce the polarization
represents an unethical violation of natural processes. 3. What are the pros and cons of approving golden
between supporters
On the other hand, proponents of GM crops argue that
and critics of using GM rice for planting and human consumption?
biotechnology is a more targeted way to improve crop
crops in agriculture? varieties, compared with the selective breeding techniques
used to modify crops to become more palatable or more
productive.
7.5–7.9 Issues:
Some consumer advocates argue that labeling food Summary
made with GM crops, such as corn chips or soy oil, could Reduction in soil fertility is one of today’s
be a way to move forward. For example, the European major global environmental concerns. Erosion
Union follows a mandatory labeling policy, whereby any is accelerated as farming of crops, livestock
food containing 0.9% or more GM ingredients must be grazing, and forestry reduce plant cover
labeled accordingly. And multiple polls have shown that and physically disturb topsoil. Continuous
over 80% of U.S. consumers favor labeling of GM foods harvesting of crops and forests depletes soil
as well. In the United States, however, the two responsible nutrients in many regions, particularly in
agencies, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration and developing countries.
the U.S. Department of Agriculture, do not support
213
The world’s forests are disappearing at a The social and environmental costs of pesticides
startling rate in order to provide wood products applied in the United States approximately
and farmland for the growing population. This equal their purchase price. In addition, intensive
increases erosion, contaminates freshwater agriculture often creates environmental
quality, and threatens biodiversity. Different conditions that favor outbreaks of crop pests and
techniques for forest management, such as clear- the evolution of pesticide resistance. GM crops
cutting, road building, and fire suppression, have have been engineered to produce insect-killing
a variety of impacts on forest ecosystems. chemicals (e.g., Bt), to be resistant to chemical
Irrigation increases the productivity of herbicides, or to be resistant to plant viruses.
farmlands—but at real costs. The three main Although GM crops have the potential to improve
irrigation methods today are flood, sprinkler or human nutrition, boost agricultural production,
spray, and drip irrigation, each of which comes and reduce the need for pesticide use, skeptics are
with advantages and disadvantages. Irrigation concerned over the spread of GM traits to weeds
reduces the water available to aquatic ecosystems, and non-GM crops, possible threats to human
and improper management can waterlog soils or health, and the impact of GM crops on nontarget
lead to soil salinization. The high water demand organisms, such as beneficial insects.
by irrigation also competes with other uses of
water, both by humans and ecosystems.
P roviding adequate nutrition to human populations
and sustaining the production of food and timber
to our growing communities over the long term are
the cost of delivering 1 metric ton of corn. As shown in
Figure 7.32, buying and shipping corn from the United
States is the most expensive way to deliver food aid.
perhaps the most fundamental issues we have dealt with Buying corn in Africa and distributing it locally cost
since our origin as a species. In this section, we examine less than half what it would take to buy and ship from
some successes in increasing agricultural production and the United States. However, providing local farmers with
sustaining the production of terrestrial ecosystems, while the fertilizer, seed, and technical assistance to produce
protecting the integrity of ecosystems and biodiversity.
7.10 Investing in local PROVIDING LOCAL PEOPLE WITH THE

farmers, while increasing MEANS TO FEED THEMSELVES IS A MORE COST-
EFFECTIVE WAY TO COMBAT HUNGER
genetic and crop diversity,
may be a sustainable 1000
approach to feeding our Enabling local African farmers

to produce an extra metric ton of
growing population 750
corn by providing seed, fertilizer,
and technical advice is one-sixth
FIGURE 7.32 The relative
as costly as buying and shipping costs of three approaches
The most sustainable approach to combating malnutrition the grain from the United States. to delivering 1 metric ton
COST (U.S. $)
and undernourishment around the world may be to help (1,000 kilograms) of corn to
local farmers produce adequate quantities of nutritious 500 hunger-stricken regions in
food. It may also be the most cost-effective approach. Africa: buying in the United
States then shipping and
distributing (yellow [1]bar),
Supporting Local Farmers 250
buying locally in Africa and
distributing (green bar),
In a 2009 article in the journal Nature, Pedro Sanchez,
providing local farmers with
Director of Tropical Agriculture at Columbia University, the means to grow an extra
0
compared the cost of three approaches to providing Buy in U.S. Buy in Africa Aid local farmers
ton of corn (blue bar). (Data
hunger relief in Africa. His comparison was based on APPROACH TO HUNGER RELIEF from Sanchez, 2009)

an extra ton of corn is only one-sixth the cost of shipping

POTENTIAL POSITIVE EFFECTS OF
from the United States. Sanchez points out that investing BIODIVERSITY ON CROP YIELDS BEGINS
in local farmers to help improve their farm production WITH GENETIC DIVERSITY
may be the surest and least expensive way to reduce the
level of hunger in the world. He notes, encouragingly, 25
that such assistance in some of the regions of Africa most

afflicted by hunger has more than doubled corn yields on
RICE BLAST INFECTIONS (%)

20
small farms.
15 The reduced infection rates

Crop Diversity for Productivity and Sustainability in genetically diverse, mixed
plantings contributed to an
Intensive agriculture, which was at the center of the 89% increase in rice production
and a 40% increase in profits.
10
Green Revolution, focused on producing food through
large-scale monocultures of low genetic diversity, with
high production maintained by high inputs of fertilizers, 5
pesticides, and energy. In contrast, many of today’s

agricultural scientists are turning back to traditional 0
practices to develop sustainable, high-production systems Monoculture Mixed
that require lower inputs of chemicals and energy. TYPE OF PLANTING

Genetic diversity, one of the basic components FIGURE 7.33 Increasing the genetic diversity of rice plantings
of biodiversity (see Chapter 3, page 62), has proved in China has reduced losses to pathogens and has increased
a powerful tool for increasing rice yields in China, yields and profits. (Data from Zhu et al., 2000)
echoing the results of Tilman’s study, covered earlier
in the chapter. Youyong Zhu of Kunming University
in southwestern China led a team that investigated the and $259 million were gained either through increased
potential for reducing the loss of rice production—caused income or reduced costs. Agricultural scientists have
by a serious fungal disease called rice blast, Magnaporthe demonstrated similar boosts in yield resulting from
grisea—by increasing the genetic diversity of rice higher genetic diversity in other crops.
plantings. Sticky or glutinous rice varieties are sought Some of the benefits of biodiversity to crop production
after for making specialty dishes and therefore draw a can be realized by growing different crops sequentially
higher selling price. These sticky varieties seem especially on the same field generally over a period of three to
vulnerable to infection by rice blast. To combat rice blast, five years, a practice called crop rotation. For example,
the researchers copied a traditional planting scheme used a farmer might plant corn in one field, and then plant a
by local farmers. They increased the genetic diversity of different crop in that same field the next year, and the
rice in fields by planting susceptible, tall, sticky rice and year after. The benefits of crop rotation include increased
resistant, short hybrids in rows in a 1 : 4 ratio: Two rows yields, and lower insect and disease infestations. Crop
of short rice on the left, one row of tall rice in the middle, rotation can also improve soil aeration when deep-rooted
two rows of short rice on the right. crops are part of the rotation, as well as improve soil
?
The reduction in rice blast infection in these fertility, as when a nitrogen-fixing legume, such as alfalfa
mixed fields was dramatic. The rate of infection in or soybeans, is grown.
monocultures of the sticky rice was 20% compared with Biodiversity can be incorporated into agricultural
What are the potential 1% in the mixed plantings (Figure 7.33). The increased systems by growing two or more crops in the same
distance between susceptible plants and modification of field, a technique called intercropping. Intercropping
costs of planting two or
temperatures, humidity, and light were likely responsible has been practiced for centuries. For example, Native
more varieties of a crop
for creating conditions less favorable for the pathogen Americans developed a traditional intercropping system
in close proximity? than those in monocultures of sticky rice. Furthermore, in which they grew corn, beans, and squash together, a
it was not necessary to spray fungicidal chemicals to combination of crops commonly referred to as “the three
control rice blast in the mixed field, thus saving money. sisters” (Figure 7.34).
Reducing rice blast infections resulted in an 89% increase In this system, beans enrich the soil by fixing nitrogen,
in yield of the valuable sticky rice varieties and a 40% the corn provides a surface for attachment by the climbing
higher gross economic return per hectare. bean plants, and the squash shades the soil, thereby
Rice farmers across China took notice. In Yunnan and reducing temperature fluctuations and water loss. The
10 other Chinese provinces, the area in mixed plantings three crops also provide complementary sources of
increased to 1.57 million hectares between 2000 and nutrition: Combining the amino acids of beans, corn
intercropping Growing two
or more crops in the same 2004. Across this vast area, rice yields increased by an delivers all the essential amino acids required by humans,
field. average of 675 kilograms (1,488 pounds) per hectare, while squash provides a rich source of vitamin A.
215
INCREASING CROP DIVERSITY THROUGH INTERCROPPING: AN ANCIENT PRACTICE

(Nativestock.com/Marilyn Angel Wynn/Getty Images)
FIGURE 7.34 The three sisters intercropping system, which includes corn, beans, and squash, was a
traditional planting system used by Native Americans.
?
Modern researchers and farmers are rediscovering the 7.11 Sustainable farming,
benefits of intercropping. Faced with the daunting task
of feeding its 1.3 billion people on limited agricultural
forestry, and ranching
lands, China has been investing heavily in agricultural practices can reduce soil
What characteristics
research. The ultimate prize in such research would be losses and improve soil does intercropping
the development of low-input (low-cost), high-yield fertility
(high-profit) agricultural systems. Examples of Chinese share with natural
Ultimately, the sustainable production of terrestrial ecosystems?
intercropping systems include growing sugarcane and
resources depends critically on a healthy environment,
potatoes or wheat and broad beans together on the
especially healthy soils. Farming, ranching, and forestry
same field. Intercropping has increased yields from 33%
aimed at sustaining production also address many
to 84%, reduced the incidence of crop diseases, and
significant environmental issues.
increased the income of farmers.
Managing Tillage in Agriculture
! Think About It Cultivating soil parallel to the slope of the land (straight
1. Aside from monetary costs, what is the difference up and down the slope) leads to rapid soil erosion.
in relieving hunger by buying and shipping food Simply by cultivating on the contours (across the slope)
from developed countries versus helping local instead, farmers can greatly reduce soil erosion in hilly
farmers improve their farm production? terrain and create interesting landscapes in the process
(Figure 7.35a). In very steep terrain, terraces can retain
2. What are the benefits of crop genetic diversity? sufficient soil to grow valuable crops. In some places,
Besides rice, do you know of any other crops properly maintained terraces have sustained agricultural
threatened by a lack of diversity? Cite examples. productivity on very steep slopes for many centuries
(Figure 7.35b). Where wind erosion is a potential
3. Why does intercropping or crop rotation generally problem, farmers have planted windbreaks, which reduce
give a bigger boost to crop production when one of the force of the wind (Figure 7.35c).
the crops involved is a legume, such as soybeans or Recent developments in agriculture are greatly reducing
alfalfa? the intensity of cultivation and, as a consequence, the rate

SEVERAL FARMING PRACTICES CAN REDUCE SOIL EROSION ON AGRICULTURAL LANDS
(SeenTheWorld/Shutterstock)
(Erwin Cole/NRCS/USDA)
(© Aerial Archives/Alamy)
a. Contour plowing b. Terracing c. Tree windbreaks

FIGURE 7.35 Cultivating and planting across the slope in hilly farmland, such as this farm in Pennsylvania, helps reduce soil
erosion. Terracing has prevented soil loss on very steep terrain where rice has been farmed for centuries in Southeast Asia.
Windbreaks of trees are used extensively to reduce soil loss due to wind erosion.
of erosion. These techniques, called low-till (till is short for specialized seeding equipment, such as seed drills, to
“tillage”) or no-till agriculture, create less soil disturbance effectively plant a crop (Figure 7.36) by placing seeds at
and soil compaction and leave crop residues on the field. the proper depth in the soil and the correct distance from
Crop residues are parts of the crop that are not harvested neighboring seeds. In the absence of conventional tillage,
for use, such as corn or wheat stalks; their roots provide farmers control weeds with herbicides or by planting cover
structure to hold together the soil while leaf parts left on crops of plants called green manure. While growing, green
the soil protect it from erosion in the off-season. manure suppresses weed growth, prevents soil erosion, and
These methods also allow the soil to maintain more where nitrogen-fixing plants are used as a cover crop, they
moisture. Low- and no-till agriculture techniques require add nitrogen to soils. When a farmer is ready to plant, the
NO-TILL AGRICULTURE REQUIRES SOME SPECIALIZED EQUIPMENT

(Tim McCabe/NRCS/USDA)
no-till (low-till) agriculture

An approach to growing
crops involving reduced or no
cultivation; creates less soil FIGURE 7.36 Agricultural engineers have invented equipment designed to address the
disturbance and leaves crop special challenges presented by no-till agriculture; for example, the seed drill shown here
residues on the field. plants a crop through a dense cover of crop residue and live noncrop plants.
217
NO-TILL AGRICULTURE CAN REDUCE EROSION RATES SUBSTANTIALLY
CONVENTIONAL TILLAGE NO-TILLAGE

(Bob Nichols/USDA)
(Lynn Betts/USGS)
Erosion rate Median rates of soil loss under Erosion rate
conventional tillage agriculture
are 20 times higher than under
no-till agriculture.
FIGURE 7.37 A comparison of median rates of soil loss by erosion from fields under conventional
tillage shows that no-till agriculture lowers erosion rates dramatically. (Data from Montgomery, 2007)
green manure is mown and left to mulch the soil, which Livestock Stocking Rates and Resting the Land
adds organic matter and improves soil fertility.
Reduced tillage produces several improvements over Raising livestock on rangelands can lead to
conventional tillage, including lower rates of erosion, desertification and soil loss. Sustainable ranching
because crop residues physically shelter the soil surface depends on putting the right number of livestock on a
from wind and rain. No-till agriculture has an average plot of land, based on the climate, soil type, and plant
erosion rate one-twentieth of that associated with growth (Figure 7.38). Carefully managing stocking rates
conventional tillage (Figure 7.37).
Organic Farming
INTENSITY AND TIMING OF GRAZING ARE KEY TO SUSTAINING
Organic techniques can be used to produce food without RANGELAND PRODUCTIVITY
expensive and unsustainable inputs of pesticides and
herbicides. In the United States, organic food can be
certified when the producer does not use synthetic
fertilizer, pesticides, or GMOs. Critics of organic foods
claim that organic crops are lower yielding because of
higher loss to pests or decreased productivity from not
using pesticides or synthetic fertilizers. However, a global
study showed that organic methods can produce an
almost equal amount of food as non-organic methods,
indicating that organic agriculture can be a viable part of
a sustainable agricultural solution.
Another trend related to organic farming is
emphasizing local food production such as farmer’s
markets and locally sourced products. These markets
(USDA photo by Jack Dykinga)
provide locally grown produce—that is usually also

organic—directly to consumers. Advantages include
reduced transportation and storage cost, since the food
travels fewer miles, and eating foods just when they are
locally in season means that those foods do not need to
be grown in a greenhouse or imported when the product FIGURE 7.38 As shown on this healthy semiarid rangeland, carefully managing stocking rates
is out of season. can maintain plant cover, which greatly reduces rates of soil erosion.

FIGURE 7.39 Closing

roads and reestablishing ROADS IN MANAGED FORESTS ARE A MAJOR SOURCE OF SOIL EROSION
vegetation on the natural
slope of the land, as shown
here, greatly reduce soil loss
on logged forests.

Initial stage of forest road restoration Land contour restored; seed, fertilizer, and mulch applied
?
How might no-till
also reduces soil damage by compaction, which crushes
soil pore spaces critical for plant growth. Studies have
for wildlife habitat or cutting only strips out of forests to
reduce high winds and erosion. Shelterwood harvesting
shown that “resting the land,” which involves removing removes the tallest trees in a series of partial cuts, leaving
farming affect the behind enough of a forest canopy to provide shelter for
livestock for some period, can reverse soil compaction.
biodiversity of soil For example, two years of rest following 11 years of the speedy regrowth of shade-tolerant trees, such as red
organisms? continuous grazing by sheep on pastures in Oregon oak or American beech.
was sufficient to reverse the effects of soil compaction, Another alternative to clear-cutting for timber
including the restoration of soil pore spaces, which are is selective logging, which focuses on the most
shelterwood harvesting critical for soil aeration. mature, high-value trees, leaving the forest ecosystem
Removes the tallest trees in a largely intact. Once an area is logged, restoring
series of partial cuts, leaving vegetative cover can greatly reduce soil losses. However,
behind enough of a forest Forest Harvest, Landscape Restoration, and Fire
the key to reducing erosion on logged landscapes is to
canopy to provide shelter for Management
speedy regrowth of shade-
remove logging roads and restore the natural contours
tolerant trees (e.g., red oak, Forestry inevitably increases soil erosion. However, a of the landscape, particularly at stream crossings
American beech). number of practices can reduce soil loss. First, foresters (Figure 7.39).
should minimize the disruption of the land surface from High-intensity forest fires often lead to catastrophic
selective logging The heavy equipment and road building during logging. erosion (see Figure 7.20b, page 204), whereas low-
clearing of land for lumber that
focuses on the most mature,
Timber harvests can be conducted in ways that reduce intensity fires generally do not. Consequently, thinning
high-value trees, leaving the soil losses. More environmentally sensitive variations on the understory can reduce the intensity of forest fires,
forest ecosystem largely intact. clear-cutting involve leaving a few standing dead trees, helping sustain forest soils and the forest itself. The 2007
REDUCING TREE DENSITY AND CONTROLLED BURNING OF DEAD WOOD CAN LOWER FOREST FIRE
INTENSITY
FIGURE 7.40 The first

photo shows an area
burned during the 2007
Angora Fire that had not
been treated by thinning
and fuel reduction and
where no trees survived the
(H. D. Safford/U.S. Forest Service)
fire. Compare this to the

(H. D. Safford/U.S. Forest Service)
second photo of a treated

area burned in the fire,
where 90% of the trees
survived and where the
fire burned mainly along
the ground and not in the
canopy. (Data from Safford
et al., 2009) Trees not thinned or fuel reduced prior to Angora fire Trees thinned and fuel reduced prior to Angora fire
219
forest management ultimately left more living trees, which

AN ANCIENT PRACTICE SUSTAINED FERTILITY
OF RAIN FOREST SOILS
reduced the potential for soil losses from erosion. Periodic
controlled burning of forests can reduce buildup of fuels
capable of creating severe fire conditions and can thus
HUMAN INPUTS
OF CHARCOAL reduce the chance of massive soil loss following an intense
AND NUTRIENTS wildfire.
Fires An Ancient Practice That Sustains Soil Fertility

Though tropical forests in the Amazon River Basin are
lush, their soils tend to be infertile, making them largely
Farming
unsuitable for agriculture (see Figure 7.6, page 195).
However, soil scientists and archaeologists have noticed
Hunting that the Amazon Basin is dotted with large patches of
dark, fertile soils called terra preta, which literally means
Typical rain Terra preta
forest soil soil “dark soil” in Portuguese. Many areas of terra preta were
in continuous cultivation for centuries, and although
FIGURE 7.41 Fertile terra preta soils have developed in the abandoned long ago, they are still capable of producing
Amazon Basin as a consequence of human activity associated
twice the crop yield per hectare compared with nearby,
with small urban centers dating as far back as 7,000 years
before the present. unaltered rain forest soils.
How were these islands of fertility created and by whom?
It turns out that native populations of the Amazon Basin
Angora Fire, which burned 1,243 hectares (3,072 acres) added organic matter and nutrients in the form of wastes
of forest in the Lake Tahoe Basin on the border from fish and game harvested from the surrounding
between California and Nevada, provided a dramatic landscape, along with human wastes and an abundance
demonstration of how vegetation management can of charcoal (Figure 7.41). Rather than slash-and-burn
reduce forest fire intensity. By coincidence, the Angora agriculture, which releases a significant amount of carbon
Fire burned 194 hectares (479 acres) of forest that had dioxide into the atmosphere, these people conducted
been thinned to reduce the danger of intense fire, while slash-and-char agriculture, using low-heat fires to produce
the remainder of the fire swept through forest that had charcoal structures, which are ideal for holding nutrients
not been thinned. The difference in fire intensity and tree within soils so that they are not washed out by heavy
mortality was stark (Figure 7.40). tropical rains.
In areas where the forest had been thinned and the In fact, these charcoal deposits in terra preta soils have
density of fuel reduced, tree survival was over 85%, inspired scientists around the world to begin experimenting
compared with only 22% survival in areas that had not with the use of biomass to produce charcoal, so-called
been thinned. The lower-intensity fire that resulted from biochar, as a soil additive (Figure 7.42).
AN OLD TECHNIQUE IS BEING USED TO SUSTAIN SOIL FERTILITY

(Michele Sibiloni/AFP/Getty Images)
(Jeff Hutchens/Getty Images)
terra preta Dark, fertile soils

high in charcoal and nutrient
content, created by native
Industrial-scale biochar production system Simple biochar production system
populations in the Amazon
FIGURE 7.42 Modern technologies for producing biochar are developing rapidly. However, simple small-scale systems are also River Basin before the arrival
capable of producing this effective soil additive. of Europeans.

CAREFUL WATER AND SALT MANAGEMENT ARE ESSENTIAL FOR

SUSTAINABLE IRRIGATION
Precipitation INPUTS The amount of water applied as

Water and salt irrigation should be sufficient to
Irrigation support the crop, but not so much
Surface runoff water that large amounts of salts are
leached to the water table or
washed out with surface runoff.
Mulch
Mulching the soil surface can

reduce evaporative water losses
Unsaturated zone and surface runoff.
Leaching of salts
Drainage should be sufficient to

prevent soil waterlogging and
Water table
move salts away from the crop
Saturated zone rooting zone, but not so much
as to impair the quality of
DRAINAGE groundwater or surface water
receiving the drainage.
OUTPUTS
Water and salt
FIGURE 7.43 Preventing waterlogging and salinization of irrigated soils depends on applying
water at rates that do not exceed rates of drainage.
! Think About It production on these lands would decrease by nearly half,

reducing global production of cereals by 20%. However,
1. Name ways we can practice agriculture and still agricultural production is much more dependent on
sustain our soils. irrigation in some regions than in others. Southern
2. How would you balance the benefit of reduced Asia, for example, would lose an estimated 45% of
soil erosion under no-till agriculture against the cereal production, and Northern Africa, 66%. Europe,
by contrast, receives enough regular rainfall that its
potential environmental costs associated with
cereal production would be unaffected. This means
applying chemical herbicides?
that food security over the long term will be achieved
3. While wildfires are generally considered a only if irrigation is sustainable, which requires careful
destructive force, explain how excluding fire management of water and salts.
from some ecosystems can also be considered a
disturbance and a destructive policy. Water Management
4. What other soils might benefit from the ancient Efficient use of water is one of the most important
practice of incorporating charcoal similar to the elements of sustainable irrigation. Techniques to improve
water use efficiency contribute to sustainable irrigation
terra preta soils of the Amazon Basin? (Hint:
directly by reducing withdrawals from groundwater or
Consider Figure 7.6, page 195.)
surface water. For example, careful leveling and sloping
of fields watered by flood irrigation (see Figure 7.21a,
7.12 Sustainable irrigation page 205) increase the uniformity of irrigation, thereby
decreasing the amount of water needed to achieve high
requires careful management levels of crop production. Delivering just the right
of water and salts amount of water to the rooting zone of growing crop
Our food security depends on freshwater stored in plants with a precision technique such as drip irrigation
mulch A natural or synthetic manmade reservoirs, natural underground aquifers, and (see Figure 7.21c, page 205) can save even more water.
covering to the soil surface
water transported across vast distances in aqueducts More efficient water use can also be achieved by
that conserves moisture,
reduces soil temperature or other waterways. In 2010 approximately 43% of reducing water losses from crops and the soil surface. One
variation, and decreases global cereal production (mainly wheat, rice, and way to decrease evaporative water losses is to cover the
growth of weeds. maize) occurred on irrigated land. Without irrigation, soil surface with mulch, a natural or synthetic covering
221
to the soil surface that conserves moisture, reduces soil

temperature variation, and decreases the growth of weeds.
7.13 Integrated approaches
to pest control can reduce
Salt Management pesticide pollution and
Salts are added to soil with every drop of irrigation
evolution of pesticide
water. This means farmers must ensure that soils are resistance
well drained in order to avoid raising the water table, Plants in natural ecosystems are generally protected
which causes waterlogging and salinization (see Figure by a combination of their own chemical and physical
7.22, page 206). Using highly efficient irrigation systems defenses, as well as by predators and pathogens of their
to deliver just the amount of water needed to sustain insect enemies. As farmers cope with failing pesticides
agricultural production, while not producing excessive and devastating insect outbreaks, they turn to natural
saline drainage water, can reduce the salts exported to ecosystems for inspiration in guiding pest control.
groundwater and surface water (Figure 7.43).
Integrated Pest Management
! Think About It Pesticide resistance, as we saw in the case of the Colorado

potato beetle, has been one consequence of intensive
1. What practices can reduce the incidence of agriculture, which has been sustained by the application
waterlogged soils in irrigated landscapes? of larger quantities and varieties of pesticides. To avoid
getting caught in an endless cycle, agriculturalists
2. How could irrigating only when a crop needs
developed Integrated Pest Management, or IPM, which
water reduce the amount of drainage water that incorporates multiple sources of information to contain
needs to be managed? pest damage within acceptable limits, while trying to
minimize harm to people, property, and the environment.
3. Development of the Colorado River Basin Integrated Pest
Practitioners begin by investing in preventative measures, Management (IPM)
(see Figure 6.11, page 166) included converting
such as planting pest-resistant crop varieties, rotating An approach to managing
approximately 1 million hectares (2.5 million crops to prevent the buildup of pests, and removing pests (e.g., insects, pathogens,
acres) of land in the basin to irrigated agriculture. diseased or infested plants. During the growing season, weeds) that incorporates
A significant rise in the salinity of Colorado River they monitor for early signs of both pest populations and multiple sources of information
to contain pest damage within
water, particularly downriver near Mexico, has natural enemies of the pests, which could keep those pests acceptable limits while trying
been linked to this development. Explain the link in check (Figure 7.44). Finally, they begin killing pest to minimize harm to people,
between these events. insects using highly targeted techniques, such as trapping property, and the environment.
INFORMATION IS ESSENTIAL TO SUCCESSFUL INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT

(USDA photo by Jack Dykinga)
FIGURE 7.44 Monitoring pest

populations to determine whether control
measures are warranted is a key element
of IPM.

INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT RECOMMENDS A GRADED RESPONSE TO PEST

CONTROL
(© Alistair Scott/Alamy)
FIGURE 7.45 As pest populations begin to build, IPM begins with control methods that have the lowest
environmental impact. For example, traps such as this one containing chemicals that attract specific pest
species, can be effective at controlling some problem species and have little environmental impact.
and mechanical controls, before resorting to broad- soybeans grown in the United States. However, with the
spectrum pesticides (Figure 7.45). widespread use of herbicides, farmers are observing the
GM crops such as Bt corn have not ended the need evolution of herbicide-resistant “super weeds.” The key
for IPM because pests can still evolve resistance to these to avoiding herbicide resistance is for farmers to vary the
insect-killing crops. The key to controlling Bt-resistant form and strength of evolutionary selection on the weed
pests is to make sure that each generation of the crop pest population. Applying the same herbicide repeatedly to a
includes susceptible individuals. To do so, farmers plant weed population will exert strong directional selection on
a certain proportion of their fields in non-Bt varieties of the population for resistance to that herbicide (see Figure
their crop. Almost all the insect pests living on these non- 3.6, page 65). In such circumstances, if resistance traits
Bt crop refuges will be susceptible to Bt. The mates for exist in the weed population, they will likely increase in
the small number of resistant pests growing to maturity frequency.
on the Bt variety of the crop will be almost entirely Rather than applying the same herbicide repeatedly,
Bt-susceptible individuals (Figure 7.46). Consequently, farmers can combine herbicide control with old-fashioned
the offspring of the resistant individuals mating with mechanical weeding. Alternatively, a farmer can switch
nonresistant individuals will be killed when they feed on between two types of herbicides with different modes of
Bt crop tissue, and the resistance traits will not increase action. To be successful, sustainable agriculture requires
in frequency in the pest population. paying close attention to the crop environment and
Herbicide-resistant GM crops have been widely having a sophisticated understanding of multiple natural
adopted by farmers, making up, for example, 91% of the processes, including evolution by natural selection.
223
FARMERS USE “THE REFUGE TECHNIQUE” TO

COMBAT Bt RESISTANCE IN CROP PESTS 7.10–7.13 Solutions:
Summary
THE REFUGE TECHNIQUE
The most sustainable approach to combating
By flooding the environment with susceptible individuals, the refuge
technique greatly reduces the probability that two resistant pests malnutrition and undernourishment around
will mate with each other, but will instead mate with susceptible the world may be to help local farmers produce
individuals emerging from the non-Bt refuge.
adequate quantities of nutritious food. Biodiversity
in agriculture increases agricultural production
Bt-susceptible and reduces chemical and energy inputs.
To minimize loss of healthy, fertile soils,
Bt-resistant
cultivating with the contours in sloping lands
or constructing terraces can reduce soil erosion.
Growing crops with little tillage (low-till) or
without tillage (no-till) can further reduce soil
losses by decreasing soil disturbance and leaving
crop residues on the field. Selective logging,
restoring vegetative cover, and removing logging
roads after logging help reduce soil losses from
managed forests. Managing fuel and fire can reduce
the chance of intense, catastrophic forest fires that
lead to rapid soil erosion. On rangelands, proper
Bt crop variety Non-Bt crop
Few pests survive in plantings
stocking rates and periodic rest of the land can
variety (refuge)
of Bt crop variety, but those that prevent desertification. Native populations of the
do are generally Bt-resistant.
Amazon Basin sustained agricultural production
in highly weathered tropical forest soils by adding
FIGURE 7.46 The refuge technique for preventing evolution of
nutrients and charcoal rather than practicing
Bt resistance depends on producing abundant Bt-susceptible
mates for any resistant variants of the pest that emerge in each nomadic, slash-and-burn agriculture.
generation. The success of this approach depends on the Sustainable irrigation requires careful
offspring of matings between susceptible and resistant pests management of water and salts. More precise
being poisoned by the Bt toxin. irrigation is an effective way to conserve water and
control salts.
The key elements of Integrated Pest Management
(IPM) are information about the state of pest
populations and populations of their natural
! Think About It enemies, preventative practices to discourage
pest populations, and staged control measures,
1. How does Integrated Pest Management (IPM) beginning with the least risky. IPM increasingly
address some of the most severe environmental involves GM crops, especially those that have been
impacts associated with pesticide use? engineered for herbicide and insect resistance.
2. How do you weigh the concerns over the planting

of GM crops against their benefits when used in a
program of IPM?
3. Would the refuge method for preventing the
evolution of Bt resistance in crop pests (see Figure
7.46) work if Bt-resistant pests preferred to mate
with other Bt-resistant individuals?

Central Question: How can we produce food and forest products while
minimizing environmental impact?

• How do climate and biodiversity influence • How do farming, grazing, and forestry
terrestrial primary production? practices affect soil?
• How is soil formed? • In what ways does irrigation alter the quality of
soil?
• What types of agricultural systems are built on
natural biomes? • What are the problematic consequences of
intensive agriculture?
• In what ways are genetically modified (GM)

crops a source of controversy and potential?
Terrestrial Resources and You ! Grow some of your own food.
Terrestrial resources provide us with food, fuel, and building material. Consider planting a garden, if you have sufficient space, or growing
Because these resources are so central to our lives, there are many herbs and vegetables in a small raised bed planter or in pots. Many
opportunities to use them more sustainably in everyday life. communities offer the opportunity to garden through community
gardens. Growing even a small amount of your own food connects
! Keep informed. you to the process of food production and helps you understand the
Learn about the sources of food in your community. In addition to large problems faced by farmers.
grocery stores, are there farmer’s markets where you can buy directly
from local growers? (Check out localharvest.org to find markets near
! Buy and consume sustainably produced terrestrial
resources.
you.) What water resources are available for agriculture in your area? If
there are forestlands in your area, learn how they are managed. As a consumer, you have the power to influence the way the products
you purchase are produced. In respect to terrestrial resources, you
! Eat lower on the food chain. can choose to purchase products that are certified to have been
In Chapter 6, we considered ways to reduce the amount of water we produced using sustainable agricultural and forestry practices. For
use in our daily lives for sanitation and other uses. However, as we have example, the Rainforest Alliance certifies consumer goods ranging
seen, the largest user of water around the world is agriculture. Despite from agricultural and forestry products to home and office supplies.
that, not all agricultural products require the same amount of water for You can find information on where to purchase sustainably produced
their production. Among the largest users of water is the production of foods from a variety of sources, such as the online Eat Well Guide.
animal products, especially beef. Recent estimates indicate that shifting When purchasing animal products, such as meat, eggs, or milk,
to a vegetarian diet would reduce water consumption related to food consider products endorsed by an organization such as Animal
production by 36%. Even if you are not a vegetarian, one of the most Welfare Approved.
effective ways to reduce the amount of water used to produce the
food you eat is to eat fewer animal products. Even one meat-free meal
a week for a family of four can save over 100 pounds of meat over the
course of a year.
• What are the benefits of increasing genetic
and crop diversity?
• How can sustainable farming, forestry, and

ranching practices reduce soil loses and
improve soil fertility?
• What factors must be managed to irrigate

sustainably?
• What is Integrated Pest Management and what

are its benefits?
Chapter 7 6. The individuals carrying genes for

pesticide resistance are generally rare in
c. No-till farming
d. All approaches to farming have similar fuel costs.
Review Questions a pest population prior to exposure to a
pesticide. What does this suggest about 10. Which of the following is not part of IPM?
the pesticide-resistant individuals in the a. Closely monitoring the size of pest populations
1. Which of the following ecosystems is most
population? b. A graded response to increasing pest populations,
likely to support the highest level of primary
a. Pesticide-resistant individuals are at a competitive beginning with trapping
production?
disadvantage relative to other individuals in the c. Preventative measures such as planting pest-
a. Tropical forest c. Hot desert
population in the absence of the pesticide. resistant crop varieties
b. Temperate forest d. Temperate grassland
b. Pesticide-resistant individuals are at a competitive d. Eventually eradicating pest populations with
2. Which of the following soil horizons advantage relative to other individuals in the chemical sprays
generally contains the lowest amount of population in the presence and absence of the
organic matter? pesticide.
a. O horizon c. B horizon c. Pesticide-resistant individuals are at a competitive Critical Analysis
b. A horizon d. C horizon disadvantage relative to other individuals in the 1. Why do some environmental observers say that the
population in all environments. impact of intensive agriculture is really a population
3. Why do tropical forest soils generally contain
d. There are no differences in competitive ability problem rather than a problem with agriculture?
low amounts of organic matter?
between pesticide-resistant individuals and pesticide-
a. Low levels of primary production by tropical forests
sensitive individuals. 2. At the height of the Dust Bowl (see Figure 7.12,
b. Lack of decomposition of organic matter in tropical
page 199), U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt said,
forests
7. What determines whether a genetically “The nation that destroys its soils destroys itself.”
c. High rates of decomposition of soil organic matter
modified organism (GMO) is transgenic? Explain his rationale.
d. An absence of soil animals, such as ants, in tropical
a. It carries genes different from wild ancestors.
forests 3. How are the concepts of evolutionary biology,
b. It is more resistant to attacks by insects.
4. Which of the following is a major source of community ecology, and ecosystem ecology
c. It grows at faster rates than other varieties.
erosion in forests? increasingly informing today’s agriculture?
d. It carries a gene from another species.
a. Road building 4. Refer to Figure 4.3 (page 99), Figure 7.4 (page
b. Wildfires 8. Which of the following was not part of the 193), and Figure 7.6 (page 195), summarizing the
c. Soil disturbance by heavy equipment Green Revolution? global distribution of biomes, climates, and soils.
d. All of the above a. Use of pesticides Discuss the influence that these factors may have had
b. Conventional tillage on the development of agriculture.
5. In which of the following situations would c. Genetically modified crops
irrigation most likely produce soil salinization? d. Intensive plant breeding programs 5. Develop a detailed conceptual design for farming
a. In soils with high rates of drainage and low levels of sustainably on land requiring irrigation for crop
irrigation water inputs 9. Which of the following approaches to production.
b. In soils with low rates of drainage and high levels of farming will generally have the lowest fuel
irrigation water inputs costs? Find additional resources and links online at www.
c. In soils with a low (deep) water table a. Conventional tillage farming macmillanhighered.com/launchpad/molles1e.
d. In sandy soils with high rates of leaching b. Low-till farming
Central Question: Can we
sustainably manage fisheries
and aquaculture? Describe the ways in which fish and shellfish
are harvested and how the physical environment
influences the availability of aquatic resources.
(Bill Dewey, Taylor Shellfish Farms) SCIENCE

C H A P T ER 8
Sustaining Aquatic
Resources
Analyze the impacts of humans Discuss approaches for developing more

on aquatic resources. sustainable aquaculture and fisheries.
228 C HAPTER 8 SU STAI NI NG A QUATIC R ES OUR C ES
Fishing grounds
(Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division,
Newfoundland
Nova Scotia
LC-USZ62-117909)
Catch
Mean number
1,000 per tow 250
CATCH (THOUSANDS OF METRIC TONS)

Atlantic cod was a fundamental part of the diet throughout much of Europe,
a contributor to the wealth of nations, and a source of international conflict.
800 200
MEAN NUMBER PER TOW

600 150
400 100
200 50
(AP Photo/Robert F. Bukaty)
0 0
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
YEAR
The human consequence of the collapse of the cod fishery in Atlantic cod catch statistics for fishing grounds east of
the northwest Atlantic is apparent in the idle fishing fleets in Newfoundland and Nova Scotia document the collapse
eastern Canada and the northeastern United States. of this fishery during the last years of the 20th century.
Historical images of the cod fishery of the northwest Atlantic, a fishery that produced abundant harvests for five centuries and then collapsed. (Data
from Lilly et al., 2006; cited in Stares et al., 2007)
A Tale of Overharvesting
and Fishery Collapse
When Europeans first began fishing for Atlantic cod off North America,
they encountered an astonishing abundance of fish. Now, five centuries later,
that natural wealth is nearly gone.
T he Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua) is a bottom-dwelling,

predatory fish that can reach 200 pounds. It is a top,
or apex, predator that prowls the ocean floor, hunting
fisheries on the planet. The worldwide cod harvest peaked
in the 1960s, when massive bottom trawlers—nets dragged
along the sea floor—scooped up 3.9 million tons of codfish in
for smaller fish and crustaceans. Beginning in the 15th a single year. The ocean’s bounty seemed endless.
century, people began to prize it for its flaky, white flesh But in the spring of 1992, fishing boats returned to ports
and for the fact that it could be preserved for long periods from New Bedford, Massachusetts, to Halifax, Nova Scotia,
of time by drying and salting. It didn’t take long before with their hulls nearly empty. Cod stocks dropped to less
cod became the focus of one of largest and most valuable than 1% of historic levels, and regulators shut down the
C A N W E SU STAIN ABLY M A NA GE FI S HER IES A ND A QUA C ULTUR E ?

229
prime fishing grounds on Georges Bank, an elevated plateau fisheries here and around the world? In this chapter, we
off the Atlantic coast of the United States and Canada. will explore the science behind fisheries and what steps
Retailers everywhere switched white fish recipes from cod we need to take to restore them to their former health.
to Alaskan pollock and New Zealand hoki. The cod fishery The collapse of the rich cod fishery off New England
had collapsed. and Canada is not unique. Similar crashes have
occurred in other fisheries around the world due to
the rise of industrial fishing in the 20th century. In the
“If the oceans don’t make it, neither United States, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
will we.” Administration (NOAA) considers 40 fish stocks to
be overfished and 28 subject to continued overfishing.
Jackson Browne, “If I Could Be Anywhere,” 2010 Once a major fish exporter, the
United States now imports the fishery A population of fish
Fisheries collapse occurs when annual catches of the majority of its seafood. These fishery or shellfish, and the economic
species in question decline below 10% of the historic catch. declines threaten marine species system involved in harvesting the
Today, following the collapse of the cod fishery in the with extinction, as well as the food population, often identified by the
geographic area where the fish or
northwest Atlantic and the subsequent closing of the fishing webs and productivity of marine shellfish are harvested.
grounds, the fishing fleets that harvested hundreds of ecosystems, which in turn affects the
thousands of tons of cod each year now sit idle. What factors human communities that depend fisheries collapse The decline
led to the collapse of this, and other, fisheries in the United on them for ecosystem services and in a certain species’ annual catch
States? What, if anything, can be done to restore valuable economic livelihood. below 10% of its historic catch.
Central Question
Can we sustainably manage
fisheries and aquaculture?

(Bill Dewey, Taylor Shellfish Farms)

8.1–8.3 Science
W e often think of early humans as hunters of large

land mammals, but fishing has long provided
subsistence to populations that lived near rivers, lakes,
organisms, including fish, shellfish, algae, or plants,
as a crop, mainly for food. From 1950 to 2011, global
fish consumption increased from less than 20 million
and especially the ocean. For thousands of years, humans metric tons per year to about 150 million metric tons. In
have harvested an abundance of freshwater fish and addition to the fish specifically targeted by fishers, other
seafood, leaving leftovers from these ancient seafood marine species have also been impacted through bycatch,
meals in great heaps called middens, which have been the killing and discarding of noncommercial fish, birds,
identified by archaeologists along coastlines around the dolphins, sea turtles, and other wildlife that occurs as a
world. The future productivity of the world’s fisheries result of contact with fishing gear. Because bycatch can
depends not only on how we harvest them, but also on affect so many nontarget species, it can have widespread
the health of the earth’s ecosystems. negative effects on the marine food web.
aquaculture The controlled
Types of Fishing
growing of aquatic organisms
(e.g., fish, shellfish, algae, or
8.1 Commercial fish
plants) as a crop, mainly for populations are heavily The earliest fishers practiced subsistence fishing,
catching enough for themselves and their families,
food; carried out in marine,
brackish water, or freshwater
harvested and actively including a small amount to be bartered or sold. Some
environments. managed of the simplest techniques involve catching fish by hand
Around the world, fisheries employ approximately in shallow waters, spearing or trapping them, or simply
bycatch Discarded catch
40 million people who regularly harvest some 1,500 scooping them out of the water with a net or other vessel.
and mortality of any organism
(e.g., fish, invertebrate animals, species. The total value of fisheries and aquaculture Today, subsistence, or noncommercial fishing, is still
birds, dolphins, sea turtles) around the world is estimated at $217.5 billion. Target practiced in many indigenous and rural communities
as a result of contact with species include molluscs, such as scallops and clams; around the world. For instance, the state of Alaska allows
fishing gear. crustaceans, such as lobster, crab, and shrimp; freshwater residents to catch a certain number of salmon each year
fish, such as catfish and trout; and marine fish, such as using a handheld dipnet or a snag hook—a hook that
subsistence fishing The
practice of catching enough tuna and anchovy. Out of the 90 million metric tons allows fishers to yank fish out of the water without the
fish for one’s family plus a bit (99 million tons; 1 metric ton equals 1,000 kilograms, or use of bait. Alaskan residents with the proper permits
more for bartering or selling. 2,204 pounds) of fish captured around the world in 2011, are allowed to subsist on a wide range of other species,
about 90% comes from marine fisheries; the remaining including halibut, crab, and clam. In general, subsistence
commercial fishing 10% comes from inland rivers and lakes, according to the fisheries tend to be small and have a limited impact on
Catching fish for profit;
represents the vast majority of
United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). fish populations.
the fish captured around the An additional 60 million metric tons come from In contrast to subsistence fishing, commercial fishing
world. aquaculture, the controlled growing of aquatic involves catching fish for profit, and it represents the vast

231
majority of the fish captured around the world. More

than 90% of commercial fishing around the world is done MAXIMUM SUSTAINABLE YIELD small-scale fishers
Commercial fishers who use
by small-scale fishers, who use minimal gear, such as CARRYING CAPACITY (K) minimal gear and fish from small
handlines or hand nets, and may fish from small boats boats or nonmotorized canoes.
such as motorized skiffs or nonmotorized canoes. They
industrial fishermen
POPULATION SIZE (N)

typically stay close to the coastline and fish for only a few Commercial fishers who may
hours or days at a time. travel for weeks at a time and
Industrial fishermen use more expensive and use expensive, technologically
Population size
technologically advanced gear to catch fish and may often for maximum advanced gear to process and
sustainable yield refrigerate or freeze their catch
travel for weeks at a time, processing and refrigerating
on board.
or freezing their catch on board. Bottom trawlers drag
weighted nets along the ocean floor in order to catch bottom trawlers Weighted
nets dragged along the ocean
groundfish, including cod and flounder, along with
to catch groundfish (e.g., cod,
scallops, shrimp, and crab. Longline fishing involves TIME (t) flounder, scallops, shrimp, crab).
laying out a very long line with hundreds or thousands FIGURE 8.1 Theoretically, the maximum sustainable yield longline fishing The practice
of baited hooks, used to catch tuna (near the surface) of a population is achieved when a population is growing at a of laying out a very long line with
or groundfish (e.g., halibut, cod). Gillnetting involves maximum rate. In a population growing logistically, maximum hundreds or thousands of baited
placing a net with large mesh in the water column to growth rate occurs when the population size is one-half of the hooks; used to catch tuna (near
selectively catch fish, including salmon, in the Pacific carrying capacity. Consequently, fisheries managers generally the surface) or groundfish (e.g.,
attempt to maintain fish populations near this size but not halibut, cod).
Northwest. The size of fish caught depends on the net significantly lower or higher.
mesh size. When a fish cannot pass all the way through gillnetting The practice of
the gillnet, it is ensnared by its gill covers when trying placing panels of large mesh net
in the water column to catch fish,
to retreat. Other methods, such as baited pot-traps, are
Although fisheries statistics can be complex, the basic the size of which depend on the
used to catch lobster and crab. mesh size; fish that cannot pass
Finally, sport or recreational fishing may include principles are simple. When fishing pressures are high,
all the way through the gillnet
fly-fishing on a stream in Montana or hiring a tourist fish populations decline. When fishing pressures are are ensnared by their gill covers
charter boat to catch trophy-sized fish, including reduced, fish populations grow. However, scientists have when trying to retreat.
sharks, swordfish, and tuna. Some sport-fishers eat noted that when fish exist at high densities, their level of
pot-traps Baited traps used to
their catch, whereas others engage in catch-and-release reproductive success is lower. Consequently, harvesting catch lobster or crab.
fishing, in which they release the fish back into the fish to prevent them from reaching high densities can
sport (recreational) fishing
water where they caught it. However, care must be taken make the fishery more productive. However, if fish The practice of fishing for
to ensure that the captured fish set free will survive the populations are reduced to extremely low levels, the pleasure (e.g., fly-fishing, hiring
encounter. fish have trouble finding suitable mates, and fishery a tourist charter boat to catch
productivity may thus decrease. trophy-sized fish).
Fisheries Management The goal of fisheries managers has long been to catch-and-release fishing The
manage fish populations so that harvest rates are at or practice of releasing fish back
The major question for fisheries regulators, such as near a theoretical level called maximum sustainable into the water after catching
Alaska Fish & Game or the National Marine Fisheries them.
yield (MSY), which is the maximum harvest of a
Service in the United States, is determining the level renewable natural resource that does not reduce future stock A discrete subpopulation
of sustainable harvest of a particular stock. A stock is of a species, which is
yields. If we assume S-shaped, or logistic, population
reproductively isolated from
loosely defined as a discrete subpopulation of a species, growth (see Figure 3.11, page 69), the maximum other stocks.
which is reproductively isolated from other stocks. Some sustainable yield is expected when the population size
wide-ranging species like southern bluefin tuna consist stock assessment Estimated
is approximately one-half of the carrying capacity
size of a fish stock, the rate at
of a single stock, whereas dozens of salmon stocks are (Figure 8.1). At this size, the rate of population growth which the population is growing,
known, depending on the specific river to which they is highest, and recovery from harvest should be most and the rate of harvest.
return for breeding. Fisheries managers perform a stock rapid. In well-managed fisheries, ongoing scientific catch-per-unit effort A
assessment to estimate the size of the fish stock, the rate study provides information to help managers and fishers measure of how many fish are
at which it is growing, and the rate of sustainable harvest. avoid depleting stocks below these levels by reducing or caught using a specific piece
A key piece of data for making stock assessments is the sometimes closing a fishery to continued harvest. When of gear—a net or a line—for a
catch-per-unit effort, which is a measure of how many certain period of time.
a fish stock drops below the population size that provides
fish can be caught using a specific piece of gear—a net the MSY, it is considered overfished. maximum sustainable yield
or a line—for a certain period of time. In “mark and (MSY) The maximum harvest
recapture” studies, fisheries biologists may also release
tagged fish and then try to catch them again to get a
! Think About It of a renewable natural resource
that does not reduce future
yields (e.g., the sustainable
better idea of the size of a population or the boundaries 1. Why is it important to determine the MSY for annual catch from a fish
of a particular stock. each stock? population).

2. What are some potential reasons for the consistently from one direction, but they do not end
extremely rapid cod fishery collapse after being up moving directly north or south. Rather, the rotation
fished for hundreds of years? of Earth creates a deflection in the winds called the
Coriolis effect, which deflects winds to the right in the
Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern
8.2 Nutrient availability Hemisphere. The result is the global pattern of prevailing
winds: northeast trade winds, westerlies, and polar
influences primary easterlies in the Northern Hemisphere; southeast trade
production in marine winds, westerlies, and polar easterlies in the Southern
environments Hemisphere (Figure 8.2). As the prevailing winds blow
across the oceans, they set in motion oceanic currents.
The large fish we prize in the developed world, such as The Coriolis effect acts on these currents to create
cod, salmon, and tuna, are usually apex predators that large-scale patterns of oceanic circulation that move
feed at or near the top of the food web. These fish and to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the
all other consumers in the food web would not exist left in the Southern Hemisphere (see Figure 8.2). As a
without organisms at the bottom of the food web that result, each hemisphere of each ocean basin has a large
prevailing winds Winds that convert solar energy into the chemical energy of sugars. circular current called a gyre, which is centered under
blow consistently from one
The photosynthetic organisms of the oceans—including subtropical, high-pressure regions.
direction (e.g., the northeast
trade winds blow from the seaweeds, reef-building corals, and phytoplankton, the Oceanic currents exert major influences on regional
northeast). microscopic algae that drift with the ocean currents— climates by transporting heat or, in some situations,
account for roughly half of global primary production. cooling waters from one region to another. The Gulf
Coriolis effect A deflection
in the winds from a straight Aquatic primary production varies widely across Stream in the Atlantic Ocean, for instance, transports
north–south path as a natural aquatic ecosystems, and it depends on climate heat from the tropics to higher latitudes, extending
consequence of Earth’s and other forces that affect the global distribution of temperate climates much farther north in northwest
rotation on its axis from west nutrients. Europe than would be the case otherwise (Figure 8.3).
to east; deflects winds to the
As wind blows across the surface of the ocean, it Meanwhile, the Labrador Current in the western Atlantic
right of their direction of travel
in the Northern Hemisphere pushes and pulls water, creating ocean currents and Ocean cools northeastern North America. The currents
and to the left in the Southern influencing the nutrients available to fish stocks. also modify the distribution of marine environments
Hemisphere. On Earth, we have prevailing winds that blow (Figure 8.4). For example, the currents extend cool
CORIOLIS EFFECT, PREVAILING WINDS, AND OCEAN CIRCULATION
In the Northern Hemisphere, In the north, winds are

oceans circulate to the right. deflected to the right.
Winds
PREVAILING WINDS Ocean currents
Polar easterlies
60° N
HEMISPHERE
NORTHERN
Westerlies
30° N
Northeast
trade winds
0°
Southeast
trade winds
HEMISPHERE
SOUTHERN
30° S
Westerlies
FIGURE 8.2 The Coriolis
effect deflects prevailing 60° S
winds and ocean currents
Polar easterlies
to the right of their direction
of travel in the Northern
Hemisphere and to the left in In the Southern Hemisphere, oceans circulate to the left. In the south, winds are deflected to the left.
the Southern Hemisphere.

233
?
FIGURE 8.3 Captured here in a satellite photo, the Gulf
THE GULF STREAM OFF THE EAST COAST OF Stream is one of the best known of the major ocean currents. It
NORTH AMERICA was first mapped in 1770 by Benjamin Franklin and his cousin
Timothy Folger, a whaling captain, using whalers’ observations
of water temperatures, color, and ocean life as they pursued In March 2011 a tsunami
their prey. washed massive amounts
of debris, including
entire houses, into the
Pacific Ocean off Japan’s
east coast. Explain why
marine waters northward along the southwest coast several months later that
of Africa and southward along Africa’s northwest debris began washing up
coast. This transport of cool surface waters on the western shores of
significantly narrows the band of warm, tropical North America.
marine waters in the eastern Atlantic Ocean, compared
with the western Atlantic.
Light, Nutrients, and Primary Production

Although light penetrates water, it grows weaker
with depth, extending to a maximum depth of
200 meters and restricting photosynthesis to a surface
layer of the oceans and lakes known as the euphotic
zone (Figure 8.5). As organic matter produced in
euphotic zone A surface
(NASA)
the euphotic zone sinks through the water column,

layer of the oceans and deep
The Gulf Stream, which transports warm tropical waters to northern
it carries with it various elements essential for lakes where there is sufficient
latitudes, remains a visually distinctive water mass for thousands of photosynthesis, such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and light to support photosynthetic
kilometers and has been called a “river in the ocean.”
iron. Warmer surface layers are less dense than deeper aquatic organisms.
MAJOR MARINE ENVIRONMENTS
TEMPERATE MARINE NORTHERN COLD MARINE TROPICAL MARINE

Kelp forest, abundant Whale feeding grounds, abundant Coral reefs, mangrove forests,
pelagic and bottom fish seals, sea lions, and bottom fish whale calving grounds
FIGURE 8.4 Average ocean

temperature defines the
major marine environments.
Boundaries between marine
environments were mapped
in the Northern Hemisphere
using a February thermal
image and in the Southern
Hemisphere using an August
High latitude/cold
thermal image. (National
Temperate/cool
Virtual Oceanographic
Tropical/warm
COASTAL UPWELLING ZONES SOUTHERN COLD MARINE Data System [NVODS],
Abundant plankton and Whale feeding grounds, krill, Coastal upwelling zone
plankton-feeding fish seals, sea lions, penguins http://ferret.pmel.noaa.gov/
NVODS/)

LIMITED LIGHT PENETRATION RESTRICTS THE DEPTHS AT WHICH PHOTOSYNTHESIS TAKES PLACE IN
AQUATIC ENVIRONMENTS
(John R. Dolan, Laboratoire d’Oceanographique de Villefranche;

Observatoire Oceanologique de Villefrance-sur-Mer)
(Amanda Pollock/USFWS)
(Images & Stories/Alamy)
Kelp forest Marine diatoms Coral reef
200 meters
Euphotic zone
Deep water
where light energy
is too low to support
photosynthetic
organisms
FIGURE 8.5 Photosynthetic marine organisms, such as kelp, marine diatoms, and the algae associated with reef-building corals,
are limited to the euphotic zone, the surface layer of the world’s oceans.
layers, which means there is little vertical mixing with in the ocean. Phosphorus released by weathering is
deeper cool water. As a consequence, essential chemical taken up from the soil by plants and incorporated into
nutrients depleted from warm surface waters build up plant tissues, where it is used to form cell membranes,
in deeper cool-water layers as sinking organic matter nucleic acids, and the energy-bearing molecule ATP
decomposes, and primary production in the euphotic (adenosine triphosphate). Herbivores feeding on plant
zone gradually declines. This means that any mechanism tissues ingest phosphorus, as do carnivores feeding on
that promotes renewal of nutrients in surface waters, such herbivores. Phosphorus is then released by these animals
as the vigorous mixing of deep and surface waters, will when feces or urine is returned to the soil; phosphorus is
increase rates of primary production. also released from dead and decaying organic matter by
The process of upwelling does just that. Driven by detritivores and decomposers. Once released into soils,
prevailing or seasonal winds, upwelling generally occurs this phosphorus can be taken up again by plants and
where winds blow warmer surface water away from shore recycled within the ecosystem or exported to the ocean
and replace it with colder, subsurface water. As shown by rivers or wind, where it participates in similar cycling
in Figure 8.2, extensive areas of upwelling occur along patterns with algae, zooplankton, and fish.
the west coasts of North and South America, North and When a fish dies and is incorporated into marine
South Africa, southwestern Europe, and along shores of sediment, that sediment often ultimately becomes a
the northwest Indian Ocean, where upwelling is driven rock that integrates phosphorus into a mineral, closing
upwelling The movement of by seasonal monsoon winds. the cycle. Other minerals in the ecosystem that, like
cold subsurface water to the phosphorus, do not have gaseous forms either (e.g., iron,
ocean’s surface when warmer The Phosphorus Cycle potassium) undergo similar cycles, with only minor
surface waters move offshore variations in some of the details.
under the influence of Phosphorus is one of the critical elements that can be
prevailing or seasonal winds. brought to the surface via upwelling. While the nitrogen
Global Patterns in Production
and carbon cycles include a major atmospheric reservoir,
ATP (adenosine
another critical biogeochemical cycle—the phosphorus The highest levels of marine primary production lie along
triphosphate) An energy-
bearing molecule containing cycle—does not. As Figure 8.6 shows, phosphorus the margins of the continents, especially where upwelling
phosphorus used to transport enters the cycle through the weathering of rock, so it brings nitrogen and phosphorus-rich deep waters to the
energy within cells. begins its journey on land before becoming important surface euphotic zone (Figure 8.7). However, there are

235
FIGURE 8.6 Phosphorus is

THE PHOSPHORUS CYCLE essential to all living systems
as a component of energy-
carrier molecules, such as
KEY PROCESSES
1 2
ATP, and also of DNA. Unlike
the carbon and nitrogen
1 WEATHERING
Phosphorus enters the nutrient
cycles, the phosphorus cycle
cycle through weathering of rocks does not include a gaseous
containing phosphorus. form occupying a major
Weathering Dust transport and
atmospheric pool.
of rocks depositition
2 TRANSPORT and DEPOSITION
Phosphorus is carried in 3
wind-borne dust to distant
locations, where it settles and
enters a local phosphorus cycle.
4
3 UPTAKE
Plants and algae take up phosphorus
from soil or water, incorporating it
into cell membranes, DNA, and ATP.
Food chain
4 CONSUMPTION
Consumers incorporate the
phosphorus taken up by primary
producers as they eat and digest food. 3
5
5 DECOMPOSITION GEOLOGIC
Phosphorus is released from dead UPLIFT
tissues by the activities of decom-
posers, taken up from the soil and 6
water by plants and algae, and Decomposition
cycled through the ecosystem.
6 SEDIMENTATION and UPLIFT

Phosphorus can be lost to bottom Sedimentation
sediments in aquatic ecosystems and and uplift
made unavailable until geologic uplift
eventually exposes the phosphorus-
bearing rocks to weathering.
other coastal areas of high primary production, such as enough to renew nutrient levels in surface waters during
those along the eastern coasts of North America, South periods of intense mixing by winds or storms. In these
America, Africa, and Asia. Here, waters are shallow waters, nutrients are also elevated by runoff from land.
VARIATION IN PRIMARY PRODUCTION ACROSS THE WORLD’S OCEANS
FIGURE 8.7 High levels

of primary production are
MARINE PRIMARY limited to approximately
PRODUCTION
Marine primary production is higher in areas of 10% of the world’s oceans.
greater nutrient availability, such as the mouths of (Data from Ryther, 1969;
Lowest Highest rivers, along coastlines, and in areas of upwelling.
Field et al., 1998)

PRIMARY PRODUCTION AND FISH PRODUCTION !Think About It

1. How do surface winds influence global patterns
Coastal areas supporting higher
4 primary production yield greater of primary production in the ocean?
catches of resident fish.
2. What processes tend to reduce the concentrations
of nutrients essential for marine production from
(METRIC TONS PER km2)

RESIDENT FISH YIELD
3
the euphotic zone of the oceans?
2
3. How does upwelling increase the nutrient content
of surface waters?
1
4. How would you expect marine primary
production to respond if changing environmental
conditions caused widespread extinctions of marine
0 phytoplankton species?
0 2 4 6 8
CHLOROPHYLL a (mg PER m3)
FIGURE 8.8 Relationship between primary production, as 8.3 El Niño and other large-
measured by chlorophyll a concentration in surface waters,
and fish caught along the Pacific Coast of North America,
scale climatic systems affect
from southern California to Alaska. (Data from Ware and fisheries
Thomson, 2005)
During the 20th century, scientists uncovered the
influence of the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
?
Marine areas of highest primary production, such as the (see Chapter 6) on fisheries. During an El Niño, the
west coast of North America, support the highest biomass waters off the west coast of South America are warmed;
of fish and shellfish (Figure 8.8). Similarly, higher levels during a La Niña, they are cooled (see Figure 6.5,
Why are so many of the of phytoplankton production off the Faroe Islands in page 161). The warm waters brought by El Niño to the
world’s very productive the northeast Atlantic are what sustained the historic coast of South America have been long associated with
fishing grounds found in production of Atlantic cod. crashes in commercially important fish populations,
cool upwelling waters? The lowest levels of primary production tend to occur such as anchovies, that also trigger widespread mortality
in deep, mid-ocean environments, particularly in tropical among fish-eating seabirds and sea mammals. Why
oceans where warm surface water rarely mixes with should the raising of sea surface temperatures by only
nutrient-rich deeper layers of cool water. Here, nutrients a few degrees decimate these marine populations? A
that could stimulate primary production are trapped critical clue is provided by the most common cause of
below the euphotic zone. death: starvation.
EL NIÑO AND OCEAN CONDITIONS OFF THE WEST COAST OF SOUTH AMERICA
NON-EL NIÑO EL NIÑO
Prevailing winds move Prevailing winds weaken

warm water offshore. and reverse direction.
Warm surface water Warm surface water
Upwelling of cold West coast No upwelling of West coast

nutrient-rich water South America nutrient-rich water South America
HIGH PRIMARY PRODUCTION REDUCED PRIMARY PRODUCTION

Abundant fish, seabirds, and sea mammals Decimated fish, seabird, and sea mammal populations
FIGURE 8.9 The effect of El Niño on the coastal ecosystems of western South America results from its creating a barrier to
upwelling, which delivers nutrients to the euphotic zone.

237
?
In the absence of El Niño, there is strong upwelling
along the coast of western South America (see Figure 8.4, 8.1–8.3 Science:
page 233), which supports high levels of primary
production (see Figure 8.7, page 235) and one of the
Summary
world’s most productive fisheries. However, the coming of The goal of fisheries managers is to estimate Many of the feeds
El Niño warms the waters off western South America, and how much we can harvest from a fish stock used in aquaculture
essentially shuts off the upwelling of nutrient-rich waters while still keeping it productive. incorporate fish meal
to the euphotic zone (Figure 8.9). As a result, primary Prevailing winds blow across the oceans,
made from forage fish
production declines drastically, with consequences driving oceanic currents, which influence
caught along the west
throughout the entire food web. For example, there is little patterns of primary production and fish stock
plankton to feed the small fish, which are essential as food productivity by transporting warm or cooling coast of South America.
for larger fish, seabirds, and sea mammals. As a result, waters from one region to another. Upwelling How should the pricing
these consumers, living higher in the marine food web, further modifies marine environments by of these feeds vary with
suffer massive starvation and reproductive failure, and the bringing nutrient-rich cool water to the surface. the El Niño/La Niña
fishing economy of the region also suffers. Limited penetration of water by light restricts cycle?
photosynthesis to the euphotic zone.
! Think About It Many commercially significant fish stocks

vary as a consequence of oscillations in large-
1. How does El Niño suppress marine primary scale climate systems. For example, the El
production along the west coast of South America? Niño Southern Oscillation influences fisheries
productivity by altering physical and chemical
2. Do the El Niño/La Niña phenomena exert conditions that can influence fish populations
density-dependent or density-independent controls directly or indirectly through its effects on rates
on sea mammal populations along the west coast of of primary production.
South America? Explain (see Chapter 3, page 71).
8.4–8.6 Issues
P eruvian anchovy populations crashed in the 1970s.
Blue walleye went extinct in the Great Lakes in the
1980s. Atlantic cod collapsed in the 1990s. The dire state
Depletion of Whale Populations
Humans have been hunting whales for more than
3,000 years—a fact we know from scenes carved on
of all these commercial stocks demonstrated that we have
whalebones. Early whale hunters likely had little impact
the technical capacity to deplete what was once thought to
on whale numbers, since they worked to supply food
be inexhaustible. Fish stocks around the world have been
to relatively small local populations. But that changed
harmed not only by overharvesting, but by pollution, dams,
with the appearance of commercial whaling when the
and the changing climate.
demand for whale products, particularly oil, soared in the
19th century. The main targets of whalers in the North
Atlantic Ocean, from the 16th through 19th centuries,
8.4 Tragedy of the were North Atlantic right whales, Eubalaena glacialis,
Commons: Intensive and bowhead whales, Balaena mysticetus (Figure 8.10),
harvesting has resulted in which are slow swimmers that float when killed. Using
overexploitation of many open rowing skiffs and hand-thrown harpoons, whale
hunters slaughtered an estimated 120,000 right whales
commercially important and bowhead whales, jeopardizing their very existence.
marine populations For many years, the blue whale, Balaenoptera musculus,
Once humans were able to navigate the open waters of the and the fin whale, B. physalus, remained beyond the
entire planet and developed techniques for catching and reach of early whaling technology because they were too
processing massive harvests at sea, they soon had the means fast, too strong, and sank when killed. This changed with
to decimate entire populations of marine organisms. the invention of the harpoon gun, explosive harpoons,

TWO SPECIES OF WHALES HEAVILY EXPLOITED BY EARLY WHALING IN THE NORTH ATLANTIC
(Corey Accardo/Alaska Fisheries Science Center, NOAA Fisheries Service)

(Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, NOAA
Permit # 665–1652)
North Atlantic right whale, Eubalaena glacialis Bowhead whale, Balaena mysticetus
FIGURE 8.10 The depletion of populations of North Atlantic right whales and bowhead whales by early whalers showed for the first
time the capacity of humans to deplete marine resources once thought to be inexhaustible.
?
and steam-powered winches and catcher boats, which commercial demand. Ultimately, the collapse of many
introduced the age of modern whaling. The populations whale populations and rising popular awareness of the
of blue and fin whales in the Southern Hemisphere overharvest of whales sparked international agreements
declined from about 400,000 in 1920 to a few thousand to ban whaling in 1982. Those bans are still in place
What in the life histories
in 1960. today, with a few notable and controversial exceptions.
(see Chapter 3, page The history of commercial whaling is a good example
71) of large marine of how the Tragedy of the Commons leads
species would make An Ecosystem Upturned: Atlantic Cod
to overexploitation of resources (see Chapter 2,
them more vulnerable to page 49). During the time of peak commercial As the cod fishery in the northwest Atlantic collapsed
overharvest than species whaling, no international agreements or regulations (Figure 8.11), marine scientists discovered that other
of smaller body size? limited harvest. Because whales mostly live in areas species, such as hake, haddock, and pollock, were also
away from international borders, whalers were free in trouble. All these fish were historically dominant
to harvest as many whales as they could sell to meet predators, and their absence due to overharvest
THE NORTHWEST ATLANTIC COD FISHERY HARVEST AND COLLAPSE
Increasing fishing intensity Peak harvest Canada controls fisheries Cod fishery closed as
to 320 km offshore population collapses
2,000
THOUSANDS OF METRIC TONS
1,600
1,200
800
400 Atlantic cod
0
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
YEAR
FIGURE 8.11 While commercial harvest of the cod populations off Canada spanned over 500 years, intensive modern harvesting
increased after 1950, with the population collapsing four decades later. (Data from FAO, 2005)

239
FIGURE 8.12 The collapse

ALTERED MARINE FOOD WEB OFF NOVA SCOTIA of the cod population off Nova
Scotia resulted in a radical
ORIGINAL FOOD WEB ALTERED FOOD WEB change in the structure of the
marine food web. (Information
from Frank et al., 2011)
Cod (and other
Cod (and other COD predatory fish)
predatory fish) COLLAPSE DEPLETED
Low POPULATION
predation
Plankton-feeding
Plankton-feeding forage fish (capelin,
forage fish (capelin, herring, sand lance)
herring, sand lance) POPULATION
INCREASE
Higher plankton
Large zooplankton
feeding
(copepods and
Large zooplankton
larval fish)
(copepods and
larval fish) REDUCED
POPULATIONS
Reduced grazing
Phytoplankton
Phytoplankton INCREASED
BIOMASS
Increased uptake
Nutrients
Nutrients REDUCED
Removing the top predators from the food web resulted in a cascade
of changes in the ecosystem with the potential to inhibit the recovery
of cod populations and other formerly top predators.
transformed the ocean ecosystem in many ways (Figure of a Tragedy of the Commons (see page 49). But many
8.12). Bottom-dwelling invertebrates, such as snow crab, other exploited fish populations have also collapsed,
that were common prey for cod doubled in number. including the sardine fishery off California and the blue
Similarly, small forage fish, such as herring and capelin, tuna fishery in the Atlantic. Recent estimates indicate that
no longer faced heavy predation pressures by cod and more than 25% of commercially important fish stocks have
other predators, so their population numbers increased suffered declines in numbers sufficient to be classified as a
by a factor of 9. All these small fish preyed heavily on “collapse” in the fishery. Figure 8.13 shows the patterns of
zooplankton, causing that population to decline. Because population decline under exploitation for two of these fish
zooplankton feed on phytoplankton, fewer zooplankton stocks: the South Atlantic snowy grouper and the South
meant that phytoplankton populations increased, and Atlantic black sea bass.
their greater abundance ultimately reduced the nutrient One factor in these declines has been the over-
content of surface waters. The effect of the collapsed cod expansion of fishing fleets and a system that creates a
fishery rippled throughout the food web, much like the competitive, “race-to-fish” approach to harvest. Rather
extensive effects of wolves on the Yellowstone food web than regulating the amount of fish being caught,
(see Chapter 4, page 103). These dramatic changes led to regulators in the United States traditionally limit the
speculation that recovery of the apex predators like cod type of gear that can be used and the number of days a
might not be possible for a very long time. fishing vessel can spend at sea. Regulators also monitor
the number of fish being caught and shut down fishing
for the season when too many fish are caught. Naturally,
Fisheries Collapse: A Global Problem
fishers scramble to harvest as many fish as possible before
Similar to the history of whaling, the collapse of the cod regulators cut off fishing, and this system unintentionally
fishery off Canada and New England is a sobering example incentivizes illegal harvest (i.e., poaching) by unregistered

COLLAPSE OF TWO FISHERIES
SOUTH ATLANTIC SNOWY GROUPER
0.3 6
SPAWNING STOCK BIOMASS

(PER 100 METRIC TONS)
FISHING MORTALITY (%)
0.2 4
SPAWNING BIOMASS GOAL

0.1 2
FISHING MORTALITY GOAL
0 0
1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000
YEAR
Spawning biomass In both of these fisheries, population collapse coincided with increased
Fishing mortality mortality from fishing. Despite rebuilding plans, fishing mortality
continued at rates higher than historical levels.
SOUTH ATLANTIC BLACK SEA BASS
2.5 15
SPAWNING BIOMASS GOAL
SPAWNING STOCK BIOMASS

2.0 12
(PER 100 METRIC TONS)

FISHING MORTALITY (%)
1.5 9
1.0 6
0.5 3
FISHING MORTALITY GOAL

0 0
1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
YEAR
FIGURE 8.13 The South Atlantic snowy grouper, Epinephelus niveatus, and the South Atlantic black sea bass, Centropristis
striata. (Data from Rosenberg, Swasey, and Bowman, 2006)
vessels. Under such conditions, it is difficult to avoid status. Clearly, increased information on the status
overfishing. of these stocks would help with their management,
especially in regard to regulating fishing pressure.
Remaining Uncertainty
While our understanding of the status and biology of
commercially important fish populations grows rapidly,
! Think About It
significant gaps in our understanding remain. In 2013, 1. How did technological development influence the
of the 230 stocks of commercially important marine fish overharvesting of whale and fish populations?
under U.S. jurisdiction, the status of 23% was uncertain
or undetermined. Meanwhile, significant percentages of 2. In what ways does the collapse of the commercial
commercially important fish stocks off northwest Europe whaling industry or the northwest Atlantic cod
and New Zealand also had uncertain or undetermined fishery represent a Tragedy of the Commons?

241
8.5 Dams and river KLAMATH RIVER BASIN

regulation have decimated
migratory fish populations
Building dams on rivers can stabilize water supply OREGON
and protect people and infrastructure from flooding.
However, dam construction can also displace human
populations dependent on rich floodplain resources,
forcing them to make a living in less productive Klamath River
environments. Dam construction has many benefits and

costs, but here we focus on how river modification by
dams threatens populations of commercially important
migratory fish, especially salmon. CALIFORNIA
Dam
The Columbia River
In the early 19th century, some 8 to 10 million adult
salmon would swim up the Columbia River every FIGURE 8.15 Dams on the Klamath River prevent the
passage of migratory salmon and other migratory fish species
year to spawn in the river and its tributaries. But the
?
to the upper river basin, greatly reducing the area available for
construction of over 100 large hydroelectric dams spawning.
converted the once large, free-flowing river to a series
of long reservoirs (Figure 8.14). Salmon no longer have
access to an estimated 45% of their historic spawning that allow a fish to swim over a dam—they How do you think
areas. Even where salmon can get around dams face severe environmental challenges, including we should weigh the
through fish ladders—constructed stair-steps of water migrating through lakes rather than along a river and
relative environmental
returning to degraded habitat. Because of population
costs against the
declines following damming, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service has designated most of the salmon populations
economic benefits of
A FREE-FLOWING RIVER NO MORE dams?
in the Columbia River system as threatened or
Dams and reservoirs developed for hydroelectric power and water storage
endangered.
on the Columbia River system have disrupted salmon migration and have
severely reduced the productivity of a major salmon fishery.
The Klamath River
Another important salmon river, the Klamath, flows
Columbia R.
BRITISH
COLUMBIA
through northwest California and southeast Oregon
ALBERTA
(Figure 8.15). It was once the third most productive
Vancouver
salmon river of the U.S. West Coast, with half a million
fish returning to spawn each year. However, Copco 1, a
hydroelectric dam built in 1918, made most of the upper
Seattle Klamath River basin inaccessible to salmon and other
migratory fish. Three additional hydroelectric dams, built
WASHINGTON
on the Klamath from 1925 to 1962, prevented migratory
MONTANA
Portland salmon from reaching approximately 970 kilometers
Columbia R. (600 miles) of spawning streams in the upper Klamath
River system, reducing the potential of the river system to
produce salmon.
OREGON These Klamath River dams have also had indirect
impacts on salmon populations. Water diversions for
IDAHO agriculture have reduced flows in the river, and drainage
Dam Snake R. from irrigated agricultural fields has introduced excess
nutrients and organic contaminants such as pesticides
into the river. Nutrients coming from upstream
FIGURE 8.14 This map shows the locations of major dams agricultural areas foster blooms of algae in the reservoirs
on the lower Columbia River system, including one of the and below them. Decomposing algae trigger oxygen
Columbia River’s main tributaries, the Snake River. Hydroelectric
depletion, which stresses salmon physiologically and
development has transformed most of the entire length of the
Columbia and Snake rivers from a flowing river to a series of leads to the spread of salmon diseases. In 2002, for
reservoir pools. instance, pathogens killed at least 33,000 adult salmon

FIGURE 8.16 In 2002 which would alter the river’s flow and threaten its 850 fish
degraded water quality made SALMON KILL ON THE KLAMATH RIVER
species, including many migratory ones. For instance, the
salmon migrating up the
107-foot-tall Xayaburi Dam in northern Laos may drive
Klamath River more vulnerable
to attack by pathogenic the Mekong giant catfish—an economically important
organisms, and tens of species and one of the world’s largest freshwater fish—
thousands of them died as a to extinction. Many other small-scale and subsistence
consequence. fishers will also have their livelihoods threatened, and
locals are fighting this and other dams on the Mekong
through protests and lawsuits.
! Think About It
1. Should China consider how dam construction in
that country will affect river productivity in other
downstream countries? Explain why or why not.
2. Although dams harm migratory fish populations,
some nonmigratory species of lake fish benefit from
dams. Is this a balanced tradeoff?
8.6 Aquaculture can pollute

aquatic environments
(AP Photo/The Herald and News, Ron Winn)
and threaten wild fish

populations
Wild fish stocks have declined and the commercial
harvest of fish from oceans has reached a plateau, so
the seafood industry has turned to aquaculture (see
page 230) to meet increasing demand for seafood
(Figure 8.17). Over the past three decades, aquaculture
production has increased by about 9% annually, a growth
rate exceeding that of all other forms of food production.
in the Klamath (Figure 8.16). In addition, water in the By 2011 this resulted in more than 40% of total fisheries
reservoirs behind the dams warms to temperatures production (Figure 8.18).
?
unsuitable for salmon, which are a cold-water adapted Aquaculture occurs in marine, brackish, or freshwater
fish that will die when temperatures exceed 24°C (75°F). environments all over the world. Farmers raise fish in
As a result of the combined effects of reduced ponds or in mesh cages suspended in water, while shrimp
How are the collapse spawning area, low water quality, and the ravages of and crabs are generally grown in ponds or tanks. In
of the Klamath River pathogens, salmon and steelhead runs in the Klamath intensive aquaculture, farmers feed fish and crustaceans
salmon and the collapse River have been reduced by approximately 90%. The specially formulated diets for optimum growth. By
decline in these stocks led to the closure of 1,000 contrast, filter-feeding shellfish such as oysters and
of the cod fishery
kilometers (700 miles) of the West Coast of the United mussels can be suspended in the water column on
similar? How are they
States to commercial salmon fishing from 2008 to 2011. racks or attached to lines, where they feed by filtering
different? plankton and other organic matter from the surrounding
Mekong River Dam water. Properly managed aquaculture systems can
provide an environmentally friendly source of dietary
The Mekong River is one of the world’s longest rivers,
protein. However, just like agriculture, aquaculture has
flowing 2,700 miles from the Tibetan plateau through
the potential to threaten the biodiversity and health of
Southeast Asia and into the South China Sea. Fish from
ecosystems in several different ways.
these waters provide much-needed protein for more
than 40 million people who live along it, making it one
Problems with Cultured Fish and Shellfish
of the most important inland fisheries in the world.
However, China has built seven dams along the upper Critics of aquaculture point out that in all but the
stretches of the Mekong and is now financing several most secure systems, some of the organisms being
massive hydroelectric dams in Laos and Cambodia, cultured will escape into the wild. For example, cage-

243
AQUACULTURE YIELDS A DIVERSITY OF VALUABLE CROPS
(NOAA Photo/Office of Aquaculture, National Marine Fisheries/Diane Windham)

(Hoang Dinh Nam/AFP/Getty Images)
(Brian O’Hanlon/Open Blue)
Cobia growing in open-water cages Farm-grown shrimp in Viet Nam Shellfish farming in Tomales Bay, California
FIGURE 8.17 Aquaculture produces a wide variety of aquatic resources, including fish, shrimp, and oysters.
grown fish can escape if the netting confining the fish

is torn. Pond-raised fish or crustaceans may jump or
crawl into nearby waterways. Escapees may become
Clearing Mangrove Forests
Shrimp farms are increasing pressure on mangrove
?
If GM Atlantic salmon
forests, one of the most valuable and endangered tropical
invasive species (see Chapter 3), such as the Asian carp, are approved for
ecosystems on Earth. Mangrove forests grow in coastal
which escaped from aquaculture ponds to colonize human consumption,
waters, where they protect coastal areas from storm surge
the Mississippi River system and which now threaten what safeguards should
and may protect against tsunami damage. The roots of
the Great Lakes. Even native species pose threats: be used to prevent
mangroves also provide protection from predation for
When domesticated individuals mate with wild, locally their escape and thus
young fish, so they additionally act as nurseries that
adapted individuals, it generally reduces the fitness of
enhance the productivity of coastal tropical fisheries. potential mating with
wild, locally adapted populations. Domesticated fish
have genetic characteristics that have been selected
Mangroves also happen to be desirable locations for shrimp wild salmon?
for confined rearing, whereas wild fish have genetic
characteristics optimized for their native environments.
Therefore, when aquaculture fish breed with wild fish,
they introduce genes that decrease adaptation of wild PRODUCTION OF WILD FISHERIES AND
populations to their environment. AQUACULTURE FROM 1980 TO 2004
Currently, there are no genetically modified varieties
of fish used in aquaculture. One company, AquaBounty While the harvest from wild fisheries has
been essentially stable since the late 1980s,
Technologies based in Massachusetts, is seeking approval aquaculture production has grown rapidly.
PRODUCTION (MILLIONS OF METRIC TONS)
160
from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for
140
its faster-growing, genetically modified (GM) Atlantic
salmon. Despite protective measures the company has 120
taken, some scientists and conservationists believe that
100
these fish will threaten wild fish populations if they escape.
80
Water Pollution 60
Aquaculture can also be a significant source of water 40 Aquaculture

pollution. As in agriculture on land, runoff from fish and Wild fisheries
20
shellfish feeding operations contains nutrients, especially
nitrogen and phosphorus, which can produce noxious 0
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
algal blooms that impair water quality and can kill wild
YEAR
fish. Aquaculture waste may also contain enough organic FIGURE 8.18 The contribution of aquaculture to global
matter to deplete oxygen supplies in waters receiving the production of aquatic resources tripled in 25 years. (Data from
waste, again potentially resulting in fish kills. FAO, 2005, 2013)

and fish oil to provide the captive fish and shrimp with
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF POND CULTURE OF
sufficient protein and fats. Both the fish meal and fish
SHRIMP IN SOUTHEAST ASIA
oil are derived from small forage fish, such as anchovies,
herring, and mackerel, which are important species in
oceanic food webs because they transfer trophic energy
from small primary producers and zooplankton to higher
trophic levels.
Some 20 to 30 million metric tons (22 to 33 million
tons) of forage fish are harvested each year for aquaculture
feeds. This number represents between one-fourth and
one-third of the global fish catch. By 2009 aquaculture
was consuming 68% of the global production of fish meal.
Removing forage fish from the ecosystem for fish meal
production reduces the availability of that food to fish
higher in the marine food web. Because of energy loss on
(Sebastien Blanc/AFP/Getty Images)
trophic transfer, it can take between 2 and 5 kilograms of

wild caught fish to produce a single kilogram of fish in
aquaculture.
! Think About It
1. What do aquaculture and land-based,
FIGURE 8.19 Clearing of mangrove forests for construction of ponds for
shrimp growing has a direct impact on local biodiversity and makes coastal
concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs,
areas more vulnerable to erosion and damage from tsunami and storms. Chapter 13, page 407) have in common? How do
they differ?
2. How does the presence of close wild relatives
?
farms because mangroves grow along the shores of warm
tropical oceans in soft sediments ideal for pond building. affect the potential for intensive culturing of fish
As the pond culture of shrimp has increased from and shellfish to have negative impacts?
Could the small fish 72,000 metric tons (83,000 tons) in 1980 to 2.5 million 3. How can intensive aquaculture affect marine
used for fish meal in metric tons (2.8 million tons) in 2009, so has the clearing
food webs?
aquaculture be used to of mangrove forests (Figure 8.19). Shrimp farms
currently account for about 10% of total mangrove loss,
feed undernourished
along with urbanization, agriculture, and removal for fuel
human populations and construction. Globally, approximately one-third of CAGE CULTURE OF ATLANTIC SALMON
instead of producing mangrove forests have been cleared due to deforestation
fish in aquaculture? and development.
Disease and Parasite Transfer to Wild Fish

One serious issue with aquaculture is that fish farmed
at high densities are highly susceptible to parasites
and pathogens, which can then be transmitted to wild
stocks. For instance, areas with cage-grown salmon are
associated with a decline of neighboring local populations
of wild salmon and trout (Figure 8.20). Most of these
(Photofusion/UIG via Getty Images)
declines appear to be the result of infestations by sea lice,

Lepeophtheirus salmonis, a small parasite that grazes on the
external mucus layer of salmon and its close relatives.
Feed for Aquaculture and Wild Fish Populations

While aquaculture may appear to be a low-impact
alternative to fishing, it does not necessarily reduce the FIGURE 8.20 In the intensive cage culture of salmon,
contributions to the economy should be weighed against
stress on marine fish populations. Raising carnivorous environmental impacts, including water pollution, increased
species, such as Atlantic salmon and some species of parasite attacks on wild salmon, and interbreeding between
shrimp, still requires harvesting wild fish for fish meal escaped and wild salmon.

245
8.4–8.6 Issues:
fish. Aquaculture has the potential to threaten
Summary the biodiversity and health of ecosystems
The capacity of humans to deplete marine through escape of poorly adapted domesticated
populations first became apparent with stocks and water pollution from waste organic
population declines of the great whales and many matter and excess nitrogen and phosphorus.
other marine animals, including fish. Fisheries Mangrove forests, important for coastal
collapse has become a global problem, with protection and native fisheries, have been
over 25% of commercial fish stocks around the cleared to accommodate ponds to grow shrimp.
world reduced to less than 10% of their former In addition, parasites and pathogens from
abundance because of overexploitation. Fisheries intensively grown fish are being transmitted
collapse is likely tied to overexpansion of fishing to wild stocks. Aquaculture has also increased
fleets and competitive approaches to fishing. demand for wild anchovy, herring, and other
Damming rivers and regulating their flows forage fish as sources of fish meal and fish oil, for
have far-reaching consequences to migratory the manufacture of aquaculture feeds.
I s it possible to reverse the damage caused by decades
of overfishing? In its 2013 Status of Stocks report to the
U.S. Congress, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Moratorium on Whaling
The most dramatic measure used to regulate a fishery
Administration (NOAA) reported that seven stocks had is a total shutdown. In 1982 the International Whaling
been removed from the overfishing list and four stocks Commission declared a “pause” in commercial whaling,
were removed from the overfished list. On top of that, two although some whales had been protected for much
stocks—fall Chinook salmon in the Sacramento River and longer. For example, the gray whale, Eschrichtius robustus,
Black sea bass in the southern Atlantic—were declared has been protected from commercial whaling since 1946.
rebuilt in 2013, bringing the total number of recovered How have whale populations responded to this global
fish stocks since 2000 to 34. The United States still has a protection? Many populations are growing very rapidly,
long way to go, and many stocks, especially those in New including the right whales of the southern oceans, whose
England, remain in a dire state. Nevertheless, the United population has been increasing at rates of 7% to 8%
States currently boasts some of the best managed fisheries annually (Figure 8.21).
in the world, providing evidence that sustainability can be Some populations of whales have even recovered to
achieved. numbers not seen since before commercial whaling. For
example, the gray whale population in the eastern Pacific
Ocean has rebounded to about 20,000 individuals, which is
8.7 Saving global fish stocks the estimated historical population size; these whales have
been removed from the endangered species list. Scientists
requires careful management also estimate that the humpback whales in the western
and strong incentives Atlantic have also recovered to pre-whaling numbers.
Recognizing the impact of unchecked fisheries harvest This success has been accompanied by criticism of
on wild populations, regulators have experimented whaling nations such as Iceland and Japan. Throughout
with a variety of methods for restoring and managing the moratorium, these countries have continued to
populations. Establishing sustainable fisheries depends engage in whaling under the auspices of “scientific” data
on having sound fisheries science, rational regulations, collection, which has angered animal rights activists
and appropriate enforcement for violators. and conservationists and has revealed the limits of

SUCCESSFUL WHALE POPULATION RECOVERY RESPONSE OF POPULATIONS OF LARGE FISH TO

REDUCED FISHING MORTALITY FROM BYCATCH
(© David Fleetham/OceanwideImages.com)
Giant sea bass, Stereolepis gigas
(Brian J. Skerry/Getty Images)
(© Mick McMurray/SeaPics.com)
FIGURE 8.21 A diver observes a southern right whale,
Eubalaena australis, off the coast of New Zealand. In contrast
to the right whales in the North Atlantic, southern right whale
populations have grown rapidly since the moratorium on
whaling.
Soupfin shark, Galeorhinus galeus

international treaties. Commercial whaling in Iceland
officially resumed in 2006 with the harvest of 7 fin whales
and 1 minke whale. Currently, the country sets a harvest
quota of 40 minke whales each year. Although scientists
believe that sustainable harvests are feasible, many
people would like to keep the moratorium in place for
(© Mark Conlin/SeaPics.com)
ethical reasons because whales are such charismatic and

intelligent creatures.
Fishing Restrictions
Regulators have a variety of other, less severe methods
White seabass, Atractoscion nobilis
to ensure sustainable fishing harvests. For instance,
lobstermen in Maine can harvest only lobsters with a
body shell between 8.3 and 12.7 centimeters (3.25 and
5 inches) long. They are also required to mark and throw
(Tom McHugh/Science Source/Getty Images)
back any female lobsters with eggs. Regulators may

also limit the length of the fishing season to avoid the
breeding season, as well as the number of days fishers
can spend at sea. In the United States, fishers who break
these rules can be liable for tens of thousands of dollars
in fines or even the loss of their commercial fishing
license.
One of the most important ways in which regulators
Leopard shark, Triakis semifasciata.
restrict fishing and reduce bycatch is by limiting the type
of gear that can be used, including the size of the mesh FIGURE 8.22 Many predatory fish species have recovered
rapidly, following reductions in fishing pressure, including giant
in nets or the type of nets. Bycatch often kills or injures sea bass (Stereolepis gigas), soupfin sharks (Galeorhinus
many nontarget organisms that are caught in fishing gear, galeus), white seabass (Atractoscion nobilis), and leopard
and the loss of those organisms affects aquatic food webs. sharks (Triakis semifasciata).

247
?
Fishers in the Southern California Bight, an area off the economic decisions about where and when they fish. It
coast of southern California that includes the Channel also removes the incentive to purchase ever larger and
Islands, used to set gillnets vertically in the water to catch faster boats to beat out the competition, a tendency
white seabass. However, these nets also captured many that leads to increasing equipment costs and more How does the white
other kinds of fish, leading to severe population declines fishing capacity than a fishery can support. With lower seabass fishery situation
in nontarget species that were important components of expenditures on equipment, fishers can increase their
demonstrate why
the marine food web. After the state of California banned profits without overfishing.
bycatch is an important
the nets, the populations of four large predatory fish Catch shares have now been implemented in a number
species—white seabass, soupfin shark, Leopard shark, of U.S. fisheries, including groundfish, such as cod in the consideration in
and giant sea bass—recovered from population collapse Northeast. A study of more than 11,000 fisheries showed sustainable fishery
that occurred as a result of bycatch (Figure 8.22). that implementation of fishing quotas halts, and may management?
One of the most effective ways to encourage fishers to even reverse, the global trend toward fisheries collapse
?
follow management guidelines and adhere to management (Figure 8.24).
goals is to involve them in the gathering of scientific An indirect benefit of rights-based fishing is that
information and in the fishery management decision- fishers are encouraged to favor management decisions
making process. Such a partnership can work because that will increase fish populations and thereby avoid What indirect
there is a common interest: sustaining the fishery. In the a Tragedy of the Commons. That’s because any positive effects on
case of the salmon fishery of Bristol Bay, Alaska, the local improvement of fish stocks will increase the value of management may
community is employed to gather information on the individual or cooperative shares of the catch. result from involving
status of salmon stocks (Figure 8.23). local communities in
Atlantic Cod Recovery
scientific studies?
Catch Shares
Twenty years after the collapse of the cod fishery in
Another approach to managing fisheries is to replace New England and eastern Canada, the stock has still
the competitive “race-to-fish” tradition in many places not recovered. But there are signs that the ecosystem is
with a system that allocates rights to a certain share, returning to a more stable state. The plankton-feeding
or quota, of the fish stock or exclusive rights to certain fish that cod depend on had increased to very high individual transferable
fishing grounds. In some fisheries, quotas called abundance in the absence of their feeding pressure, quota (ITQ) (catch shares)
individual transferable quotas (ITQs), or catch shares, but the plankton-feeding fish are now declining as A guaranteed right to a certain
are granted to individual fishers, fishing cooperatives, large predatory fish are again becoming the dominant portion (quota) of the catch in
a fishery or exclusive rights to
or communities. The guarantee of a certain portion of consumers. Curiously, haddock (Melanogrammus certain fishing grounds; may
the catch, or exclusive rights to certain fishing grounds, aeglefinus), not cod, is showing the strongest recovery also be granted to a fisheries
allows individual fishers or cooperatives to make better in the ecosystem, and it is uncertain whether cod will cooperative or community.
STUDYING THE SALMON POPULATIONS MAKING UP THE BRISTOL BAY, ALASKA, FISHERY
(Bristol Bay Science and Research Institute, photo by Michael Daigneault)
(NPS Photo/David Young)
(Nick Hall/Aurora Photos)

(Matt Sloat)
Researcher counting migrating salmon Migrating Bristol Bay sockeye salmon Measuring a sedated male salmon Radio tracking salmon from Bristol Bay
FIGURE 8.23 One of the keys to successful management of a fishery, including the Bristol Bay salmon fishery, is information on the
state and trends in the exploited fish population.

INFLUENCE OF INDIVIDUAL TRANSFERABLE ! Think About It

QUOTAS (ITQS) ON FISHERIES SUSTAINABILITY
1. What are the implications of the observation that
collapsed fish or whale populations have commonly
While the percentage of collapsed fisheries without
ITQs increased to nearly 30% over this period, the recovered after harvest has been reduced or
collapsed fisheries with ITQs leveled off at about 10%.
eliminated, whereas others have failed to recover?
30
2. Establishing individual transferable quotas
PERCENTAGE COLLAPSED Fisheries without ITQs
(ITQs) has seemed to put many fisheries on a path
Fisheries with ITQs
to sustainability. Why?
20
8.8 Biodiversity contributes

to the productivity and
10
stability of fisheries
Many vital services by marine and freshwater ecosystems,
0
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
such as higher production and stability of aquatic
YEAR resources, are sustained by biodiversity (Figure 8.25).
FIGURE 8.24 An analysis of more than 11,000 fisheries One explanation for higher production is that diverse
shows that individual transferable quotas greatly reduce the ecosystems make more efficient use of nutrients and
probability of fisheries collapse. (Data from Costello et al., 2008) light (Figure 8.26). In addition, higher genetic and
species diversity leads to higher stability in the face of
disturbance and faster recovery following disturbance.
eventually attain its former abundance. Still, these results For instance, genetic diversity in populations of seagrass,
suggest that the radical change in ecosystem structure Zostera marina, is associated with greater resistance to
following the collapse of the Atlantic cod populations disturbance by grazers and faster recovery following
FIGURE 8.25 Biodiversity
of the northwest Atlantic may be reversing itself. These heat-induced mortality (Figure 8.27). When the seagrass
helps sustain economically
valuable services provided by results create a sense of cautious hope for the eventual is healthy, so, too, are the fisheries that depend on the
aquatic ecosystems, including recovery of other collapsed fish populations. seagrass. The fact that diverse ecosystems have high
salt marshes, kelp forests,
mangrove forests, and riparian
wetlands.
AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM SERVICES

(Claire Fackler, NOAA National Marine Sanctuaries)
(Andy Lidstone/Shutterstock)
(Randolph Femmer/USGS)
(David Burdick/NOAA)
SALT MARSHES KELP FORESTS MANGROVE FORESTS RIPARIAN WETLANDS

Salt marshes act as barriers to waves Kelp forest net primary production is Mangrove forests protect coastlines Riparian wetlands are hotspots of
and storm surges; filter pollutants, among the highest of any ecosystems from storm waves and tsunami, while biodiversity and productivity; during
including sediments, nutrients, and on Earth, providing food and shelter for providing nursery grounds for juvenile flooding, particularly along large rivers,
pesticides; provide nesting, nursery, and an abundance of fish, as well as shore fish, harvestable fish and shellfish, and many species of fish move into riparian
feeding grounds for a diversity of wildlife. protection. sources of wood products. wetlands for feeding and spawning.

249
INFLUENCE OF MARINE PRIMARY PRODUCER GENETIC DIVERSITY AND ECOSYSTEM

DIVERSITY ON ECOSYSTEM FUNCTION STABILITY
Experimentally increasing primary producer diversity increased Eel grass plots with greater genetic diversity
primary production and consumer production by 78% to 80%. were more resistant to grazing by geese.
2.0 0
Primary production −10

CONSUMER PRODUCTION
RELATIVE PRIMARY AND
Consumer production
LOSS OF SHOOTS (%)

1.5
−20
1.0 −30
−40
0.5
−50
0 −60
Low High
1 2 4 8
PRIMARY PRODUCER DIVERSITY NUMBER OF GENOTYPES
FIGURE 8.26 A survey of several experimental studies, which

manipulated primary producer diversity, demonstrated the strong Recovery following dieback during a
positive effect of primary producer diversity on primary and heat wave was faster in eel grass plots
6 genotypes containing higher genetic diversity.
consumer production. (Data from Worm et al., 2006)
3 genotypes
250 1 genotype
?
200
SHOOTS PER m2
productivity and buffer communities from disturbance 150

is a key reason they provide important ecosystem
services to humans. Biodiverse and stable ecosystems 100
What mechanisms
with complex physical structure sustain higher species 50 may connect diversity
and population numbers, which humans can harvest among aquatic primary
indefinitely with sustainable fisheries management. 0
producers to higher
0 5 10
WEEKS diversity among aquatic
Biodiversity and Bristol Bay Sockeye Salmon
FIGURE 8.27 Plots of eel grass, Zostera marina, containing consumers?
The fishery for sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) more genotypes lost fewer shoots to grazing geese, indicating
higher resistance to this form of disturbance. (Data from
around Bristol Bay, Alaska, has produced high-quality
Hughes and Stachowicz, 2004) Eel grass plots containing more
dietary protein and has brought a stable income to the genotypes also recovered more rapidly following heat-related
communities around Bristol Bay for more than a century mortality, indicating higher resilience following disturbance.
(Figure 8.28). How has this fishery been sustained, while (Data from Reusch et al., 2005)
SOCKEYE SALMON, ONCORHYNCHUS NERKA, AN IMPORTANT AQUATIC RESOURCE

FIGURE 8.28 Sockeye
salmon, Oncorhynchus nerka,
are native to the North Pacific
region, where they spawn in
river and lake ecosystems
from the Klamath River of
California and Oregon to
Alaska, Siberia, and the island
of Hokkaido, Japan. The
(Tom Quinn/University of Washington)
species is an important source

of income and nutrition to local
(Accent Alaska.com/Alamy)
communities throughout its

range. For example, in recent
years the sockeye salmon
fishery of Bristol Bay, Alaska
(shown in action here), alone
Sockeye salmon swimming up a river to spawn The Bristol Bay Alaska salmon fishing fleet catching salmon before has been valued at over $100
they enter their spawning rivers million annually.

many other fisheries around the world have collapsed?

BIODIVERSITY AND THE BRISTOL BAY SALMON
One of the keys to its sustainability appears to be
FISHERY
biodiversity at several levels.
The high level of biodiversity in the Bristol Bay GENETIC AND LIFE HISTORY DIVERSITY
sockeye salmon system is due largely to the diversity of
its environment. The cool summers and mild winters
of a maritime climate, as well as the more variable
continental climate, mark the area, which includes a
large number and diversity of river and lake ecosystems.
Overlaying climatic diversity with ecosystem diversity Body size Egg size
(slender–robust) (88–116 mg)
produces another source of biodiversity that arises from
the great variety of spawning environments around the
bay, including creeks, spring-fed ponds, large rivers,
lakeshore beaches, and beaches around islands. As a
result of this environmental complexity, the Bristol Bay
sockeye fishery includes several hundred distinctive Time in freshwater Time at sea Time in
populations, spawning in hundreds of different places. (0–3 years) (1–4 years) spawning habitat
(1 day to several weeks)
Because adult salmon return to spawn in the streams
where they hatched from eggs, they are adapted to those
specific stream conditions and, consequently, populations SPAWNING HABITAT DIVERSITY
associated with different spawning streams and habitats
?
accumulate genetic differences over time. Therefore, the
physical diversity of the Bristol Bay ecosystem produces
great genetic diversity among the sockeye salmon
How is diversity in populations (Figure 8.29).
physical factors likely Ecosystem and genetic diversity have contributed to Creeks and Shoreline and
the stability of Bristol Bay sockeye salmon fisheries. As spring-fed ponds island beaches
contributing to diversity
shown in Figure 8.30, very high catch levels have been
in salmon populations maintained for more than a century. This stability has Rivers
in the Bristol Bay been maintained even in the face of climatic variation
fishery? resulting from ocean conditions that produce good
ECOSYSTEM DIVERSITY
and bad years for salmon in their marine life phase.
The diversity in sockeye populations has been a critical
element to their persistence at the population level, as
?
How might a proposed
local environmental changes that might negatively affect
one subpopulation might not affect others. For example,
notice in Figure 8.30 how the Egegik population of
salmon, which contributed very little to the fishery in the
River ecosystem Lake ecosystem
mine in the Bristol Bay early 1900s, was the dominant source of salmon caught
watershed alter the after 1990. CLIMATE DIVERSITY
physical environment An analysis published in the scientific journal Nature
and how might in 2010 concluded that the diversity of the Bristol Bay
those environmental system more than doubles the stability of its salmon
yields, compared with what they would be if the fishery
consequences affect
consisted of a single salmon population. In addition, a
sockeye salmon?
fishery depending on a single salmon population would Continental climate Maritime climate
need to be closed, due to low numbers of returning
salmon, 10 times more frequently. Of course, even the
FIGURE 8.29 Many factors contribute to biodiversity in the
very diverse Bristol Bay fishery could not be sustained in Bristol Bay sockeye salmon fishery, including climatic diversity,
the absence of sound management. ecosystem diversity, spawning habitat diversity, and genetic and
ecosystem-based life history diversity. (Data from Hilborn et al., 2003)
management An approach
to management of natural Marine Reserves Can Benefit Fish and Fishers
resources that considers the
Fisheries scientists increasingly recognize that optimal in focus acknowledges how natural systems provide
entire ecosystem; a departure
from earlier, single-species management strategies include information on the ecosystem services and has given rise to ecosystem-
approaches to natural whole ecosystem in which commercially important fish based management of fisheries. This approach to
resource management. populations live and on which they depend. This shift management of natural resources takes into account the

251
HISTORY OF SOCKEYE SALMON CATCHES IN THREE MAJOR FISHING AREAS OF BRISTOL BAY
Naknek-Kvichak Biodiversity has influenced the long-term stability

40 Nushagak of the Bristol Bay fishery because the contributions
of the different sockeye populations from the major
Egegik fishing areas have changed substantially over time.
CATCH (MILLIONS OF FISH)
30
20
?
How can excluding
fishing from some
areas of the marine
10
environment ultimately
increase the economic
viability of the fishery?
0
1890 1910 1930 1950 1970 1990
YEAR
FIGURE 8.30 The populations contributing to the Bristol Bay sockeye salmon fishery have varied in importance over time.
(Data from Hilborn et al., 2003)
marine protected area

(marine reserve) An area
entire ecosystem. One of the products of ecosystem-level of the marine protected area. While the focal community in the marine environment
thinking about fisheries problems has been growing in Indonesia did not benefit markedly from improved where resource use is
interest in the use of marine protected areas, or marine fishing, the marine protected areas have benefited them restricted to help sustain fish
and shellfish populations,
reserves, where resource use is restricted to help sustain indirectly. The marine reserves have attracted more
protect entire marine
fisheries stocks and to protect entire marine ecosystems tourists, and many local people have taken jobs in the ecosystems, and safeguard
and safeguard their many services. Most marine tourism industry, where they earn 2½ times the income marine ecosystem services.
protected areas are designated as permanent no-take
zones, but others are seasonally closed during key times
of year when fish congregate to spawn. CABO PULMO, BAJA CALIFORNIA: A DRAMATIC EXAMPLE OF RECOVERY
Benjamin Halpern of the University of California IN A MARINE PROTECTED AREA
at Santa Barbara examined the influence of marine
protected areas on the density, biomass, size, and
diversity of marine organisms. He found that marine
protected areas consistently support a higher density
and biomass of fish (Figure 8.31). In addition, the fish
in marine protected areas are larger and more diverse
than in surrounding unprotected areas or than they were
before the protected area was established. Furthermore,
the growing populations within marine protected areas
in the northeastern Atlantic have been shown to “spill
over” to surrounding fishing grounds, improving fishing
success and fulfilling their promise.
In a study sponsored by The Nature Conservancy,
(Leonardo Gonzalez/Shutterstock)
researchers found that recently established marine

protected areas had far-reaching effects on communities
in Fiji, the Solomon Islands, Indonesia, and the
Philippines. As in other regions, fish populations and sizes
have grown in these marine protected areas, and the catch
has increased in the surrounding fishing grounds. These
changes have reduced poverty both directly and indirectly FIGURE 8.31 With protection of Cabo Pulmo, the only coral reef ecosystem in the Gulf of
(Figure 8.32). In the Fijian community studied, monthly California, fish populations have rapidly surpassed the numbers in nearby areas subject to
income from fishing has doubled since the establishment continued fishing (biomass has increased nearly fivefold within 10 years of protection).

MARINE PROTECTED AREAS OF THE UNITED STATES
Marine
protected
areas
(Shane Myers Photography/Shutterstock)

Marine protected areas, such as this one in Hanauma Bay, Hawaii,
provide a variety of ecosystem services, including conservation of marine
biodiversity, protection of breeding and nursery areas for commercially
significant fish and shellfish, and recreation opportunities.
FIGURE 8.32 The number and expanse of marine protected areas within United States territorial waters have grown rapidly.
of fishers. In addition, by selling produce to resorts that has grown exponentially since the 1990s (Figure 8.33),
draw tourists to the reefs for snorkeling, local farmers which has had positive consequences for fish stocks.
have found a more stable market for their crops and have
increased their incomes. The island communities where Dam Removal and Restoration of Salmon
marine protected areas were established also realized Populations
significant social benefits, including better governance,
Removing dams that impede movement and reproduction
improved diet, and better sanitation.
by migrating salmon is critical to restoring commercially
important fish stocks. As of 2011, approximately 1,000
! Think About It dams had been removed from rivers in the United States
and more dams are being removed from U.S. rivers than
1. How are the “services” of marine and freshwater
are being built on them. One of the best studied of these
ecosystems connected to biodiversity?
removal projects took place on the Sandy River in Oregon,
2. What factors contribute to the biodiversity of the which feeds into the Columbia River. The Portland
Bristol Bay salmon fishery? General Electric Company (PGE) developed the Sandy
River for hydroelectric power in the early 20th century
3. How might Elinor Ostrom’s ideas for sustainable by installing two dams: Marmot Dam and Little Sandy
management of common-pool resources by local Dam. Faced with upkeep of aging turbines and pressure to
communities be used to manage marine protected upgrade fish passage structures, PGE managers decided it
areas (see Figure 2.25, page 55)? would be more economical to remove the dams altogether
and instead replace their generating capacity with wind
?
turbines at another location.
8.9 River restoration may be One of the major questions that planners faced was
how to handle the 730,000 cubic meters of sand and
a key to restoring decimated gravel that had built up behind the aging dams. Should
What factors may
have contributed to the
salmon populations they remove the sediment mechanically or allow the river
increasing pace of river River restoration involves a wide range of actions, to wash away the sediment? The company opted to let the
such as restoring the natural shape of channels, river do the work.
restoration in the past
replanting vegetation, reintroducing native species, and In 2007 PGE followed through on its plan to remove
two decades? Marmot Dam, one of the largest dam removal projects
reestablishing the natural flow by removing dams. In the
United States, the number of river restoration projects up to that time (Figure 8.34). Worries about the impact

253
RAPID INCREASE AND AWARENESS OF RIVER RESTORATION
There has been an exponential increase in

6,000 river restoration projects, scientific studies 120
of river restoration, and public awareness.
NUMBER OF RESTORATION PROJECTS
5,000 100
NUMBER OF POPULAR AND

Number of projects
SCIENTIFIC ARTICLES
4,000 Number of newspaper articles 80
Number of scientific articles
3,000 60
2,000 40
1,000 20
0 0
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
YEAR
FIGURE 8.33 As river restoration projects have been conducted and studied scientifically, the reading public has been kept
informed. (Graph from Palmer et al., 2007)
of the removal on fish were relieved the day after the

dam removal was completed, when Coho salmon,
Oncorhynchus kisutch, migrated right up the restored
Despite the massive movement of sediment, salmon
were swimming up the river the day after the dam was
removed and spawning successfully. Within a year, most
?
If you were in charge of
river channel. Estimates of the time for the river to of the gravel mobilized by dam removal was spread
remove half the built-up sediments ranged from 2 to out over 9 kilometers downstream of the former dam,
monitoring the Sandy
5 years, but the Sandy River surprised everyone by with finer particles like sand being dispersed farther River’s response to dam
removing the sediments in just a few months. In fact, downstream. Geologists are carefully monitoring the removal, name at least
100,000 cubic meters of sediment were moved in the first movements of sediments mobilized by removal of three factors you would
48 hours alone—equivalent to more than 20,000 heavily the Marmot Dam, as the Sandy River adjusts to its measure. Explain why
loaded single-axle dump trucks! uninterrupted flow path from headwaters to mouth. you selected those factors.
REMOVAL OF MARMOT DAM ON THE SANDY RIVER, OREGON

(AP Photo/Don Ryan)
(AP Photo/Don Ryan)
(Jon Major, USGS)
1 The 60-meter-long, 15-meter-high Marmot Dam 2 After the charges were set in the dam, they were 3 The final step in the dam removal process was to
on the Sandy River before demolition. detonated and large backhoes moved in to remove breach the temporary earthen plug that diverted the
the 25,000 tons of fractured material. river during removal of Marmot Dam. Once breached,
the river rapidly washed the earthen plug away.
FIGURE 8.34 The removal of a dam on a river requires a great deal of study, planning, and careful execution.

that removing the dams will revitalize the regional salmon

SUCCESSFUL RIVER RESTORATION fishery, which could generate tens of millions of dollars
annually for nearby fishing communities.
Based on consideration of these issues and extensive
scientific and engineering studies, the diverse interest
groups involved converged on an agreement in early
2010. The agreement included a plan for sharing water in
ways that would both restore salmon runs to the upper
Klamath River system and protect the interests of farmers.
Three years later, then U.S. Secretary of the Interior Ken
Salazar recommended removal of the four major dams
on the Klamath, an action requiring authorization by the
U.S. Congress. Although removal of the four mainstream
hydroelectric facilities would eliminate 169 gigawatts
(GW) of hydroelectric power, renewable power sources
such as wind or solar could replace it while fisheries
populations recover, leading to a win–win scenario for
long-term sustainability. If the plan is approved, it will be
the largest dam removal project ever attempted.
! Think About It
1. What do the flushing of sediments and spawning
(Sandy Historical Society and Museum)
success by salmon following dam removal on the

Sandy River suggest about the resilience of rivers
and salmon populations?
2. What criteria should be used when deciding a
course of action in a very complex economic and
cultural situation such as that on the Klamath
FIGURE 8.35 Flowing from Mount Hood to the Columbia River?
River, the Sandy River, Oregon, is a wild river once more.
8.10 Aquaculture can

provide high-quality protein
PGE followed up in 2008 by removing Little Sandy
?
What factors likely
Dam, which opened up the entire Sandy River system to
migrating salmon. For the first time in nearly 100 years,
the Sandy River was flowing freely from its headwaters
with low environmental
impact
As the world recognizes the limits of the oceans, many
on Mount Hood to the Columbia River (Figure 8.35). hope that aquaculture can take some pressure off wild
contributed to reaching Scientists are carefully following developments in this populations. However, as aquaculture continues to
an agreement involving very large-scale experiment in returning an entire river expand, one of the challenges is making it more efficient
so many potentially system to a free-flowing state. and environmentally friendly.
conflicting interests
in the Klamath River Klamath River Dam Removal Reducing Pollution by Aquaculture
system?
Restoration of a highly modified river system such as the One of the most effective ways to reduce pollution
Klamath requires that we consider factors far beyond the from aquaculture is through integrated multi-
impact of dams on salmon populations. For example, trophic aquaculture (IMTA), which, in the marine
removing the dams will eliminate the 50 jobs associated environment, is sometimes called integrated mariculture.
integrated multi-trophic with operating the hydroelectric system on the Klamath In this process, several species of aquatic organisms
aquaculture (IMTA) An River. At the same time, dam removal would support an with complementary feeding habits are raised in close
approach to aquaculture estimated additional 450 jobs across the region over the proximity. The waste product of one species is food for
that involves raising several
species of aquatic organisms
following 50 years. The existing reservoirs behind the dams the others, thereby reducing impacts on the environment.
with complementary feeding support recreational fishing, which generates income to For example, in Sungo Bay, China, aquaculturists grow a
habits in close proximity. the local community. However, fisheries scientists project combination of fish, abalone, seaweeds, and scallops in a

255
?
Aquaculture Wastes and Constructed
CHINESE INTEGRATED AQUACULTURE SYSTEM Wetlands
DIET Biological approaches are also being used to make

land-based aquaculture systems more sustainable. All How might IMTA
intensive aquaculture systems have the potential to increase profits and
generate pollution. While IMTA can be used to reduce reduce costs in an
nutrient pollution in marine systems, other techniques aquaculture system?
are required for freshwater aquaculture in the terrestrial
landscape. There are many possible engineering solutions
to the problem of aquaculture wastewater treatment, but
Fish many are expensive both in terms of energy and money.
Increasingly, constructed wetlands, which are artificial
NUTRIENTS wetland ecosystems constructed in areas where wetlands
(nitrogen and phosphorus)
do not occur naturally, can be used to treat wastewater
from freshwater aquaculture (Figure 8.37). Constructed
wetlands foster the complex biological functions of
nutrient removal by plants and microbes, and they can also
provide habitat for wildlife. While they can be effective and
self-sustaining if designed properly, they require long-
term monitoring to ensure that they continue to function
as designed. Because the problem of treating wastewater
Seaweeds Phytoplankton
from aquaculture is slightly different from treating other
forms of wastewater, we will defer a detailed discussion of
constructed wetlands until Chapter 13.
Shrimp Farming and Mangrove Conservation

There are several ways to reduce the impact of
Abalone Oysters and scallops shrimp farming on mangrove forests. One problem is
containment of the nutrient-rich water to minimize
The several species grown in the integrated aquacultural system
coastal pollution. Experts in the design of shrimp
of Sungo Bay, China, complement each other trophically, which ponds point out that the soils where mangroves grow
reduces pollution of the bay and increases aquacultural production.
are generally too permeable to contain water. In those
cases, the ponds may need to be lined with plastic or an
FIGURE 8.36 Nutrients released from food, fed to fish
cultured in cages, is absorbed by either phytoplankton, which is
impermeable clay so that waste water can be properly
food for oysters and scallops, or by seaweeds, which are eaten managed. Another problem associated with shrimp
by abalone. farming is that removing mangroves to build shrimp
ponds increases the risk that the ponds, which are very
expensive to build, will be damaged by storms.
sequence of cultures extending for 8 kilometers offshore. Recognizing this danger, many shrimp ponds are
In this system, waste from the cage-cultured fish, both now sited behind protective mangrove forests, and
dissolved nutrients and particulate matter, is consumed the necessary ocean water is delivered to the inland
by the other members of this integrated aquaculture ponds through a canal or pipeline. Finally, because
system. Filter feeding species can directly consume wastes ponds dedicated to intensive shrimp culture need to be
from the fish feeding operation, while primary producers completely drained periodically, they are increasingly
benefit from dissolved nutrients (mainly nitrogen and built above the high-tide level and therefore inland from
phosphorus). The result is a substantial reduction in mangrove forests. In these cases, reducing direct impact
pollution and greater harvests of seafood (Figure 8.36). on mangrove forests allows them to continue to provide
Integrated multi-trophic aquaculture is being tested ecosystem services of fish nursery habitat and flood
around the world. A system of integrated aquaculture protection.
involving Atlantic salmon, mussels, and kelp has also constructed wetlands
been developed for the Bay of Fundy, Canada. Again, Artificial wetland ecosystems,
Reducing the Impact of Sea Lice used in the treatment
the integrated system reduces pollution from the caged
of wastewater, that are
salmon and increases profits. Other systems involving One of the most direct approaches to reducing the impact constructed in areas where
multiple species are in place in Africa, South America, of sea lice on wild salmon is to monitor and treat lice wetlands may not occur
Australia, and Europe. infestations on captive salmon using pesticides. However, naturally.

A CONSTRUCTED WETLAND RECLAIMS A HISTORICAL TREASURE IN HANGZHOU, CHINA

(Liu et al., 2009. © Ecological Society of America, Inc.)

1 Polluted by heavy tourist traffic, 2 Managers of the Hanzhou Botanical 3 Jade Spring Pond was highly polluted 4 After just one year, the water in Jade
Jade Spring Pond was closed to Garden built a constructed wetland and unsightly before routing its water Spring Pond was of high enough
the public in 1999. containing 86 plant species to reclaim through the constructed wetland. quality to restock fish and reopen the
water from Jade Spring Pond. 1,000-year-old attraction to tourists.
FIGURE 8.37 A similar approach, using constructed wetlands, is being used as a low-cost way to treat wastes from aquaculture.
there are concerns that sea lice will evolve resistance and fish oil. Much progress has been made in replacing
to such treatments and that nontarget organisms will fish meal with plant protein (e.g., soy). Fish oils have
be killed—as has occurred with chemical control of also been partially replaced by plant oils, including
agricultural pests (see Chapter 7). Another potential canola, soy, sunflower, or olive oil. Fish nutrition experts
control measure includes restricting salmon farms to predict that three-fourths of fish oils currently used in
areas away from the migration paths of wild fish to aquaculture feeds could be replaced by plant oils with no
minimize their contact. Canada and parts of Europe loss in growth performance by fish or shellfish. Others
have already taken the precaution of excluding salmon have suggested that shifting aquaculture from large,
aquaculture from some areas supporting valuable wild carnivorous species, which require high-protein diets,
salmon stocks. Growing salmon in land-based tanks down the food chain to omnivores or herbivores will also
rather than sea pens and treating the effluent is another reduce the amount of fish meal used in aquaculture. For
way to reduce infection of wild salmon. example, tilapia and catfish grow well on predominantly
plant-based diets. Plant-based feeds are also growing
in popularity among shrimp farmers as they have
Decreasing the Use of Fish Meal
increasingly shifted from growing carnivorous tiger
Reducing the impact of aquaculture on wild forage fish shrimp to growing omnivorous western white shrimp,
populations hinges on finding substitutes for fish meal Litopenaeus vannamei.

257
! Think About It 8.7–8.10 Solutions:

1. How are integrated aquaculture systems Summary
converging on the structure of natural food webs
One key to properly managing fisheries is a
(see Chapter 2, page 40)?
management plan built on sound science. In
2. How can knowledge of the influence of the case of whales, an international ban helped
biodiversity on ecosystem processes help reduce the species recover. Fisheries are generally regulated
environmental impact of aquaculture? through gear restrictions and limits to the
amount of time and the period when a fishing
3. What are the potential contributions of using vessel can be at sea. Competitive approaches
plant-based feeds to aquaculture sustainability? to fishing can be avoided by granting fishing
quotas to individuals, cooperatives, or
communities. Fishing quotas also appear to
encourage more cooperation between fishers
and fisheries scientists and managers, and
marine protected areas improve fisheries while
simultaneously increasing marine biodiversity.
Thousands of projects around the world,
large and small, are aimed at restoring rivers
and wetlands, and this increasingly involves
dam removal. Aquaculture now accounts for
nearly 40% of total fisheries production. With
the massive increase in aquacultural production
comes the potential for massive environmental
damage. One of the most effective ways to reduce
pollution from aquaculture is through integrated
multi-trophic aquaculture (IMTA). Many shrimp
farms are now being sited and managed in ways
that protect nearby mangrove forests. More and
more, wastewater from land-based aquaculture is
being treated effectively and economically using
constructed wetlands. In addition, fish farmers
are switching to plant-based diets and raising fish
lower on the food chain.

Central Question: Can we sustainably manage fisheries and aquaculture?

• How are commercial fish populations harvested • How is overexploitation of whale and marine
and managed? fish stocks related to the Tragedy of the
Commons?
• What is the relationship between nutrient
availability and primary production in the marine • What impact do large dams have on migratory
environment? fish populations?
• How does El Niño affect fisheries along the west • In what ways does aquaculture affect the
coast of South America? aquatic environment and wild fish populations?
Aquatic Resources and You ! Buy and consume sustainably managed aquatic resources.
Fishery and aquaculture products are a major part of the diets of people Several organizations rate seafood on its level of sustainability. The
around the world. Demand for them continues to increase, creating Monterey Bay Aquarium provides online evaluations of the most
even more pressures on marine and freshwater environments already sustainable sources of fish and shellfish for individual consumers
threatened by overexploitation. One way that each of us can help foster and businesses. Its website (www.seafoodwatch.org) rates all types
more sustainable use of these resources is by making informed choices. of seafood and categorizes them into “green,” “yellow,” and “red”
seafood categories (there’s also an app!). When shopping for seafood
! Keep informed. at grocery stores and markets, look for the blue check mark labeling
Keep up to date on developments in sustainable fishing and “Certified Sustainable Seafood MSC” used by the Marine Stewardship
aquaculture both in your region, if you live in an area with Program, which reviews fisheries and certifies those that are being
commercial fishing or aquaculture, and globally. Explore issues, managed sustainably.
such as the status of GM salmon and what is being done to
prevent aquaculture from threatening wild fish stocks. Learn ! Speak up!
about the sources of fish and shellfish in your area. If you live in a Talk to restaurant owners and supermarket managers and ask them
fish-producing region, gather information about the importance of to serve and supply seafood that is sustainably harvested. You can
these industries to the regional economy and about the markets also write to local and federal policy makers and encourage them to
for the products from your region. establish laws and initiatives that protect marine areas and aquatic
health.

259

• What management strategies are being used
to make harvests of aquatic resources more
sustainable?
• How does biodiversity contribute to the
productivity and stability of aquatic resources?
• How are migratory salmon responding to
removing dams from spawning streams?
• What tactics are being used to reduce the
environmental impacts of aquaculture?
Chapter 8 5. Following dam building, the number of

salmon returning to spawn in the Klamath
a. They do not contribute to sustaining fishery production
but instead preserve marine ecosystems for tourism.
b. Marine protected areas reduce the number of large
Review Questions River averaged about 35,000, approximately
10% of the historical average. How many predaceous fish, so prey fish populations grow.
salmon historically returned to the Klamath c. By reducing the abundance and diversity of marine
1. Where in the world’s oceans would you
River to spawn? invertebrates in an area, marine protected areas allow
likely encounter the lowest level of primary
a. 90,000 c. 3,500,000 marine fish to flourish.
production by phytoplankton?
b. 350,000 d. 35,000,000 d. Marine protected areas support higher biomass and
a. Along the west coast of a continent
numbers of fish, providing an abundance of juvenile and
b. In the central tropical Pacific Ocean 6. Which of the following is a way in which adult fish that move into areas that can be fished.
c. In an area of active upwelling intensive aquaculture affects aquatic
d. Offshore from a major river ecosystems? Critical Analysis
2. How does El Niño impact commercial fish a. Intensive aquaculture can pollute aquatic
1. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization
production along the west coast of South ecosystems.
of the UN, the people in the nations on the west coast of
America? b. Intensive aquaculture can enhance the genetic
Africa consumed much more fish per capita than did the
a. The warm water brought by El Niño speeds up fish diversity of wild populations.
people in the nations along the east coast of Africa. Can
production. c. Intensive aquaculture increases the intensity of
you explain this difference in terms of availability?
b. The increased nutrients in surface waters associated fishing for wild fish.
with El Niño are toxic to phytoplankton. d. Intensive aquaculture decreases the disease and 2. Using Internet resources, explore and summarize the
c. The warm surface water of an El Niño directly kills parasite load on wild fish populations. role played by international treaties in the management of
large numbers of fish. Atlantic cod and Pacific halibut. Compare the complexity
7. Which of the following was an indicator and success of these treaties at sustaining fish harvests.
d. The warm surface water of an El Niño stops of recovery of the Atlantic cod food web off
upwelling, which reduces nutrient renewal in the Nova Scotia? 3. Explore the information and perspectives on the
euphotic zone. a. A decline in abundance of zooplankton issue of genetically modified (GM) Atlantic salmon and
3. How would total salmon catch in the b. An increase in abundance of phytoplankton formulate a cogent argument for or against approval of
Bristol Bay fishery be affected if pollution c. An increase in the abundance of forage fish GM salmon for human consumption.
from mining, for example, eliminated a salmon d. A decrease in the abundance of forage fish 4. Use Figure 8.12 as a basis for reviewing and
population in a major river that drains into 8. River restoration can involve which of the explaining the changes in the marine food web off Nova
Bristol Bay (see Figures 8.29 and 8.30)? following? Scotia caused by the depletion of Atlantic cod, the top
a. Catches would likely not change. a. Planting of native riparian vegetation carnivore in that ecosystem. If the cod population does
b. Catches would likely be more stable over time due to b. Restoring the natural form of river channels recover, how will the ecosystem change as it returns to
less competition among salmon. c. Removing dams something resembling its former state?
c. Catches would likely be more variable over time due d. All of the above
to lower salmon population diversity. 5. Discuss the potential cultural changes associated
d. Catches would likely increase. with a shift from “race to fish” to individual transferable
9. What percentage of the 150 million metric
quotas (ITQs) as a basis for regulating commercial
tons of aquatic organisms harvested in 2011
4. Approximately what percentage of the fishing. How does this regulatory change potentially
came from aquaculture?
world’s fish populations has been depleted affect the ways in which fishers view and harvest fish
a. 25% c. 40%
to the point where those numbers are now and shellfish populations?
b. 60% d. 80%
considered “collapsed”?
a. 90% c. 50% 10. How do marine protected areas contribute Find additional resources and links online at www.
b. 75% d. 25% to sustaining fishery production? macmillanhighered.com/launchpad/molles1e.
manage nonrenewable energy
resources in a way that reduces Describe the main fossil fuels
environmental harm? utilized by modern society.
(Dado Galdieri/Bloomberg via Getty Images) SCIENCE

C H A P T ER 9
Fossil Fuels
and Nuclear Energy
Explain how fossil fuel extraction Analyze the tactics for mitigating
and nuclear power use can the environmental impacts of consuming
damage the environment. fossil fuels and using nuclear power.
262 C HAPTER 9 FO SSIL FUELS A ND NUC LEA R ENER GY
(Saul Loeb/AFP/Getty Images)

(Courtesy U.S. Coast Guard)
The Deepwater Horizon drilling rig being consumed by flames (left) and pelicans coated with crude oil from the resulting oil spill (right).
Deepwater Horizon Up in Smoke

A devastating oil spill highlights our dangerous dependence on fossil fuels.
O n the night of April 20, 2010, a slurry of methane gas,

mud, and seawater shot up the drilling apparatus
of an oil rig in the Gulf of Mexico and geysered into the
months. All told, approximately 780 million liters
(206 million gallons) of oil were released into the Gulf
of Mexico.
air like a shaken bottle of champagne. With a resounding Following the spill, dozens of diseased dolphins washed
bang, the gas erupted in flames and the rig quaked back up on Gulf coast beaches. Seabirds were coated in thick,
and forth violently. The commotion woke 23-year-old black tar. And Louisiana’s alligator-filled wetlands smelled
Christopher Choy—one of 126 workers onboard—who like a corner gas station. The fishing and tourism industries
climbed out of his bed as fire alarms blared in the hallways. along the U.S. Gulf Coast from Louisiana to Florida were
When he got outside to the inferno, he watched men leap devastated. In July 2015, British Petroleum (BP), which was
50 feet off the deck into the dark, roiling ocean below. “I’m responsible for the well, agreed to pay out $18.7 million
fixing to die. This is it,” he thought, as he later told a news in fines and compensation—the largest environmental
reporter. “We’re not gonna get off of here.” settlement in U.S. history—and estimates it has incurred
In fact, Choy was one of the lucky ones who escaped more than $40 billion in spill-related costs overall.
to safety on a life boat—but that night 11 of his coworkers
perished. They died in what would become the largest
accidental oil spill in history. The oil rig was called the “It is evident that the fortunes of
Deepwater Horizon because it had previously pushed the
limits of human engineering by penetrating more than
the world’s human population, for
10,700 meters (35,000 feet) into the ocean floor in search better or for worse, are inextricably
of the precious “black gold” that fuels our energy-hungry
economy. On the night of the disaster it was drilling at a
interrelated with the use that is
more modest 4,000 meters (13,000 feet) deep. Even after the made of energy resources.”
flames were extinguished 36 hours later, thick, black crude M. King Hubbert, 1956
gushed from the wellhead on the seafloor for the next three
H O W CAN W E M AN AGE N ONR ENEWA B LE ENER GY R ESOUR C ES I N A WAY TH AT R E DUC E S E NVI R ONME NTA L H A R M?
263
It’s been 150 years since the drilling of the world’s economy. We discuss some solutions nonrenewable energy
first commercial oil well—the Drake Well in northeastern to the environmental challenges they Sources of energy, including
Pennsylvania—and we’re more dependent than ever on this create in the concluding section of coal, petroleum, natural gas,
the chapter. and nuclear fuels, that are
fossil energy source. Fossil fuels and other nonrenewable
not renewable on timescales
energy sources, including uranium for nuclear power, The U.S. Energy Information meaningful to human lifetimes
supply 87% of the planet’s power needs. Such nonrenewable Agency predicts that energy demand and that can be depleted with
energy sources require millions of years to form through will increase approximately 50% continued use.
biological, geological, and chemical processes and will over the next 30 years. This rising
renewable energy Sources
eventually be depleted. In the next chapter, we examine the energy demand, coupled with the of energy, including solar,
quest to replace them with renewable energy sources, such rapid pace at which we are depleting wind, hydrologic, geothermal,
as solar power and biofuels, which can be replenished in nonrenewable energy sources and and biomass, that can be
replenished in a relatively
a relatively short period of time and are not exhausted by the extent to which their use impacts
short period of time. Use does
use. But for now we focus on the nature of nonrenewable the environment, brings us to the not deplete renewable energy
energy sources and why they continue to underlie the global central question of this chapter. sources.
Central Question
How can we manage nonrenewable
energy resources in a way that
reduces environmental harm?

(Dado Galdieri/Bloomberg via Getty Images)

9.1–9.3 Science
T hink about the last time there was a power outage in
your city. If it lasted just a few hours, it was likely a
diversion as you sat around and shared stories with your
9.1 Fossil fuels provide
energy in chemical form
family in the dark as the ice cream in your freezer melted. Coal, oil, and natural gas are called fossil fuels because
Now imagine if the whole world went dark and the they are the fossilized remains of ancient photosynthetic
global supply of fuel was exhausted. Airports would shut organisms that converted the radiant energy in sunlight
down. Factories would close their doors. The food supply to chemical energy. That energy is stored in the form
fossil fuels Fossilized organic would diminish. Your only source of news would be the of molecular chains made up of hydrogen and carbon.
material, mainly the remains neighbors. Life as we know it would come to a halt. It’s Burning these fuels breaks up those molecular chains and
of ancient photosynthetic not such a far-fetched nightmare. The fact is our modern liberates smaller molecules, including water and carbon
organisms that converted
the Sun’s radiant energy into
lives are almost entirely dependent on nonrenewable dioxide, along with pollutants and ash particles known
chemical energy (e.g., coal, oil, energy resources, and one day, inevitably, they are going as black carbon. By burning them, the stored energy is
natural gas). to run out. released, primarily in the form of heat.
COAL FORMATION
Coal is the fossilized remains of plants buried

in the sediments of ancient swamps.
FIGURE 9.1 Coal, the

a. Swamp surrounded by b. Burial of dead plant material c. Deeper burial, dead plant
fossilized remains of plants vegetation and filling with under layers of sediment material transformed to coal
buried in the sediments dead plant material under the influence of heat
of ancient swamps, was and pressure
formed by processes taking
place over millions of years. MILLIONS OF YEARS
265
FIGURE 9.2 The energy

MAJOR TYPES OF COAL VARY IN THEIR CARBON AND ENERGY CONTENT content of coal increases
from lignite to bituminous
coal; anthracite has slightly
GRADES OF COAL
lower energy content than
bituminous coal.
40,000
ENERGY CONTENT (KILOJOULES PER kg)
30,000
20,000
10,000
(kkymek/Shutterstock)
(Courtesy Dan Mosier)
(Michał Barański/
(Antoni Halim/
Getty Images)
Shutterstock)
Lignite Sub-bituminous Bituminous Anthracite
INCREASING CARBON CONTENT AND HARDNESS
Coal their pottery kilns, and the steamships and railroads of the
Industrial Revolution were powered by coal boilers. Today,
As the leaves, branches, and trunks of ancient plants
coal is most commonly used to generate electricity. For
accumulated in freshwater swamps some 100 to 300
example, more than 90% of coal mined in the United States
million years ago, they formed organic-rich bottom
is used in coal-fired electrical power stations. Coal also
sediments (Figure 9.1a). Inorganic material, including
runs various industrial processes, such as the manufacture
clays and sand, were then deposited in these ancient
of paper or cement. Coal serves as a raw material to
swamps, first mixing with and then burying the organic-
manufacture plastics, tar, fertilizer, and medicines. When
rich layer. Over the course of millions of years, the rock
baked in a hot furnace, coal is transformed to coke, a key
and soil overlying the swamp sediments increased to
material used in the manufacture of steel.
great depths (Figure 9.1b). With the increasing pressure
In 2008 energy experts estimated that about 93% of
and heat that resulted from the thick accumulation of
the world’s known coal reserves occur in three regions
rock and soil, the organic-rich material that began as
of the world: Northern Eurasia, Asia Pacific, and
buried swamp sediment was gradually converted into the
North America. Meanwhile, Africa, South and Central
sedimentary rock that we call coal (Figure 9.1c).
America, and the Middle East collectively are estimated
Geologists classify coal into four major grades, coal Sedimentary or
to hold just 7% of world reserves. Closer analysis shows metamorphic rock high in
which differ in carbon and energy content (Figure
that proven coal reserves are even more restricted carbon and energy content
9.2). The differences among coal grades are mainly
geographically. Just nine nations harbor more than 90% formed over millions of years
the result of variations in their age and the amount of under conditions of high
of the world’s coal reserves (Figure 9.3). At 28% of the
heat and pressure to which they were exposed during pressure and temperature
world total, the coal reserves in the United States exceed
development. Lignite, the youngest of the coal grades (lignite, sub-bituminous coal,
all others. bituminous coal, anthracite).
with the lowest carbon and energy content, was subjected
to less heat and pressure during development than were
Petroleum petroleum (crude oil) A
the other grades. The other coal grades, listed in order mixture of hydrocarbons
of increasing carbon content, are sub-bituminous coal, Petroleum, or crude oil, formed in the oceans from the contained in sedimentary
bituminous coal, and anthracite. Energy content increases accumulated remains of algae and zooplankton deposited rocks of marine origin;
from lignite to bituminous coal, then the increase in on the sea floor over millions of years (Figure 9.4). These developed from the
accumulated remains of algae
energy drops slightly from bituminous coal to anthracite. deposits mixed with sands and silt, and eventually this
and zooplankton deposited
Humans have used coal as a source of heating since organic-rich sediment was buried under deep layers of on the sea floor over millions
prehistoric times. Native Americans once burned it in sedimentary rock. Trapped under a cap of heavy rock, of years.

FIGURE 9.3 Regional

distribution of known coal REGIONAL AND NATIONAL COAL RESERVES
reserves: Three geographic
regions possess 95% of REGIONAL COAL RESERVES
the world’s coal reserves.
Countries with the largest
known coal reserves: Just Northern Eurasia
nine countries contain more Asia Pacific
than 90% of global coal North America
reserves. (2008 Data from Africa
U.S. Energy Information Central & South
America
Agency, www.eia.gov/cfapps/ Middle East
ipdbproject/IEDIndex3.
cfm?tid=1&pid=7&aid=6)
NATIONAL COAL RESERVES
30
PERCENT OF GLOBAL RESERVES
25
20
15
10
0
United Russia China Australia India Germany Ukraine Kazakhstan South
?
States Africa
COUNTRY
What do the rich oil

the developing petroleum was subjected to increasing Chemically speaking, crude oil is a mixture of
fields in places like pressures and heat, which gradually transformed the hydrocarbons, molecular chains consisting of only
Texas and North organic materials into a waxy substance called kerogen. carbon and hydrogen. The smallest hydrocarbon, made
Dakota suggest about With increasing heat and temperature applied over the up of four hydrogen atoms bonded to a single carbon
the geologic history of course of millions of years, kerogen was converted to atom, is methane (CH4). To be useful and safe, crude oil
these regions? crude oil. must be refined, a process that involves separating the
FORMATION OF PETROLEUM
Petroleum is derived from the fossilized

remains of marine algae and animals.
kerogen A waxy substance

found in shale and other
sedimentary rocks that yields
oil when heated; occurs during
an intermediate stage of
petroleum formation.
Marine organisms, like algae Burial of dead marine Under deep layers of rock, oil
hydrocarbon An organic and animals, sink to the organisms by sediments formed through the application
molecule made up of carbon ocean’s bottom after death of heat and pressure
and hydrogen only; the
simplest hydrocarbon is MILLIONS OF YEARS
methane (CH4), the main
component of natural gas. FIGURE 9.4 Petroleum, or crude oil, is derived from the fossilized remains of marine organisms over the course of millions of years.
267
REFINING CRUDE OIL AND ITS MAJOR PRODUCTS
Liquefied
Lower molecular Petroleum
weight/low boiling Gases
DECREASING MOLECULAR WEIGHT AND BOILING TEMPERATURE temperature
Gas (LPG)
Chemicals
Naphtha
Gasoline for
vehicles
Gasoline
Jet fuel
Kerosene
Fractionating
column
Diesel fuels
Diesel oil
Crude oil Lubricating

oils, greases,
Lubricants and waxes
Fuel and
heating oil
Heavy oil
High molecular
weight/high boiling
Bitumen for
temperature roads and
Residue roofing
FIGURE 9.5 Oil refineries separate the wide range of useful substances present in crude oil by heating the mixture and allowing the
substances to separate themselves by molecular weight, with the lightest compounds rising to the top of the fractionating column.
hydrocarbons into fractions containing hydrocarbons However, various oil products are in high demand to
with the same number of carbon atoms. lubricate engines, tar our roads, or heat our homes
The main principle behind the refining of oil is (Figure 9.5). For many of these applications, alternatives
that different sizes of hydrocarbons have different do not work as well or are currently more costly.
molecular weights and will boil (or condense) at different The Middle East has oil reserves that account for
temperatures. To separate these hydrocarbons, heated over half of the world total and dwarf those of all other
crude is pumped into the refinery column, as shown in regions. After the Middle East, South and Central
Figure 9.5. Because the temperature within the column America, North America, Africa, and Northern Eurasia,
decreases from bottom to top, the heaviest hydrocarbons each control from approximately 7% to 16% of global
(e.g., heating oil) condense and flow out in the lower reserves. Within the world’s regions, just 15 countries
layers. Meanwhile, the lightest hydrocarbons (e.g., control more than 90% of the world’s known oil reserves
methane) rise to the very top of the column, where they (Figure 9.6).
are collected. These gases are typically pressurized until
they turn to liquid, resulting in liquefied petroleum gas,
Natural Gas
or LPG.
Petroleum ends up in our cars and trucks in its most Natural gas is a mixture of gaseous hydrocarbons—
familiar forms as gasoline (petrol) and diesel fuel. primarily methane, but also ethane, propane, and butane

FIGURE 9.6 The oil-

rich Middle East Region GLOBAL OIL RESERVES
possesses just over half
of proven reserves. Just REGIONAL OIL RESERVES
15 countries hold more
than 90% of the world’s
known oil reserves. (2011 Middle East
Data from U.S. Energy Central & South
America
Information Agency, www.
North America
eia.gov/countries/index.
Africa
cfm?view=reserves) Northern Eurasia
Asia Pacific
NATIONAL OIL RESERVES
20
18
16
14
12
10
0
la
da
it
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an
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COUNTRY
(Figure 9.7). Natural gas forms in both petroleum ruptures such cap rock, the natural gas under it flows
deposits and coal beds. The long hydrocarbons in to the surface under pressure. In coal beds, natural gas,
What does the shift in
petroleum break down into shorter hydrocarbons of mainly methane, is formed from coal either under heat
the view of natural gas natural gas at temperatures above 100°C. These volatile and pressure (as in crude oil) or by methane-producing
from “waste product” gases then migrate up through porous rocks until they bacteria operating at lower temperatures.
to valuable resource reach a nonporous impermeable rock, called a cap Natural gas associated with oil deposits and coal beds
suggest about changes rock (Figure 9.8). Significant deposits of natural gases was once considered a hazard, because it could explode
in energy supply and occur, especially where dome-shaped cap rocks trap a during drilling, and a waste product, because it was difficult
demand over time? reservoir of gas overlying crude oil deposits. If drilling to store and transport. Now, however, natural gas is used
MAJOR COMPONENTS OF NATURAL GAS
H H H H H H H H H H
H C H H C C H H C C C H H C C C C H
H H H H H H H H H H
METHANE ETHANE PROPANE BUTANE

CH4 CH3CH3 CH3CH2CH3 CH3CH2CH2CH3
USES: Electrical USES: Plastics, USES: Heating, cooking, USES: Synthetic rubber,
generation, detergent, antifreeze fuel stoves and barbeques transportation, lighter fuel
heating, cooking
Like all hydrocarbons, these gases are composed of carbon and hydrogen only.
FIGURE 9.7 Natural gas is a mixture of several kinds of hydrocarbons, but the major gas in the mixture is generally methane. The
hydrocarbons in natural gas are all gases at room temperature.
269
ASSOCIATION OF NATURAL GAS DEPOSITS WITH NATURAL GAS, A HANDY AND EFFECTIVE
OIL AND COAL BEDS ENERGY SOURCE
Natural gas deposits form where nonporous

rock traps volatile gases, especially methane,
diffusing upward from coal- or oil-bearing rock.
Porous rock
Nonporous rock
(Image Source/Getty Images)

Gas
Porous rock Coal
Oil
Porous rock
FIGURE 9.8 Natural gas deposits form where nonporous rock FIGURE 9.9 Natural gas is widely used in homes for cooking
traps volatile gases, especially methane, diffusing upward from and heating. It is also used for many industrial processes,
coal or oil-bearing rock. including increasingly for generating electricity.
widely in residential, commercial, and industrial settings oil and coal, natural gas is unevenly distributed around the
(Figure 9.9), where it accounts for about one-fourth of world. Just three countries, Russia, Iran, and Qatar, control
the energy used in the United States. As was the case with over 50% of the known reserves of natural gas (Figure 9.10).
GLOBAL RESERVES OF NATURAL GAS
REGIONAL GAS RESERVES
Middle East
Central & South
America
North America
Africa
Northern Eurasia
Asia Pacific
NATIONAL GAS RESERVES
30
25
20
15
10
0
ia
r ia
la
s
a
lia
a
ta
te
te
in
bi
Ir a
Ir a
ta
ss
ue
ra
ge
Qa
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Ch
ta
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is
Ru
ez
st
en
dS
Ni
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Em
Au
n
km
ud
Ve
ite
b
Sa
Un
ra
Tu
dA
ite
Un
COUNTRY
FIGURE 9.10 Regional distribution of known natural gas reserves: The Middle East and Northern Eurasia have 75% of the known
reserves. Countries with the largest known natural gas reserves: 75% of known reserves occur in 12 countries; just three countries
own over half of the world’s known gas reserves. (2011 Data from U.S. Energy Information Agency, www.eia.gov/cfapps/ipdbproject/
IEDIndex3.cfm?tid=1&pid=7&aid=6)

! Think About It BASIC ELEMENTS AND OPERATION OF AN

ELECTRICAL GENERATOR
1. When converting some source of energy (e.g.,
natural gas) into electricity, why is the amount of
electrical energy always less than the amount of
N
North
energy used in its generation? (Hint: Consider the magnetic
pole
second law of thermodynamics discussed in Magnetic field
Chapter 2, page 38.)
2. The same processes that produced fossil fuels,
Conductor
such as coal and petroleum, are still occurring on
Earth today. Why, then, are fossil fuels considered Direction
“nonrenewable”? of rotation
Induced current
S
South
3. Explain why the author Thom Hartmann was magnetic
pole
correct when he referred to fossil fuels as “ancient
sunlight.”
FIGURE 9.12 Passing a conductor through a magnetic field
induces an electrical current in the conductor, commonly called
9.2 Power plants and vehicles electricity or electrical energy.
burn fossil fuels to generate

electricity and movement scientists had learned how to transform the mechanical
During the early days of the Industrial Revolution, energy of these steam engines into electricity.
most industries powered their grain mills and other Electricity, which is the flow of electrons through
mechanical contraptions directly, using wind mills and materials known as conductors, is one of the most useful
water wheels. With the invention of the coal-powered forms of energy, in part because it can be transmitted
steam engine in the late 1700s, factories could be located over long distances from a source of production to users
anywhere fuel was available, whether or not a wind or (Figure 9.11). Today, when you cook a meal in your
water power source was nearby. By the end of the 1800s, microwave or charge your laptop, it’s easy to forget the
long path that the electricity may have taken to reach you.
ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION LINES Generating Electrical Power

A device capable of producing electricity, commonly called
a generator, includes two basic components: a magnet
and a conductor (Figure 9.12). The magnetic component
of a generator creates a magnetic field. The movement of
a conductor, generally rotating copper wire, through the
generator’s magnetic field induces a flow of electrons in the
conductor. That flow of electrons can be harnessed to do
work ranging from lighting a room to running an electric
car. However, we need to remember that it takes energy
to move the conductor and generate a flow of electrons.
Globally, fossil fuels are the source of approximately two-
thirds of electrical generation (Figure 9.13).
Power Plants
Generating electricity is as easy as boiling a pot of water.
(Vlad Turchenko/Shutterstock)
OK, it’s not that easy—but any fuel source that can
heat water enough to turn it into steam may be used to
generate electricity. Currently, the most common source
of this heat is the burning of fuels, especially coal and
natural gas.
FIGURE 9.11 One of the convenient aspects of electrical power is that it can be transmitted Let’s take a look at the workings of a typical coal-fired
long distances with relatively small energy losses. power plant (Figure 9.14). Coal is first pulverized into
271
ENERGY SOURCES FOR PRODUCTION OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY
GLOBAL ELECTRICAL GENERATION U.S. ELECTRICAL GENERATION, 2013 BRAZIL ELECTRICAL GENERATION
Coal 41% Coal 39% Coal 1%

Natural gas 21% Natural gas 27% Natural gas 6%
Oil 5% Oil 1% Oil 3%
Nuclear 13% Nuclear 19% Nuclear 3%
Biomass 2% Biomass 1% Biomass 5%
Other Other Other
renewables 18% renewables 12% renewables 80%
FIGURE 9.13 Recently, the energy sources for electrical generation across the globe and in the United States were dominated
by nonrenewable energy sources. Meanwhile, the energy for electrical generation in Brazil came mainly from renewable resources.
(2011 Data from International Energy Agency, www.iea.org; 2013 Data from U.S. Energy Information Agency, www.eia.gov/
electricity/; and Brazilian Ministry of Mines and Energy, www.mme.gov.br)
tiny pieces so it burns more completely. The heat of in the form of wood or agricultural wastes. Although
?
What costs, beyond the
combustion is used to boil water, which produces steam. the physical nature of these materials requires different price of fuel, should
The steam creates pressure that turns a turbine attached handling, the principle of their use is the same as in coal- be taken into account
to an electrical generator. After passing through the fired power plants: The chemical energy released during when calculating
turbine, the steam is cooled, condenses back to liquid burning is used to produce steam that turns a turbine. the cost of delivering
water, and returns to the boiler, where it is heated to electrical power to a
form steam once again. The electricity produced can home or business?
Trains, Planes, Automobiles, and More
then flow through the power grid and into homes and
businesses. With the increased availability of petroleum in the late
Each step in the process results in a loss of usable 1800s, it became possible to develop a more compact
energy. On average, about 35% of the energy content of engine that didn’t require a separate steam chamber and internal combustion
coal or other combustible fuel is converted into electrical furnace. In an internal combustion engine, combustion engine Engine (most
commonly used in cars, boats,
energy. The remainder is lost to the environment as heat directly drives a set of pistons or turbines hooked up to
and jet airplanes) in which
(see Figure 2.17, page 47). a crank arm. Most internal combustion engines are used combustion directly drives
Electrical energy can be generated using other in vehicles, such as automobiles, diesel-powered trains, a set of pistons or turbines
combustible fuels, including natural gas, oil, and biomass, jet airplanes and boats. They are also used in power tools hooked up to a crank arm.
ELECTRICAL GENERATION USING COMBUSTIBLE MATERIALS
Stack
Steam
Coal Turbine Electricity
FIGURE 9.14 Heat
from the burning of coal,
natural gas, oil, or biomass
Electric Cooling
Condenser
generator
can be used to generate
tower the steam used to spin the
Boiler
turbines of an electric power
plant. The power plant
Water
featured here uses coal as its
Hot water Cool water source of energy.

such as lawnmowers, leaf blowers, and chainsaws, as well

as for portable diesel and gasoline power generators. NUCLEAR REACTIONS
Combined cycle power plants combine a type of
NUCLEAR FISSION
internal combustion engine known as a gas turbine
A neutron colliding with the nucleus of uranium-235 splits the nucleus,
engine with a steam power plant. When operated on forming atoms of barium-139 and krypton-94 and releasing three
its own, a gas turbine engine burns natural gas, sending neutrons and a large amount of energy.
a hot, high-pressure stream of gas through a turbine
Barium-139
connected to an electrical generator. A combined cycle
power plant takes advantage of the potentially wasted
heat of combustion to boil water and spin an independent E
steam turbine. Combined cycle power plants can increase
the efficiency of power generation from 35% to 60%. Neutron Uranium-235 Neutrons Energy
Krypton-94
! Think About It
1. Why is electricity often referred to as a
NUCLEAR FUSION
“secondary” source of energy?
At very high temperatures, two hydrogen nuclei fuse, forming an atom
2. What economic and environmental benefits of helium and giving off energy.
potentially result from increasing the efficiency of

electrical power plants? H H He E
3. Is it possible to create a perfectly efficient power Hydrogen-1 Hydrogen-2 Helium-3 Energy

plant? Explain.
FIGURE 9.15 Fission reaction, involving the splitting of
uranium-235. Fusion reaction in which two hydrogen nuclei fuse,
combined cycle power
resulting in the formation of helium.
plants Power plants that
combine a gas turbine engine
9.3 Nuclear energy is
with a steam power plant. released by atomic fission
gas turbine engine Engine
and fusion enriched uranium can be used as nuclear fuel, whereas
the depleted uranium is typically placed in storage.
that burns natural gas, sending Soon after the development of nuclear weapons in the
Approximately 97% of the known reserves of uranium
a hot, high-pressure stream middle of the 20th century, we found ways to transform
of gas through a turbine have been found in just 15 countries (Figure 9.16). The
this new, potent source of energy into electricity. Nuclear
connected to an electrical largest known reserves, nearly one-third of the world
energy is released when the bonds holding the protons
generator. total, occur in Australia. The United States, with 100
and neutrons making up the nucleus of an atom break,
commercial reactors, is the largest producer of nuclear
nuclear energy A form of a process called nuclear fission (Figure 9.15). Nuclear
power in the world, and nuclear energy accounts for 19%
energy released when the energy is also released when the nuclei of two atoms fuse
nucleus of an atom breaks of the electricity produced in the country.
together under high temperature and pressure, a process
apart (nuclear fission), or when In contrast to nuclear fission, fusion doesn’t require
called nuclear fusion. Nuclear fusion provides the fuel
the nuclei of two atoms fuse uranium or other rare, radioactive materials, but rather
(nuclear fusion). for stars, including our own Sun, and is the basis for one
a seemingly limitless fuel: hydrogen, which can be
type of atomic weapon.
extracted from water (Figure 9.15). Presently, there are no
nuclear fission A process Nuclear bonds hold much more energy than chemical
in which the bonds holding commercial fusion reactors for power generation, but we
bonds. Therefore, the amount of energy released during
the protons and neutrons that will discuss its potential in the Solutions section of this
nuclear fission is much greater than that released during
make up the nucleus of an chapter.
atom are broken, resulting in the combustion of fossil fuels. For example, the energy
the release of a large quantity content of a gram of uranium-235, the most common
Nuclear Power Generation
of energy. nuclear fuel, is approximately 3 million times the energy
content of a gram of coal. In nuclear power plants, the heat energy released during
nuclear fusion A process in
which the nuclei of two atoms
Uranium, the fuel used in today’s nuclear power plants, the fission of uranium can be harnessed to generate
fuse to form a new type of is a nonrenewable resource. Uranium ore is mined electricity. This heat produces steam that drives a turbine
atom, releasing large amounts from the ground and processed to produce a powdery, connected to an electrical generator (Figure 9.17),
of energy. concentrated form known as yellowcake. The isotope similar to what we saw in the coal-fired power plant.
used for fission, uranium-235 (U-235), makes up only However, using nuclear energy safely requires a number
enrichment A nuclear
process in which uranium-235
0.71% of the uranium in nature. Through a process of special precautions.
is separated from less valuable known as enrichment, uranium-235 is separated from Secure operation of a nuclear power station depends
uranium-238. less valuable uranium-238. The highly radioactive on controlling the speed of neutrons released during
273
FIGURE 9.16 Regional

GLOBAL URANIUM RESERVES distribution of recoverable
uranium: Four regions
REGIONAL URANIUM RESERVES possess over 90% of known
reserves of recoverable
uranium. Countries with the
Asia Pacific largest known reserves of
Northern Eurasia
recoverable uranium: More
Africa
than 97% of known reserves
North America
Central & South
of recoverable uranium
America occur in 14 countries.
Middle East (2012 Data from World
Nuclear Association, www.
world-nuclear.org/info/
Nuclear-Fuel-Cycle/Uranium-
Resources/Supply-of-
NATIONAL URANIUM RESERVES Uranium/#.UYrrT4KHamE)
35
30
25
20
15
10
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st
st
go
ra
Ch
ra
ta
Ni
Br
m
Af
Ru
kh
ki
Jo
st
Ca
on
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Uk
Na
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M
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COUNTRY fuel rods Tubes containing

small pellets of uranium-235
used as an energy source in
nuclear fission. Uranium-235 is formed into small released during fission, the moderator increases their nuclear reactors.
pellets that are contained in tubes called fuel rods. In chance of triggering fission of other uranium-235 atoms,
the most commonly used nuclear reactors, the fuel which releases more energy and yet more neutrons in a moderator A substance
(most commonly pressurized
rods are submerged in pressurized water, which acts as chain reaction.
water) used in a nuclear
a moderator by reducing the speed at which neutrons The increasing number of fission reactions is an reactor to reduce the speed at
travel (see Figure 9.17). By slowing down the neutrons example of positive feedback (see Chapter 2, page 48). If which neutrons travel.
DIAGRAM OF A NUCLEAR POWER PLANT
Containment Nuclear Steam generator

structure reactor
Turbine Electricity
Control rods
FIGURE 9.17 The
design of a nuclear power
Fuel rods Electric plant is aimed at controlling
Condenser Cooling
generator tower
the rate of nuclear fission and
heat production to produce
a steady source of steam
Water for driving the electrical
generator, while avoiding a
Hot water Cool water reactor meltdown.

?
uncontrolled, a chain reaction could generate so much 2. What are some implications of uranium-235
heat that it would lead to a meltdown of a nuclear reactor. having approximately 3 million times the energy
The chain reaction in nuclear reactors, and thus the content compared to coal?
Nuclear power is more amount of heat generated, must therefore be regulated
expensive than power using control rods, which are made of substances that 3. How does increasing or decreasing the number of
generated using coal or absorb neutrons. Because they absorb neutrons, control control rods inserted in a nuclear reactor influence
natural gas as energy rods can be inserted into a reactor core to slow the rate the amount of heat generated in a nuclear reactor?
of nuclear fission or to shut down a reactor completely,
sources. Why, then,
either in an emergency or for repairs.
have so many countries The pressurized water circulating through the reactor 9.1–9.3 Science:
around the world
invested heavily in the
is heated by the energy released during fission reactions. Summary
This heat produces the steam, which spins the turbine
development of nuclear attached to a generator. Cooling water circulated through The most commonly used sources of
power plants? the turbine chamber cools the steam, condensing it nonrenewable energy are fossil fuels in the
back to liquid water. This water is returned to the steam form of coal, oil, and natural gas, which were
generator, where it is again converted to steam. Notice formed over millions of years. Any source of
that the three streams of water in the nuclear power heat sufficient to convert liquid water to steam
plant—pressurized water in the reactor, water in the can be used to generate electricity. Currently,
steam chamber, and cooling water in the condenser— the most common source of this heat is the
do not mix. For safety, the nuclear reactor and steam combustion of fossil fuels, especially coal and
control rods Long rods natural gas. Oil can also be used to power
made of neutron-absorbing generator are enclosed in a containment structure with
steel and concrete walls generally 1 to 2 meters (3 to 6 internal combustion engines, which are found
substances, used to control
the rate of fission in a nuclear feet) thick. in vehicles and portable power generators.
reactor. In the mid-20th century, we learned how to
harness nuclear energy through nuclear fission.
containment structure A
steel and concrete enclosure
! Think About It Nuclear fission is a very powerful source of heat,
which can be used to generate electricity, but
designed to prevent the 1. How are the processes that yield energy during
release of radioactive material nuclear energy requires special precautions for
in the case of a serious chemical reaction different from the processes that safe use.
nuclear reactor accident. yield nuclear energy?
9.4–9.6 Issues
I n the aftermath of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill,
the United States has not shied away from the
environmental risks from oil drilling. It has redoubled
9.4 Global energy use grows
as energy shortages loom
its efforts. In the last three years, oil production has The global economy is powered by the extraction of raw
increased by over 30%, and, in 2014, President Barack natural resources and a steady supply of cheap energy.
Obama signed a bill to reopen the Eastern Seaboard to But what if the flow of energy begins to slow and the
offshore oil exploration. There’s even talk of lifting the prices rise? Because we obtain most of our electricity
nation’s four-decade-old ban on exporting crude oil. from nonrenewable resources, it’s crucial to examine how
Yet the central challenge of nonrenewable resources much longer those resources will last.
such as fossil fuels is that their supply is limited. In
our continuing quest for energy, supplies of which Global Energy Consumption
are dwindling, we have the potential to disrupt the Cell phones, laptop computers, and other electronic
environment at scales small and large. devices were formerly reserved for the wealthiest
275
WORLD CONSUMPTION OF ENERGY RESOURCES
Hydroelectricity
14,000 Nuclear energy
(MILLIONS METRIC TONS OIL EQUIVALENT) Coal
Natural gas
12,000
WORLD ENERGY CONSUMPTION
Oil
10,000
8,000
6,000
4,000
2,000
0
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014
YEAR
FIGURE 9.18 While oil, nuclear energy, and hydroelectricity consumption have grown little during this period, increases in natural
gas and coal consumption have been substantial. (Data from BP 2009, 2011, 2013, 2015)
members of society, but today we see cell phones in some

of the most remote corners of the globe. This spread of
technology—and the energy to power it—goes beyond
examples are coal, crude oil, and wind. Although oil is
still the single largest primary energy source consumed,
in recent years its share declined from 39% in 1998 to
?
What factors likely
personal electronics. Villages where the only form of 33% of total global energy consumption. Meanwhile, contribute to oil’s falling
transportation had been an oxcart are now buzzing with natural gas and coal use have increased.
share of total energy
motorbikes, while open-air restaurants are now sealed off Today, China, the United States, and the European
consumption?
and cooled with humming air-conditioning systems. Union are the three largest consumers of energy on Earth.
So it shouldn’t be surprising that, with increasing In 2011 their combined primary energy consumption
development around the world, global consumption of made up over 53% of the world total. However, their
primary energy—mainly, coal, oil, natural gas, nuclear trajectories in energy use over the period of 1998 to
primary energy A form of
energy, and hydroelectricity—grew by 44% between 2014 differ dramatically (Figure 9.19). While energy energy that requires only
1998 and 2014 (Figure 9.18). Primary energy is a form consumption in the United States increased by only 3% extraction or capture for use
of energy that requires only extraction or capture for use; and in the European Union it declined by 6% over this (e.g., coal, crude oil, wind).
ANNUAL ENERGY USE BY THE UNITED STATES, EUROPEAN UNION, AND CHINA FROM 1998 TO 2014
3,000
(MILLIONS OF TONS OIL EQUIVALENT)
2,500
2,000
ENERGY USE
1,500
1,000 United States

European Union
China
500
0
1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014
YEAR
FIGURE 9.19 While energy use in the United States and the European Union remained fairly constant between 1998 and 2014,
China’s energy use grew by 217%. (Data from BP 2009, 2011, 2012 , 2013, 2015)

developing countries—not from increased consumption in

PER CAPITA ENERGY CONSUMPTION IN THE
UNITED STATES, EUROPEAN UNION, AND
today’s developed economies. If accurate, these projections
CHINA IN 2014 present a number of problems, one of which is that the
projected growth is on a collision course with limited
8 supplies of nonrenewable energy sources, especially oil.
PER CAPITA ENERGY CONSUMPTION

In 2014, the U.S. per capita energy
(METRIC TONS OIL EQUIVALENT)

7.22 consumption was over 2 times Peak Oil
higher than in the EU and about 4
6 times higher than in China.
In 1956 a geophysicist named Marion King Hubbert,
who worked for the Shell oil company in Houston, Texas,
4
began to wonder when the planet would run out of oil.
He had devised a theoretical approach for predicting the
3.22 future production of oil based on past production and
2
the rate at which new discoveries are made. By applying
2.28
his theory to oil production in the lower 48 states of the
United States, he predicted that production would reach
0
its peak in 1970 and decline afterwards. He was ridiculed
United States European Union China
at the time, but today we know that he was essentially
POPULATION correct: U.S. oil production crested in 1970 with 9.6
FIGURE 9.20 Energy use adjusted by population size changes million barrels of oil per day. After a 30-year slump,
the perspective on energy use considerably. (Energy data from however, U.S. production appears to be heading toward a
BP, 2015; population data from U.S. Census Bureau International
second—albeit smaller—peak, due to the rise of fracking
Data Base, http://europa.eu/about-eu/facts-figures/living/index_
en.htm) (discussed on page 280).
Although the United States may be the world’s largest
oil producer, it still accounts for just 12% of global oil
period, the consumption of primary energy in China production. Hubbert estimated that peak global oil
increased 217%. China’s energy use surpassed that of the production would occur in 1995—but this time, he was
European Union in 2007 and the United States in 2009, wrong. He simply lacked enough quality data to make
making it the world’s largest consumer of energy. On a per an accurate prediction. Today, production of oil from
capita basis, however, people in the United States are by existing oil fields is decreasing at about 5% per year.
far the heaviest users of energy (Figure 9.20). In 2014 per Discoveries of new oil fields and improved methods
capita energy consumption in the European Union was of extraction can offset some of these declines but not
less than half the U.S. rate, while China’s per capita rate entirely. In addition, newer, unconventional methods of
was approximately one-third the U.S. rate. extraction are more expensive. Most experts believe that
The U.S. Energy Information Administration predicts global oil production will peak in the next 10 to 20 years
that the world’s demand for energy will increase by another (Figure 9.21). Consequently, the era of easily accessible,
35% in the next two decades due to economic growth in inexpensive oil is coming to an end.
ALTERNATIVE FORECASTS: WHEN GLOBAL OIL PRODUCTION WILL PEAK
35 Historical data (crude + NGL)

OIL PRODUCTION (BILLIONS OF
Fitting, Utot = 2,250 Gb

30
BARRELS PER YEAR)

25
20
15
10
0
1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 2040 2060 2080 2100 2120 2140
YEAR
FIGURE 9.21 Forecasts predict a global peak in oil production sometime between 2009 and 2021. Differing predictions are the
result of assuming different amounts of total recoverable oil on Earth. (After Maggio and Cacciola, 2009)
277
?
Whether global production peaks before 2021, 2050, that damage occurs. Burning of fossil fuels can produce
or even later in the century, the global economy is near a pollution, such as acid rain, which has significantly
peak in oil production. As we will see in this chapter and in impacted both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems over vast
our discussions of climate change in Chapter 14, there are regions (see Chapter 13). Burning of coal releases heavy Can the economic
many environmental reasons to reduce our reliance on oil metals (e.g., mercury and lead) into the air, which settle
challenges associated with
and other fossil fuels. However, there are also significant on landscapes and in waterways, thus threatening human
a potential peak in oil
economic reasons why governments and companies health. Fossil fuel burning also adds carbon dioxide to the
will want to reduce their dependence on oil. Oil prices atmosphere, which drives climate change (see Chapter 14). production be extended to
increased from $15 per barrel in 1998 to over $140 per But at a more basic level, physically extracting fossil fuels potential peaks in natural
barrel in 2008. While the global economic downturn of from the earth involves building roads and infrastructure, gas and coal?
?
2008 led to lower oil prices, they were back to more than clearing forests and other ecosystems, and drilling or
$100 a barrel by 2012. Oil prices fell again in January 2015, mining, which can cause environmental damage even
reaching less than $50 a barrel. But in the future, after under the best conditions.
production has peaked, demand for oil will drive up the
Coal Mining and the Land
What are some direct and
price, potentially to unprecedented levels.
indirect impacts of fossil
Coal is extracted from the earth using both underground fuel use other than those
Other Peaks
mining and surface mining. When the layer of rock above briefly described here?
Hubbert’s approach has been expanded to estimate the the coal, known as overburden, is thicker, underground
peaks of other fossil fuels, including peak coal. According or subsurface mining is generally used; where it is
to the Energy Watch Group, peak coal production could thinner, coal is usually extracted by surface mining.
overburden The layer of rock
come as soon as 2025. Similarly, natural gas production Where the land is not too steep, the surface mining
overlying a mineral deposit (e.g.,
is expected to peak and begin declining around 2020. technique generally used to extract coal is strip mining. coal).
Uranium production peaked during the Cold War in In this process, overburden is removed from a long
the 1980s, and is expected to peak again around 2020, strip of land, exposing a coal seam. Once the coal is strip mining A coal extraction
according to the International Atomic Energy Agency. In removed, material from an adjacent strip is used to technique in which overburden
is removed from a long strip
the absence of new nuclear technologies or the discovery fill the excavation. Strip mining can leave a severely
of land, exposing a coal seam;
of new uranium reserves, uranium resources will be scarred landscape in its wake (Figure 9.22). The water once the coal is removed,
depleted by the end of the century. draining from the disturbed landscape left by coal mining material from an adjacent strip
generally has higher acidity, a phenomenon known as is used to fill the excavation.
! Think About It
1. How much would China’s (population
ABANDONED STRIP MINE
~1.3 billion) total energy consumption have to
increase for its per capita energy consumption to
equal that of the United States (population
~300 million)?
2. The Human Development Index (see
Chapter 5, page 136) of the United States and
those of the countries in the European Union
are fairly similar, yet their per capita energy
consumption is very different. What does this
contrast suggest?
3. Why are we unable to predict precisely when
peak oil will occur?
9.5 Fossil fuel extraction

(Charles E. Rotkin/Corbis)
and use can harm the

environment
As we saw with the Deepwater Horizon spill, the extraction
and use of fossil fuels can cause serious harm to the
environment, but a disaster like that is not the only way FIGURE 9.22 Strip mining can convert a rich, productive landscape into wasteland.

FIGURE 9.23 This approach to

mining coal, which removes the tops MOUNTAINTOP REMOVAL MINING IN WEST VIRGINIA
of some of the oldest mountains on
Earth along with their cloak of highly
diverse temperate forest ecosystems,
is one of the most destructive forms of
mining in use today.
?
How should we weigh
(© Jim West/Alamy)
the jobs provided by

mountaintop removal
mining against the
massive environmental
damage caused by
this approach to coal acid mine drainage. Where it occurs, acidification can habitat is destroyed, surface streams are lost, and water
mining? seriously disrupt aquatic ecosystems (see Chapter 13, and air are polluted.
page 403). As of 2010, about 410,000 hectares (1.2 million
In steep terrain, such as in the Appalachian Mountains, acres) on 500 mountains in Appalachia had undergone
one of the most destructive coal mining practices mountaintop removal mining. In the process, hundreds
ever devised is being used: mountaintop removal of kilometers of streams have been lost and a globally
mining. Large deposits of high-quality coal underlie unique and diverse mountain landscape irreversibly
the Appalachian Mountains. Historically, these deposits altered.
were mined by tunneling through overlying geologic
strata and digging out the coal seams. Subsurface mining
Coal Sludge and Fly Ash Spills
continues in much of the region. However, in some areas,
mountaintop removal allows access to these deposits, Extracting, processing, and burning coal produce
acid mine drainage A requiring the removal of up to 100 meters (330 feet) of a tremendous amount of toxic waste. For instance,
problematic result of strip
mining, in which surface flow
overburden (Figure 9.23). The first step in mountaintop crushing coal during processing results in coal sludge,
of groundwater turns acidic removal mining is to clear-cut the forests on a mountain a mixture of mineral particles, coal dust, and water.
as it percolates through mine and adjacent stream valleys. Miners then use large Companies usually store this mixture at the coal-
wastes (tailings). explosive charges to break up the rock overlying the coal processing site in sludge ponds created behind an earthen
deposit. Giant earth-moving equipment called draglines dam. A second by-product of coal burning is called fly
mountaintop removal
mining An extremely
deposit this overburden in nearby stream valleys, which ash. Approximately 140 million tons of fly ash and other
destructive coal mining are gradually buried as the coal is exposed. waste are produced from coal burning in the United
practice that involves clear- The Appalachian Mountains, which run north– States every year. Like coal sludge, fly ash is stored in
cutting of the forests on a south along the eastern United States, are among the open ponds and landfills.
mountain and adjacent stream oldest mountains on Earth and home to some of the Breaches and leaks from these ponds have led
valleys; miners then use
explosives to break up the
highest levels of temperate biodiversity in the world. to numerous environmental calamities. For example,
rock overlying the coal deposit, The temperate forests that cloak the flanks of these on December 22, 2008, a breach of a storage pond
depositing it in the adjacent mountains support an exceptionally high number of at the Kingston, Tennessee, coal-fired power plant
valleys, which are buried as tree species and are home to large numbers of endemic (Figure 9.24) released 1.1 billion gallons of fly ash slurry.
the coal is exposed. amphibian species. The streams that drain the forests It covered approximately 120 hectares (300 acres) of
fly ash By-product of coal
are also exceptionally diverse, supporting some of the land, inundated 12 homes, blocked a railroad line, and
burning, stored in open ponds most species-rich invertebrate communities in the world. knocked down electrical power lines. Fortunately, no one
and landfills. During mountaintop removal mining, this wildlife was injured. However, it killed a significant number of
279
catastrophic oil spills make the headlines,

FLY ASH PONDS HAVE THE POTENTIAL TO CAUSE MASSIVE
they only represent a small fraction of
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
the 29 million gallons of oil that leak into
marine environments in North America.
A 2003 report from the National Academy
of Sciences estimated that only 8% of that
total comes from tanker and pipeline spills,
whereas oil exploration and extraction
account for just 3%. The majority of the oil
spilled—about 85%—comes from chronic
runoff from the parking lots in coastal areas,
improper disposal of waste oil, and old two-
stroke engines on recreational boats that
regularly discharge gasoline.
(David Luttrell/Tennessee Valley Authority)
Mining Oil Sands

Some of the dirtiest oil on Earth lies
deep within the boreal forests of Alberta,
Canada. These deposits are known as
Athabasca oil sands or tar sands, due to the
tarlike consistency of the oils they contain,
FIGURE 9.24 The fly ash slurry spill at the Kingston, commonly called bitumen. Bitumen is
Tennessee, coal-fired power plant, shown here, took place on a flammable, highly viscous or semisolid mixture of
December 22, 2008. The failure of the retaining structure on hydrocarbons. When these tar sands occur near the land
the fly ash slurry pond released 4 million cubic meters of fly ash surface, they are mined by removing overburden and
slurry, some of which can be seen here.
transported offsite, where the heavy oils are separated
from the sands and clays with which they are mixed.
fish in the nearby Clinch and Emory Rivers and elevated When the oil sands are found farther from the surface,
concentrations of several heavy metals, including arsenic they are heated in place to allow the oil to flow and
and mercury. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency are then pumped to the surface. In either case, the tar
(EPA) and the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) sands oil is more expensive to extract than so-called
estimated that cleanup of this one spill would require conventional oil that occurs naturally in a liquid state.
three years at a cost of hundreds of millions of dollars. However, as the price of conventional oil has risen, the
Another major spill took place in February 2014, when a tar sands have become economical to mine. And as the
ruptured pipe at a Duke Energy plant led to the dumping mining proceeds, the landscape is left in a devastated
of 82,000 tons of coal ash into a North Carolina river. condition (Figure 9.25 on the next page).
However, even without these spills, coal sludge and fly Various environmentalists, farmers, and landowners in
ash can produce serious environmental impacts. These the United States have tried to halt or slow the extraction
waste products contain large concentrations of heavy of tar sands by blocking the approval of the Keystone XL
metals that can leach into groundwater, contaminating Pipeline, which will transport more than half a million
drinking water supplies and poisoning aquatic organisms. barrels of oil per day from Alberta to the Gulf Coast,
Currently, the EPA lists over 70 coal-ash pollution sites where it can be refined and exported. The pipeline will
around the country. In the aftermath of the Kingston cross the Nebraska Sandhills and the Ogallala Aquifer,
spill, the EPA began drafting regulations to reign in coal which supplies groundwater for drinking and irrigation
power plant pollution. In December 2014, the EPA ruled in eight states from South Dakota to Texas, and many
bitumen A flammable, highly
that no new coal sites could be located in wetlands or in critics fear that an oil spill could be devastating. The viscous or semisolid mixture of
earthquake-prone areas and that coal ash ponds had to be TransCanada Corporation, which seeks to build the hydrocarbons.
lined to prevent groundwater contamination. The ruling pipeline, has argued that Keystone will be “the safest
also specified that any active coal ash disposal sites that pipeline ever built.” fracking (hydraulic
are causing pollution must be cleaned up. fracturing) An extraction
technique that involves
The Fracking Boom drilling horizontally into a rock
Oil Spills formation and pumping in a
After years of dependence on foreign oil, the United
mixture of fluids and sands to
Oil spills such as the Deepwater Horizon provide States is experiencing a resurgence of cheap energy fracture it, thus creating a path
some of the most familiar examples of how petroleum through a boom in fracking, which poses new threats to through which natural gas or
extraction threatens the environment. Although such the environment. Fracking (hydraulic fracturing) is a oil can flow out.

FIGURE 9.25 Before

MINING THE ATHABASCA OIL SANDS
mining, the landscape
overlying the oil sands is
made up of a mix of boreal
forest, wetlands, and ponds.
Mining leaves no vestige of
the rich ecosystem that is
removed to gain access to the
buried fossil fuels.
(Brett Gundlock/Bloomberg via Getty Images)

(Ashley Cooper/Alamy)
Before mining After mining
controversial extraction technique used when oil or Furthermore, the EPA identified a number of instances
natural gas is tightly bound in geologic formations, such in which contamination of drinking water due to
as the Bakken Shale of North Dakota or the Marcellus fracking has been verified. But that number was relatively
Shale of Pennsylvania, and cannot be pumped from small compared with the number of fracking wells that
the formation using conventional technology. Fracking have been drilled in the country. As a result, the study
involves drilling horizontally into a rock formation and concluded that fracking has not produced “widespread,
pumping in a mixture of fluids and sands to fracture it. systemic impacts on drinking water resources in the
The fractures, which are held open by the sand in the United States.” In other words, contamination of drinking
fracking fluid, create a path through which natural gas water by fracking has been a local or regional problem.
or oil can flow out of the formation. While hydraulic While the petroleum industry lauded the report as
fracturing has been used for more than 50 years, new demonstrating that fracking is therefore indeed safe,
technology, including horizontal drilling and new chemical environmental organizations emphasized that the study
mixtures, provide access to previously unavailable natural confirmed fracking still has the potential to contaminate
gas deposits. drinking water.
The EPA has identified numerous ways that fracking can Another area of concern is an uptick in the number of
impact surface or groundwater sources of drinking water, earthquakes in areas where fracking activity has increased.
as has occurred in Pennsylvania and West Virginia (EPA, According to the United States Geological Survey (USGS),
2015). Fracking operations generally involve pumping the frequency of noticeable earthquakes (magnitude 3
millions of gallons of fluid in each well. Thus, the two main or higher) in the central and eastern United States began
concerns are that fracking potentially reduces drinking increasing sharply around 2009. Oklahoma has been
water supplies, as water is pumped from an aquifer or from particularly hard hit. One earthquake in November 2011
a lake or river, and that the chemicals in the fracking fluids struck near the town of Prague and caused more than
could contaminate drinking water (Figure 9.26). $10 million worth of damage. And during 2014 Oklahoma
The fracking fluids contain 98% water and sand recorded 15 magnitude-4 earthquakes—more than the
and 2% chemical additives. What are these additives? state had seen in an entire century.
Companies have used more than 1,000 different chemical A recent USGS report, however, concluded that
compounds in various fracking operations, the most fracking was not responsible for most of these
common ingredients being hydrochloric acid, methanol, earthquakes. Rather, it laid the blame on another
and petroleum derivatives. But not all the ingredients are controversial practice of the energy industry: injecting
known: Companies have refused to disclose the identity wastewater into deep wells (see Chapter 12, page 381).
of 10% of them for “proprietary business reasons.” Drillers in this region have been pumping up a briny
Regardless, the EPA did gather enough information mixture containing oil and gas—the remnant of an
to evaluate human health effects of 73 of the “mystery ancient sea. After separating the fuel from the saltwater,
ingredients” and found that they included carcinogens they inject waste back into deep wells, which can fracture
and other toxic substances affecting heart, liver, kidney, rock formations near major faults. Oklahoma has more
and reproductive systems (see Chapter 11, page 332). than 4,600 of these disposal wells, and lawmakers,
281
THE FRACKING WATER CYCLE
1 Water acquisition 2 Chemical mixing 3 Well injection 4 Flowback and 5 Wastewater

produced water treatment and
(wastewater) waste disposal
FIGURE 9.26 The extraction, use, treatment, and disposal of water for fracking have the potential to impact drinking water
supplies at each point in the process.
companies, and residents are currently debating whether because of issues related to uranium mining, radioactive
the practice needs to be more closely regulated. waste disposal, and the risk of a nuclear accident. Even
as some pundits today continue to predict a “nuclear
! Think About It renaissance” in response to rising petroleum prices, we
have come no closer to solving these environmental issues.
1. To what extent should the environmental damage
caused by fossil fuel extraction (see the discussion of Uranium Mining
externalities in Chapter 2, page 49) be included in
Grand Canyon National Park sits right in the middle of
the actual price of an energy source?
the country’s richest deposits of uranium ore. Beginning
2. A company causing environmental damage in 1944, over 3.9 million tons of uranium were extracted
during the course of fossil fuel extraction or from over 1,000 mines in the region, and the low-level
transport is generally required to pay for the radioactive waste was left behind in piles scattered across
damages caused, as well as the cleanup. However, federal, state, and Native American lands, potentially
posing threats to human health and the environment.
are there ways that the market might positively
Uranium mining was banned from the region in 1986,
reward those companies that extract and transport
but a company called Energy Fuels Resources has been
such resources without environmental damage? fighting to reopen one particular mine—the Canyon
3. While the United States fined BP for the Mine—that lies 6 miles from the park entrance.
Deepwater Horizon oil spill and the company is Uranium mining, which can be conducted
paying for economic damages, Brazil filed criminal underground or on the surface, poses many of the same
environmental threats as coal mining, but with the
charges that could result in long prison terms for
addition of radioactivity, which can cause cancer and
energy-company personnel involved in oil spills off
other ailments. Although mine waste typically has a very
its coast in 2011. How do you think environmental low level of radioactivity, there are over 15,000 mine sites
impacts should be penalized? Include an analysis of in the western United States and they are not regularly
the costs and benefits of potential penalties. monitored. Members of the Navajo Nation, where
much of this mining has occurred, argue that long-term
9.6 Nuclear power environmental exposure has led to an increase in cancer
in the region. In a study that included Navajo uranium
development comes with miners from the 1950s, the U.S. National Institute for
environmental costs Occupational Safety and Health found 3 to 6 times the
During the early years of the atomic age, nuclear power number of lung cancer deaths than expected, along
was championed as a nearly infinite source of cheap and with a significant increase in deaths due to tuberculosis
clean energy. “Our children will enjoy in their homes and other lung diseases. The study did not measure the
electrical energy too cheap to meter,” the head of the environmental exposures of residents who were not
U.S. Atomic Energy Commission confidently declared working in the mines.
in 1954. But in the 1960s and 1970s, a coalition of Uranium mining accidents also have the potential to
environmentalists rallied against the use of nuclear power seriously damage the environment. In July 1979 a waste

pond at a uranium mill in Church Rock, New

THREE MILE ISLAND NUCLEAR POWER PLANT Mexico, breached its dam. Over 1,000 tons
of acidic, radioactive mining waste flowed
into the Puerco River, contaminating water
supplies used for watering livestock. Church
Rock has been called the biggest radioactive
accident in U.S. history.
Radioactive Waste Disposal

Each step in the process of turning uranium
ore into enriched fuel rods generates a
significant amount of waste. However, most
of the front-end waste generated during the
production of fuel rods has only a low level of
radioactivity and poses little risk if disposed
of properly. The spent fuel rods, however,
are considered high-level waste (HLW) and
present a more serious challenge. Whereas
fuel rods can no longer be used to generate
electricity in a reactor, they remain highly
radioactive and must be isolated from the
environment.
(Jarnous Patrick/Paris Match via Getty Images)
Even though the United States has been

generating nuclear power for decades, we
still have no safe system for the long-term
disposal of spent fuel rods. After cooling off
in water pools for up to 10 years, these rods
are currently placed in steel cylinders, encased
in concrete, and stored at the nuclear plant.
Ideally, these casks will be moved to a safe
FIGURE 9.27 In 1979 the operators and safety systems at the Three repository deep underground, where they
Mile Island nuclear power plant prevented a partial meltdown from can be protected from natural disasters or a
developing into a serious nuclear accident at the plant. terrorist attack.
CHERNOBYL, UKRAINE, SITE OF THE WORST NUCLEAR ACCIDENT OF THE 20TH CENTURY
RADIOACTIVE
FALLOUT FROM
CESIUM-137 AFTER
CHERNOBYL
(kBq/m2)
> 1,480
185–1,480
40–185
10–40
2–10
(Shone/Gamma/Gamma-Rapho via Getty Images)
<2
Chernobyl
FIGURE 9.28 An explosion at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant on April 26, 1986, and a subsequent 10-day fire sent a plume of
radioactive materials across Europe.
283
Unfortunately, no country currently has a viable system

in place for long-term disposal. In 1978 the Department FUKUSHIMA NUCLEAR POWER PLANT DISASTER
of Energy first identified Yucca Mountain in Nevada as a
potential nuclear disposal site and experimental tunnels
were bored into the rock. However, questions concerning
the geologic stability of the site and political opposition
to the facility, led by long-term Nevada Senator Harry
Reid, have prevented it from opening. In May 2009 the
Secretary of the Department of Energy said, “Yucca
Mountain as a repository is off the table” (see Chapter 12
for more on nuclear waste disposal).
Nuclear Meltdowns
The worst type of accident that can happen at a nuclear
(Jarnous Kurita Kaku/Getty Images)

power plant is called a meltdown. A meltdown occurs
when the core of a nuclear reactor grows too hot and
begins to melt, a situation that could lead to the release of
radiation into the environment.
This nightmare scenario happened in March 1979 at
Pennsylvania’s Three Mile Island nuclear power plant.
A valve got stuck inside, which led to the loss of coolant FIGURE 9.29 The record magnitude 9.0 earthquake on
from the nuclear reactor (Figure 9.27). Fortunately, the March 11, 2011, produced a tsunami, measured at 14 meters
reactor was contained in a strong confinement structure in height when it struck the Fukushima nuclear power plant,
and plant operators acted quickly to minimize the release flooding and disabling the plant’s backup diesel-powered
electrical generators.
of radioactive material into the environment. This event,
which was considered a partial meltdown, stoked public
fears about the threats of nuclear technology. The reactor to make them safer, and no major nuclear accidents have
was too badly damaged to resume operations, and cleanup occurred at these plants since the accident at Chernobyl.
from the accident took 14 years and cost $1 billion.
A second nuclear accident further heightened
The Fukushima Nuclear Disaster
doubts about nuclear power safety. In the early morning
hours of April 26, 1986, a test of emergency systems On March 11, 2011, the strongest earthquake ever recorded
at the Chernobyl power plant in Ukraine resulted in off Japan produced a tsunami that inundated a nuclear
?
a steam explosion that tore apart one of its reactors power plant in Fukushima, Japan, and led to a meltdown
(Figure 9.28). The resulting fire burned for 10 days. (Figure 9.29). The nuclear power plant survived the
Because the Chernobyl reactor had no confinement initial earthquake, but the external electrical supply to the
structure, the raging fires spewed radioactive material power plant was knocked out. Diesel generators in the How might the use
into the atmosphere, with winds transporting them to basement roared into action to provide backup electrical of nuclear energy as
the northwest. Significant levels of contamination from power to run the power plant’s cooling system. However, a weapon influence
the Chernobyl fires extended over 2,000 kilometers, the tsunami that arrived 45 minutes later flooded the perspectives on its
impacting crops and dairy products in countries as generators, disabling them. The plant switched to backup development for
far away as Italy, Ireland, and Norway. However, the battery power, but it was exhausted after eight hours.
electrical generation?
most contaminated areas were in Ukraine and nearby Without electrical power to run the plant’s controls
Belarus. In the aftermath of the accident, there have been and monitor its environment, the situation developed
approximately 5,000 cases of nonfatal thyroid cancer, into a serious crisis. With control rods in place, fission
and the U.S. National Academy of Sciences has estimated within the reactor was reduced greatly but not eliminated
that the accident will cause more than 4,000 extra cancer entirely. The reactors began to overheat and pressure
deaths in the region over the next 50 years. began building up in them. With no electrical power,
Nuclear power experts point out that the disaster at the power plant operators were forced to vent the reactors
Chernobyl power plant resulted from a flawed reactor manually to relieve the building pressures. However, the
design, mistakes made by inadequately trained operators, venting also released highly unstable hydrogen gas, which
and insufficient attention to safety. Simply having a reacted explosively with oxygen, blowing the roofs off of
structure to contain a reactor explosion, as do all post- two buildings that housed reactors and where spent fuel
Soviet reactors, would have greatly reduced the chance rods were housed in pools of water to keep them cool.
of environmental contamination. Since the disaster, all Because the spent fuel pools were exposed to the
power plants with Chernobyl’s design have been modified atmosphere, operators worried that the water in them

would evaporate. If that had happened, the spent fuel

would have eventually heated up sufficiently to burn, 9.4–9.6 Issues:
spewing radioactive cesium-137 into the atmosphere
and contaminating the environment, as occurred around
Summary
Chernobyl. Fortunately, no spent fuel rods were exposed In the next 20 years, fossil fuel production will
to the atmosphere, but the worry continued for some likely peak and then begin to decline until we
time during the crisis. Still, the explosions and fires at the have exhausted Earth’s nonrenewable supplies
Fukushima plant discharged enough radioactive material of energy. More intense fossil fuel extraction in
into the surroundings to force the evacuation of 80,000 response to higher prices and greater demand
people from a 20-kilometer (12-mile) radius around the will continue to be a source of significant
power plant. environmental damage. Strip mining of coal
Eventually, pipes were laid to deliver a constant stream and oil sands and mountaintop removal mining
of water to the Fukushima reactors, gradually cooling them have already devastated many landscapes. Coal
down. Finally, on December 16, 2011, nine months after sludge and fly ash ponds have contaminated
the earthquake, the prime minister of Japan reported that water supplies with heavy metals. Oil spills have
all three damaged reactors at the Fukushima power plant disrupted ecosystems around the world.
were stable and in a state of cold shutdown. However, it Nuclear power is neither as safe nor as cheap
may be decades before anyone can return safely to the as once promised. Three nuclear accidents have
evacuation zone. changed public perceptions of nuclear power
and altered the course of its development. An
! Think About It accident in 1979 at Pennsylvania’s Three Mile
Island nuclear power plant led to a partial
1. What do the accidents at Three Mile Island, meltdown of one of the plant’s reactors. Another
Chernobyl, and Fukushima have in common? accident in 1986 at the Chernobyl power plant
in Ukraine spread radioactive material over
2. What could be done to improve the safety of the thousands of square kilometers across Europe.
power plants at Chernobyl and Fukushima? Explosions and fires at the nuclear power
3. What would motivate a nation, such as Germany, plant in Fukushima, Japan, deposited enough
radioactive material into the surroundings to
to phase out nuclear power, while others, such as the
force the evacuation of tens of thousands of
United States, continue to use nuclear power as a
residents.
significant part of their energy mix?
9.7–9.9 Solutions
T ake a ride on an airplane over the plains of Montana,
and you’ll see a landscape scarred by thousands
of miles of dirt roads, barren oil well pads, and long-
catastrophes, and restore the environment to its natural
state when these industries depart.
abandoned uranium mines. This is what 100 years of

energy development and resource extraction can do to 9.7 New laws and technology
Earth, but it doesn’t have to be this way. Although the are cleaning up the oil
ultimate solution to reducing the impact of nonrenewable
energy is to switch to renewable energy, as we shall see in
industry
the next chapter, we’ll still be using fossil fuels and nuclear In the aftermath of the Deepwater Horizon spill, BP spent
power for many more decades to come. In this chapter, we $14 billion on cleanup, over a four-year period, sifting
discuss smarter development practices that can minimize beach sand for oil and working to restore over 22,500
the footprint of these industries, reduce the possibility of kilometers (14,000 miles) of shoreline. Overseen by the
285
U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Exxon was heavily criticized for its limited response
(NOAA), the cleanup entered the third phase with efforts to the spill at the time, but the chemical and mechanical
to restore barrier islands, marshes, and oyster beds. cleanup techniques it employed remain the standard in
However, in the deep-sea habitat near the well site, there the industry. The most critical step in the cleanup process
is little anyone can do but wait, and scientists say that it is to lay out floating booms and other barriers to contain
will be decades before the habitat is fully recolonized by oil slicks and prevent them from entering sensitive
marine invertebrates. coastal areas. Next, a skimmer is used to collect the oil
Yet it would be unfair to blame BP entirely for the from the water’s surface. Passive skimmers are either
oil spill. As consumers of products ranging from plastics enclosures that skim off only the top layer of oil or are
and gasoline to natural gas, we are all, in some ways, made of materials that mop up oil. Suction skimmers, by
complicit in the spill. Ultimately, reducing the impact contrast, are like vacuum cleaners that suck up the oil and
of the oil industry is going to depend on reducing our pump it into a storage tank.
own consumption and demanding that companies and A second key element of the cleanup process, which
politicians do a better job of protecting and restoring was used widely during the Deepwater Horizon spill,
ecosystems affected by the oil industry. involved using a dispersant, a chemical that thins
In the worst-case scenario, it pays to have a recovery and dissolves the thick crude. Unfortunately, Corexit,
plan. On March 24, 1989, the Exxon Valdez oil tanker one of the most commonly used dispersants, has been
ran aground in Prince William Sound, Alaska, releasing implicated as a potential cause of health problems among
40 million liters (11 million gallons) of petroleum into workers, including liver, kidney, lung, nervous system,
the marine environment (Figure 9.30). The immediate and blood disorders.
impact of the spill included the deaths of approximately After the immediate cleanup concluded, Exxon agreed
250,000 sea birds, 2,800 sea otters, 300 harbor seals, to pay the U.S. and Alaskan governments $900 million
and 22 killer whales. It is unknown how many marine for environmental restoration and research. Much of the
invertebrates and fish also died. marine community has recovered, including bald eagles,
AERIAL PHOTO OF THE MARCH 1989 EXXON VALDEZ SPILL IN PRINCE WILLIAM SOUND, ALASKA
(Natalie Forbes/National Geographic/Getty Images)
boom A barrier used to

contain oil slicks and prevent
them from entering sensitive
coastal areas.
skimmer A device used to

collect spilled oil from the
water’s surface.
dispersant A chemical used

FIGURE 9.30 The release of approximately 40 million liters of crude oil into this ecosystem continues to impact marine in oil spill cleanup that thins
life more than 25 years after the disaster. and dissolves the thick crude.

salmon, river otters, and sea otters. However, tens of The status of drilling on the refuge has repeatedly been
thousands of liters of oil remain buried in the beaches of a hot-button issue during election years. Proponents
Prince William Sound and will not be removed by natural have claimed that drilling would have no impact on local
processes for a considerable period of time, perhaps a wildlife and would allow the United States to reduce its
century. dependency on foreign oil. Opponents argue that oil
The most important outcome of the Valdez Spill was the development is particularly harmful in the high Arctic
passage of the Oil Pollution Act of 1990, which required region because the extreme cold and short summer
companies to have a program in place to prevent oil spills growing season mean that the land would take centuries
and a detailed cleanup plan in the event of a significant to recover in the event of a spill.
accident. The Oil Pollution Act also led to the phase-out of
large single-hull tankers by banning them from U.S. waters
after 2010. Double-hull tankers have a second, inner hull
! Think About It
and are 5 times less likely to spill oil. In the event of a hull 1. Do you think Exxon and BP were penalized
breach, double-hulls will spill far less oil. sufficiently, considering the damage that was (and
continues to be) caused?
Regulations for Safer Fracking
2. What are the pros and cons for maintaining
In response to growing concerns that fracking could pose
a threat to drinking water, draft legislation proposed in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge as an oil free
2012 required that companies disclose all chemicals they zone?
use for hydraulic fracturing on federal lands in the United
3. Do you think the new governing rules for fracking
States. Three years later, in March 2015, the Bureau of
?
on federal public lands in the United States should be
Land Management of the Department of Interior released
a set of new rules governing fracking on federal public extended to apply to private lands as well? Explain.
and Native American tribal lands. A key requirement,
What is implied by which the gas and oil industry had long resisted, was that
the phrase “or to an drilling companies must indeed disclose the chemical 9.8 Ecosystem restoration
economically usable composition of any hydraulic fracturing fluids used. can mitigate the environ-
state” in the mining law In addition, drillers are required to protect any
aquifers penetrated during drilling, using strong concrete
mental impacts of fossil fuel
requiring reclamation extraction
of mined lands? barriers to prevent contamination by fracking fluids.
There are also requirements to provide more secure Strip mining for coal, oil sands mining, and mountain
storage of waste fracking fluids recovered from wells top removal mining of coal all have the potential to
to reduce the exposure of air, water, and wildlife to the destroy vast tracts of natural ecosystems. To reduce these
fluids. With more than 100,000 gas and oil wells on environmental impacts, laws in the United States and other
federal lands, which encompass over 3 million square countries require miners of these resources and elsewhere
kilometers (1.2 million square miles), these new rules to repair damages done to mined lands. In the United
apply broadly to gas and oil drilling on federal lands States, the federal law mandating restoration is the Surface
because 90% of the new wells being drilled on those Mining Control and Reclamation Act (SMCRA), which
lands employ fracking. came into force in 1977. The laws of individual state and
local authorities also generally require mine reclamation,
Oil-Free Zones that is, restoring an ecosystem to its natural structure and
functioning prior to mining or to an economically usable
The only way to guarantee that a spill is not going to occur
state. According to the National Mining Association,
in a particular region is to ban oil exploration altogether.
more than 900,000 hectares (2.2 million acres) of mined
Following the 1969 oil spill in Santa Barbara, California,
lands have been restored in the United States alone. In
that state halted the leasing of offshore tracts within 3 miles
many cases, ecosystem restoration has been remarkably
of its coastline. Other sensitive areas have also restricted
successful.
oil exploration and drilling. In 2003 Norway declared
the Lofoten Islands oil-free, because of their rich cod and
Restoration of Strip-Mined Prairie
herring fisheries along with their abundant wildlife. One of
reclamation A process the most contentious oil-free zones is the Arctic National The state of Wyoming includes some of the most valuable
that restores an ecosystem Wildlife Refuge in Alaska. The refuge is the largest low-sulfur coal deposits in North America, making them
to its natural structure and
protected wilderness in the United States, but the U.S. the focus of intensive strip mining. Strip mining of coal
functioning prior to mining
or to an economically Geological Survey estimates that it contains 10.3 billion produces massive landscape disturbance (see Figure 9.22,
usable state. barrels (433 billion gallons) of oil. page 277) and the Wyoming prairies are no exception.
287
RESTORATION FOLLOWING STRIP MINING OF WYOMING PRAIRIE

(Bruce Gordon/EcoFlight)
(Lee Buchsbaum)
Powder River Basin mine prior to restoration Restored grassland in Powder River Basin
FIGURE 9.31 Prior to mining, the undisturbed landscape in the Powder River Basin consisted of rolling hills covered mainly with
sage brush and grasses. Strip mining removed all the topsoil and vegetation, but restoration has been remarkably successful in
creating productive wildlife grazing areas like this tract of restored grassland.
However, the Jacobs Ranch Mine in the Powder River America donating the land to the Rocky Mountain Elk
Basin has become an award-winning case study in Foundation. The core of this conservation easement,
successful ecological restoration in the region. which ensures that the land will be sustained as wildlife
The mine, which is owned and operated by Rio Tinto use indefinitely, is a 296-hectare (730-acre) parcel of
Energy America, naturally supports a semi-arid plant mined land restored to full productivity (see Figure 9.31).
?
community dominated by several species of native grasses The hope is that similar successes can be made as we try
and shrubs. This ecosystem, which is capable of supporting to restore the many millions of hectares of land and water
a rich community of native herbivores or domestic cattle, impacted by surface mining.
sets the benchmark for ecological restoration because
Is it possible to
SMCRA mandates that mined lands be restored to original
or better condition. As the Jacobs Ranch Mine is worked,
Restoration of Boreal Forest Oil “improve” a landscape
Sands Mining over its condition
the landscape is stripped bare (Figure 9.31). However,
as mining proceeds, regulations require that the topsoil Sometimes it’s not possible to restore a landscape to its prior to disturbance
fraction of overburden be stockpiled separately from the natural state. The boreal forest where oil sands extraction by mining? If so, what
deeper mineral layers for later use during restoration of takes place is a patchwork of forest, lakes, and several types criteria would you use?
the mined site. Following extraction of the coal, the lower of wetlands. This patchwork is going to look very different
layers of overburden are spread across the mined area in the future (Figure 9.32). The area of forest will increase
and worked with heavy machinery to restore the natural by 40% and the area of lakes by 177%, while the total area
contours. Then stockpiled topsoil is spread across the site, of wetlands will decrease by 36%. Most significant, the area
followed by reseeding and replanting of native vegetation. of peat wetlands will decrease by 67%.
Restoration of these lands also includes establishing small Peat wetlands are the result of centuries of
reservoirs as water sources for wildlife. development, and they cannot be restored. The loss
One restored area at the Jacobs Ranch Mine, identified of these peat wetlands is environmentally significant
as critical winter habitat for the local elk herd by the because they are a major repository of climate-warming
Wyoming Department of Game and Fish, has become a gases in the landscape. Disturbing them would release
showcase for ecological restoration and cooperative work carbon dioxide and methane into the atmosphere and
between industry and conservation organizations. In diminish their ability to store carbon in the future (see
2004 Rio Tinto Energy America began working with the Chapter 14). Whether or not we should be extracting these
Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation to create a 405-hectare resources and irretrievably destroying this landscape is not
(1,000-acre) conservation easement at Jacobs Ranch Mine a question that science can answer—it’s one for society to
to permanently protect critical winter habitat for elk at answer. This is one of many reasons why the debate over
the site. These negotiations ended with Rio Tinto Energy the Keystone Pipeline has been so heated.

developments as positive benefits to the largely

LANDSCAPE CHANGE FOLLOWING RESTORATION
impoverished region.
OF MINED ATHABASCA OIL SANDS
Critics of mountaintop removal mining assert that there
70 has been too little economic development of the reclaimed
mining areas and that what has occurred has been at the
60
Before mining expense of one of North America’s biodiversity hotspots.
Indeed, the soils, one of the foundations of terrestrial
PERCENT OF LANDSCAPE
After restoration
50
ecosystem productivity and health (see Chapter 7, page
40 194), in areas reclaimed after mountaintop removal mining
are deficient in several ways. They are denser and much
30 lower in organic matter content, which reduces water
infiltration and favors surface runoff. Many areas remain
20
barren after 15 years or more. In addition, critics argue
10
that grazing lands inhabited by elk cannot compensate for
the valleys and headwater streams, home to exceptionally
0 species-rich communities, that have been destroyed or for
Forest Peatland Other wetlands Lake Miscellaneous
ecosystem the pollution that finds its way downstream from these
ECOSYSTEM filled valleys.
FIGURE 9.32 Restoration of landscapes following mining
of Athabasca oil sands results in substantial changes in land
coverage. Coverage by forests and lakes increases significantly,
! Think About It
while peatland (bogs and fens) cover decreases. (Data from 1. What are the unique challenges and opportunities
Rooney et al., 2012)
of restoring Wyoming’s surface-mined prairies, the
boreal forests landscape overlying the Athabasca
Restoration Following Mountaintop Removal oil sands, and the Appalachian mountaintops that
Mining have been removed?
Once you’ve blown off the top of a mountain with 2. What should be the goals of ecosystem
explosives and dumped the material into adjacent valleys, restoration? Restoring functional properties such
how do you replace it? You can’t.
as natural levels of primary production (see
However, it turns out there’s a loophole in the Surface
Chapter 7, page 190) or restoring natural levels of
Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977. The law
requires that land be restored to a natural condition species richness and native species composition (see
similar to that prior to mining or to an economically Chapter 4, page 96), or both?
useful condition. Companies involved in mountaintop 3. How would you go about evaluating the
removal mining have taken this second course and have
relative merits of restoration of mined lands to a
not attempted to restore the natural mountain contours,
state of economic usefulness versus their original
which, if not impossible, would not be economically
feasible. Consequently, areas that were once forested
condition?
peaks are now large, flat or gently sloping patches in an
otherwise mountainous landscape (Figure 9.33). They
have become grazing lands, forestry plantations, or 9.9 Advances in nuclear
power plant operation
?
wildlife areas.
The state of Kentucky, for instance, working with
several mining companies and the Rocky Mountain Elk
and design are aimed at
Federation, has reintroduced elk, which were extirpated improving safety
What are the relative
from the region long ago. Kentucky’s reintroduced elk In the wake of the Fukushima accident, Japan and
challenges involved
mainly use grazing lands on restored mountaintop Germany, the third and fourth largest economies in the
in restoring a prairie mining areas, where the population has grown rapidly world, reexamined the place of nuclear power in their
grassland versus an old to over 10,000 individuals and is now the focus of energy mix. Within a year, Japan had shut down all but two
growth forest disturbed hunting in the region. Other economic developments of its 50 main nuclear reactors for testing and evaluation
by fossil fuel extraction? on reclaimed mountaintop mine lands include golf of safety systems, with the remaining two scheduled for
courses, regional airports, correctional facilities, and shutdown and evaluation soon thereafter. Two years after
industrial parks. Mining companies cite these economic the tsunami shut down the Fukushima nuclear power
289
RESULTS OF RESTORATION FOLLOWING MOUNTAINTOP REMOVAL MINING
(Kent Kessinger/Flight courtesy of SouthWings)
FIGURE 9.33 Restoration following mountaintop removal mining generally results in level or gently sloping
terrain, most commonly vegetated with grasses and other herbaceous plants.
plant, no nuclear reactors in Japan were operating; the

first nuclear plant was restarted in August 2015. In 2011
Germany shut down 8 of its 17 reactors and planned to
at a site simultaneously; (2) improved monitoring of pools
containing spent fuel rods and robust backup systems for
cooling spent fuel rod pools; (3) better systems for venting
?
What are some
shut down the remainder by 2022. Even France, which reactors of the type at Fukushima, in case of power loss. reasons related
generates more than 75% of its electricity using nuclear Another general recommendation was for each
to environmental
power, spent the first half of 2013 studying whether to nuclear power plant to reanalyze the earthquake and
protection and human
reduce its reliance on this energy source. flood risks and to assess how communication and safety
Nuclear power has not proven to be as cheap or as equipment would perform with extended power loss. health that would
clean as some pundits have argued. Nevertheless, nuclear The experiences at Three Mile Island, Chernobyl, and encourage countries like
power will continue as a significant source of energy Fukushima are also influencing the design of new power France and the United
over the next 50 years, and engineers are trying to plants, which include safety features that were not part of States to not replace
improve safety at existing nuclear power plants, as well as earlier nuclear power plants. their nuclear power
attempting to make the nuclear power plants of the future plants with fossil fuel–
safer still. Making Future Nuclear Power Plants Safer burning power plants?
The latest nuclear power plant designs are simpler and
Improvements to Existing Nuclear Power Plants
rely more heavily on passive safety systems instead
Regulatory agencies around the world reassessed the
design and operation of nuclear power plants following
the accident at Fukushima. In the United States, the
of active ones. The new designs rely more on natural
forces, such as gravity and heat convection, and less on
mechanical systems, such as valves and pumps. The
?
Is it possible to
Nuclear Regulatory Commission released a list of actions of human plant operators are also less critical to
recommendations for improving nuclear power plant ensuring safety in these newer reactor designs. anticipate and prevent
safety. The list included three main measures: (1) Planning At the end of 2011, the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory all possible threats to a
for multiple natural disasters or other threats and building Commission approved two new power plants that nuclear power plant?
the capacity to support the safety functions of all reactors incorporate such principles. One of them, the Explain.

THE WESTINGHOUSE AP1000 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT DESIGN
Older designs
Steel containment Passive containment AP1000
cooling water tank
1.0
Steam generators (2)
Integrated Pressurizer Turbine generator 0.8

head
RELATIVE AMOUNTS
package
Concrete Reactor
shield coolant 0.6
Reactor
building pumps (4)
vessel
0.4
Fuel-handling area
Main control room Feedwater pumps 0.2
0
Valves Pumps Pipe Electrical cable
COMPONENTS
FIGURE 9.34 Passive safety systems and simpler design (e.g., fewer valves, pumps, pipe, and electrical cables) are intended
to make the Westinghouse AP1000 nuclear power plant safer to operate and maintain. (Westinghouse, www.ap1000.
westinghousenuclear.com/)
Westinghouse AP1000, will be the first new nuclear nuclear waste. To recycle the fuel, depleted uranium
power plant built in the United States since 1996. One and plutonium must be separated from certain waste
of the advantages of this power plant is that it is much materials produced during fission. The uranium and
simpler structurally than were earlier plants. For example, plutonium are then combined to create a fuel known as
the AP1000 has substantially fewer pumps, less control MOX (Mixed Oxide Fuel), which can be used in nuclear
cable, less piping related to safety, and fewer safety valves. reactors.
The volume of the earthquake-resistant building is also MOX accounts for just 2% of the nuclear fuel used
smaller (Figure 9.34). The simpler design of the AP1000 today. But if all the spent nuclear fuel in present use were
is intended to reduce construction and maintenance recycled into MOX, it could replace three years’ worth
costs, decrease construction time, and improve safety. of uranium extracted from mines around the world.
The AP1000 is also designed to shut down safely One factor preventing wider adoption of MOX fuels is
without the need for any action by human operators that plutonium can be used in nuclear weapons. Some
and without electrical power or pumps in the event fear that the wider commercial use of plutonium could
of a design failure, such as a break in a coolant pipe. increase nuclear proliferation. In the United States, no
Because the AP1000 uses gravity, passive circulation, recycling takes place currently.
and compressed gases to cool the reactor core and
containment structure, there is no potential danger from Nuclear Fusion
failures of backup generators and pumps. There are also
Some scientists believe that they can “bottle up the Sun”
many active components designed into the AP1000
and develop a controlled nuclear fusion reaction here
power plant, but they are not part of critical safety
on Earth. Although they have succeeded in producing
functions or are redundant to the passive safety systems.
small experimental fusion reactors, known as tokamaks,
the amount of energy required to run the reactors is
Recycling Fuel Rods
far greater than the amount of energy they release. The
In Europe and Japan, spent uranium fuel is reprocessed International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor
and reused, which increases efficiency and reduces currently under construction in France could represent
291
the first step toward a working fusion-powered generator.

If successful, it will produce 500 megawatts of power. 9.7–9.9 Solutions:
Initial experiments are scheduled to begin in 2020. Summary
! Think About It The impacts of strip mining for coal, oil sands
mining, and mountain top removal mining can
1. What are the advantages of designing passive be reduced by restoring the land to a natural
emergency protection systems that are not or economically useful condition. The impacts
dependent on an intact electrical system or even a of mountaintop removal mining are not
backup electrical supply? reversible, so mining companies have opted for
producing flat areas, suitable for some forms of
2. How would making nuclear power plants economic activity, in an otherwise mountainous
simpler in design contribute to greater reliability landscape.
and safety? Because it appears that nuclear power will
continue as a significant source of energy,
3. Are the risks associated with nuclear power engineers have suggested improvements to
so great that we should stop trying to make existing nuclear power plants, including more
nuclear power plants safer and just abandon the robust electrical backup in the event of natural
technology entirely? Explain. disasters, better monitoring of spent fuel rod
tanks, and more reliable venting systems for
Fukushima-type reactors. The latest designs
for new nuclear power plants are simpler than
those for older power plants, and they rely more
heavily on passive safety systems instead of active
ones. The new design features are intended to
reduce construction and maintenance costs,
decrease construction time, and make the newer
nuclear power plants safer to operate.

Central Question: How can we manage nonrenewable energy resources in a way

that reduces environmental harm?

• What are the different types of fossil fuels? • What is the nature of global energy
consumption and have we reached peak oil?
• How do power plants and vehicles utilize fossil
fuels to generate electricity and movement? • How does extracting fossil fuels harm the
environment?
• How is nuclear energy released and harnessed?
• What are the risks of nuclear energy?
Fossil Fuels, Nuclear Energy, who may be interested to understand developments and issues
regarding energy technology and use. As an environmental science
and You
student, you will have developed a basis for navigating these complex
Ecosystems, our economic systems, and our very bodies run on energy of subjects.
one form or another. We are now at a point in history when inexpensive,
readily available fossil fuels are approaching peak production. Meanwhile, ! Consume energy wisely.
demand for energy is on the rise. The future of humanity and the
We are all, by necessity, consumers of energy. As such, we can affect
biosphere literally depends on how we manage the remaining fossil fuels
the consumption of energy in many ways, from the kinds of energy-
and transition to sustainable energy sources.
consuming devices we purchase to how we control the temperature
in our homes and workplace. Residential and commercial buildings
! Stay informed.
are collectively the largest consumers of energy in the United States.
One way that each of us can help foster more sustainable use For lighting, choose bulbs that use less energy, such as compact
of these resources is by keeping informed and using whatever fluorescent lights. If you have access and your health permits, set the
influences each of us has to address these challenges. Stay informed thermostats in the place where you live or work to conserve energy,
regarding rapid developments in the fossil fuel industry, especially meaning a few degrees lower in winter and higher in summer.
in regard to estimates of the sizes of energy reserves and rates of
consumption of nonrenewable fossil fuel resources around the world. ! Make energy-wise transportation choices.
Pay close attention to issues associated with the development of Our transportation choices can also make a significant difference.
unconventional sources of oil such as oil sands and tight oil. Stay If you can do so securely, walk or bicycle to school or work. If you
abreast of developments in renewable biofuels, which will be critical can’t, take a bus or train. If you must drive, try to carpool. All these
substitutes for crude oil. alternatives can save money as well as energy. If you purchase a
! Get involved.
motor vehicle, consider models that are both safe and fuel-efficient.
While governmental mandates affect the fuel efficiency of vehicles
Explore local, regional, and national energy developments. Try to
produced by manufacturers, our choices as consumers can also
constructively influence the direction of those developments, either
exert significant influence on manufacturing.
individually or collectively, through organizations that represent your
perspective, whatever it may be. Use your knowledge to help others
• How can we improve the efficiency and reduce
the impact of fossil fuel use?
• What is the process of environmental

restoration after fossil fuel extraction?
• What improvements have been made in

nuclear power plants?
Chapter 9 5. Which country now consumes the most

energy per capita?
a. Larger numbers of professional operators to ensure
safety procedures are followed
a. The United States c. The European Union b. Larger numbers of pumps and safety switches for
Review Questions b. China d. Russia plenty of backups
1. What is the origin of the chemical energy c. Passive safety systems that work without human
6. When do experts now predict we will reach intervention or an outside power source
of coal and crude oil?
peak oil production? d. Larger, more robust housing for the reactors
a. The heat energy of molten volcanic lava transferred
a. In 5 to 10 years
to sedimentary rocks
b. In 10 to 20 years
b. Photosynthesis by primary producers that lived
c. In 50 to 60 years Critical Analysis
millions of years ago
d. Peak oil already occurred in 2000. 1. What are the connections between growth of
c. Sedimentary rocks exposed to high heat and
the global population and global economy and the
pressure 7. EPA regulations now require which of the increasing demand for energy? Use the laws of
d. Sedimentary rocks modified by exposure to solar following for coal ash ponds? thermodynamics in your discussion (Chapter 2,
energy a. Coal ash ponds cannot be established on wetlands. page 37).
b. New coal ash ponds must be lined to prevent
2. Which of the following types of coal has contamination of groundwater. 2. Some local U.S. communities have passed
the highest energy content? c. Coal ash ponds cannot be built in earthquake- ordinances prohibiting fracking within their jurisdictions.
a. Lignite c. Bituminous coal prone areas. Meanwhile, some state governments have tried to
b. Sub-bituminous coal d. Anthracite d. All of the above pass laws to limit or deny such prohibitions by local
communities. Discuss the pros and cons of local versus
3. What is the approximate energy efficiency 8. What is the major target of hydraulic centralized control of fossil energy exploration and
of a coal-fired electrical power plant? fracturing, or fracking? extraction.
a. 10% c. 35% a. Extraction of coal
3. What do the nuclear accidents at Three Mile Island,
b. 25% d. 70% b. Extraction of natural gas
Chernobyl, and Fukushima have in common? How are
c. Extraction of water in arid regions
4. What is the basic difference between a they different? What lessons can be learned from these
d. Extraction of carbon dioxide
coal-fired power plant and today’s nuclear accidents?
power plants? 9. Which of the following is not currently 4. Should the costs of the ecosystem services, such as
a. There is no difference; both use chemical energy included in restoration requirements following air and water purification, impaired by strip mining and
as a source of heat to produce steam. mountaintop removal mining? mountaintop mining be included in the cost of coal?
b. Coal-fired power plants use chemical energy, a. Restoring the native plant and animal diversity
whereas nuclear power plants use nuclear fusion 5. How would a serious application of the precautionary
b. Restoring top soils to original structure and fertility
as a source of heat to produce steam. principle (see Chapter 1, page 12) influence the
c. Restoring original drainage patterns and water
c. Coal-fired power plants rely on nuclear energy, development of nuclear power.
quality
whereas nuclear power plants use chemical energy d. None of the above Find additional resources and links online at www.
as a source of heat to produce steam. macmillanhighered.com/launchpad/molles1e.
d. Coal-fired power plants use chemical energy, 10. Which of the following is the major feature
whereas nuclear power plants use nuclear fission of improved safety for the latest nuclear power
as a source of heat to produce steam. plants?
PA S S 2
Central Question: Can we develop

renewable energy resources to help
sustain a thriving economy without Describe the renewable sources and
technologies of solar, wind, hydroelectric,
adversely affecting the environment? hydrokinetic, and geothermal energy.
(Andrew Henderson/National Geographic Creative) SCIENCE

PASS 2
C H A P T ER 10
Renewable Energy
Identify the environmental and human Investigate potential strategies to maximize the
impacts of renewable energy. sustainability of renewable energy.
296 C HAPTER 10 REN E WA B LE ENER GY
GROWTH IN WIND-GENERATING CAPACITY IN NORTH

AMERICA, NORTHERN EURASIA, AND ASIA PACIFIC GLOBAL PHOTOVOLTAIC GENERATION CAPACITY
200 × 10 3 100 × 10 3
GLOBAL PHOTOVOLTAIC CAPACITY

WIND-GENERATING CAPACITY
PERCENT OF
GLOBAL CAPACITY 80
150
North America 23%
(MEGAWATTS)
(MEGAWATTS)
Northern Eurasia 44% 60

Asia Pacific 31%
100
40
50
20
0 0
1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012
YEAR YEAR
Wind-generation capacity in these regions grew exponentially during Photovoltaic generation capacity grew rapidly from 1996 to 2012.
the first decade of the 21st century. (Data from BP, 2011) (Data from BP, 2013)
Energy Independence
A small island in Denmark is leading the way with renewable energy.
T he island of Samsø is a two-hour ferry ride from

the eastern coast of Denmark. A small, windswept
island in the North Sea with 4,000 residents, it would be
“I’d put my money on the sun and
unremarkable except for one simple fact: The electrical solar energy. What a source of
grid is 100% powered by renewable energy. Twenty-one power! I hope we don’t have to wait
massive wind turbines rise 150 feet from the pastoral
landscape and from the choppy waters of the Kattegat
until oil and coal run out before we
Strait, generating 34 megawatts (MW) of power. On windy tackle that.”
days, they produce so much energy that the island sells it Thomas A. Edison, 1931, in Uncommon Friends (1987)
to mainland Denmark. In addition to wind power, Samsø
has four plants that supply 70% of the island’s heat needs
using straw waste from barley production and sustainably By charting their own course and developing a diverse
harvested wood chips from local forests, along with solar array of renewable energy sources, Samsingers—as the people
energy. The local golf course boasts a solar-powered lawn of Samsø are known—are avoiding many of the problems we
mower, and one enterprising farmer converts his canola have explored that relate to fossil fuels and nuclear power.
crop into fuel to run his tractors. The island plans to be They demonstrate that it is possible to maintain a thriving
entirely fossil fuel–free by 2030. economy and high standard of living while reducing their
C A N W E D EV EL O P REN EWA B LE ENER GY R ES OUR C ES TO HELP S US TA I N A TH R I VI NG E C ONOMY WI TH OUT A DVE R S E LY A F F E C TI NG TH E E N V IRO N M E N T ?

297
environmental impact. Many other communities around the Even though the adoption of renewable energy supplies
world are making smaller, but nonetheless significant steps represents a step in the right direction, it comes with its
in that direction. According to the Renewable Energy Policy own issues. Solar panels require the extraction of mineral
Network (REN21), renewable energy resources powered half resources and can take up a large footprint on land. Many
of the world’s newly installed electrical generating capacity consider wind turbines an eyesore that creates noise pollution;
in 2010. Most of these gains are coming from massive wind turbines also pose a threat to migrating birds and flying
hydropower dams in countries such as Brazil and China, bats. And dams require the flooding of river valleys. The
but we’re also seeing dramatic growth in other renewable challenge of ensuring that the transition from nonrenewable
energy sectors. For example, biofuels (e.g., algae) production energy to renewable energy is done sustainably lies at the
increased by 14% in 2010 and wind power increased 24%, heart of the Central Question of this chapter.
reaching nearly 200 gigawatts (200,000 MW; left graph). The Because of the size of the human population and the
production of electricity by photovoltaic systems has grown great amounts of energy needed to sustain our economies,
at an explosive pace, reaching nearly 100 gigawatts (100,000 we have to consider that the large-scale development of
MW) in 2012 (right graph) and growing to 177 gigawatts renewable energy resources may threaten the environment
(177,000 MW) in 2014. in numerous ways.
Central Question
Can we develop renewable energy
resources to help sustain a thriving
economy without adversely
affecting the environment?

(Andrew Henderson/National Geographic Creative)

10.1–10.3 Science
J ust as the Sun fuels Earth’s ecosystems, it also powers
much of our renewable energy. We can harness
sunbeams directly to heat homes or convert them into
COMPLEX STRUCTURE OF VISIBLE LIGHT
REVEALED
electricity using solar panels. But energy from the Sun

also powers global wind patterns, long used to move
people and cargo across the oceans (Figure 10.1), and
is today turned into electricity using turbines. The Sun
also warms water in the oceans and lakes, causing it to
evaporate and rain down in the mountains, where it can
be converted into electricity using hydroelectric dams.
(Aaron Green, NOAA Ship FAIRWEATHER)
Sunlight fuels the growth of plants, and plant biomass can

be burned to produce electricity or can be transformed
into transportation fuels. Not all renewable energy
resources come from the sunlight, however. Earth’s
internal heat can be used to generate electricity, as well
as for heating and cooling. The gravitational pull of the
moon and the Sun creates the energy of the ocean’s tides,
which can be harnessed. FIGURE 10.2 The familiar rainbow results from sunlight
passing through water droplets, which separates the various
wavelengths that make up the light visible to humans. However,
approximately half of the energy present in sunlight falls outside
WIND AS A SOURCE OF ENERGY our visible range.
10.1 Solar energy can be

used as a heat source and to
generate electricity
FIGURE 10.1 Sailing
The Sun glows because of the fusion of hydrogen atoms
ships use the wind as a in its hot, gaseous core (see Figure 9.15, page 272). The
source of primary energy energy radiating from the Sun is enormous: The amount
to do work. Thousands of that strikes Earth’s surface in just 2 hours exceeds global
years ago, wind power was energy consumption from all sources in a year. The radiant
(Alvov/Shutterstock)
harnessed to move boats

laden with cargo—that’s still
energy the Sun emits, which we commonly call sunlight,
the case in some corners of looks orange and yellow, but it is actually a complex
the world today. mixture of varying wavelengths of light (Figure 10.2).

299
SUNLIGHT QUANTIFIED
2.5
UV Visible Infrared
SPECTRAL IRRADIANCE (W/m2/nm) 2
Sunlight at top of the atmosphere
Radiation at sea level
1.5
0.5
0
?
There are thousands of
250 500 750 1,000 1,250 1,500 1,750 2,000 2,250 2,500
species that can “see”
WAVELENGTH (nm)
ultraviolet and infrared
FIGURE 10.3 The average solar spectrum at the outer edge of Earth’s atmosphere and at sea level, showing the distribution of light as well as light
radiant energy in sunlight from the ultraviolet, visible, and infrared portions of the spectrum.
in our visible range.
How might our “view”
of the world change, if
Approximately half of this radiant energy is storage capacity (e.g., a battery), and is currently only
visible to humans, with wavelengths between 400 and robust when combined with other forms of power
our visual range was
700 nanometers (Figure 10.3). Infrared light, which we generation, such as wind or hydroelectric power. similar to these species?
can perceive as heat, accounts for most of the light energy The uneven heating of Earth’s surface by sunlight
outside the visible range and is very important in Earth’s produces a greater concentration of solar energy near the
heat balance, as we shall see in detail in Chapter 14. The equator, between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn.
Sun also emits ultraviolet light, which consists of highly
energetic, short wavelengths of light (> 400 nanometers).
Most ultraviolet light is absorbed by ozone in the upper
In addition, the availability of solar energy at Earth’s
surface is strongly affected by cloud cover. Consequently,
arid and semiarid regions near the Tropics of Cancer and
?
What factor is
atmosphere before it reaches Earth’s surface (see Capricorn receive some of the highest amounts of solar
Chapter 1, page 2). energy (Figure 10.4). However, the Sun provides useful responsible for the
One challenge with solar power, as with many sources energy supplies well into the temperate zones of North decrease in available
of renewable energy, is that it provides only intermittent America, Europe, and Asia. solar energy across the
power—only during daytime hours on relatively clear Historically, solar energy has been used to preserve United States from the
days. Therefore, an electrical system must have additional foods through drying, to illuminate living and work Southwest to Southeast?
AVERAGE ANNUAL SOLAR ENERGY RECEIVED FROM JUNE 1983 TO JUNE 2005
Tropic of
Cancer
ANNUAL
SOLAR
ENERGY
Equator
highest
Tropic of
Capricorn
lowest
FIGURE 10.4 Areas in tropical and arid regions receive the highest levels of solar energy. (Data accessed from NASA, 2009)

SUNLIGHT AS A SOURCE OF ENERGY
(Ed Hancock/NREL)
FIGURE 10.5 The atrium at Oberlin College’s Adam Joseph Lewis Center for Environmental
Studies uses solar energy as a source of heat and light, reducing the need and expense of
artificially lighting and heating the space.
spaces, and to heat living areas (Figure 10.5). More sunlight onto receivers (Figure 10.6a). One experimental
recently, solar energy has been used to generate power plant, Solar One, began operating in the Mojave
electricity. Small solar energy systems can provide Desert of Southern California in the early 1980s.
electricity for homes, businesses, and power needs in Nearly 2,000 sun-tracking mirrors, known as heliostats,
remote areas. Larger solar energy systems provide more were arrayed in concentric circles around a central
electricity for contribution to the electric power grid. tower. Inside the tower, a reservoir of oil was heated
to temperatures exceeding 600°C (1,000°F), providing
constant heat to a boiler that drove a steam turbine.
Concentrating Solar Power
Solar One and its successor, Solar Two, demonstrated the
Because solar energy is a diffuse source of heat, one form reliability of solar power by producing enough electricity
of solar power uses mirrors to reflect and concentrate to power 7,500 homes; but they were shut down in
TWO APPROACHES TO CONCENTRATING SOLAR POWER

(Gilles Mingasson/Getty Images for Bechtel)
(Warren Gretz/NREL)
Tower-based solar power plant at Ivanpah, California Parabolic trough solar power plant in California Mojave Desert
FIGURE 10.6 In a tower-based concentrating solar power station, hundreds of mirrors focus sunlight on a tower, where a liquid is
heated sufficiently to produce the steam needed to drive the turbine of an electrical generator. In contrast, a parabolic trough system
concentrates sunlight on a liquid flowing through a tube running the length of the trough; the heated liquid is used to generate steam,
which drives a turbine.

301
A PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL CONVERTS SOLAR ENERGY (PHOTONS) TO ELECTRIC ENERGY
Sun
Migration of electrons
from n- to p-layers
Photons e-
Load
Phosphorus-containing e- e- e-
silicon (n-layer)
Boron-containing e-
e-
e-
silicon (p-layer) e-
e- e-
e- e- e-
An electrical field is created at the When stimulated by a photon of light, energized

junction between phosphorus- electrons move across the electrical field,
treated and boron-treated silicon. creating an electrical current.
FIGURE 10.7 Photovoltaic cells harness the photoelectric effect, in which light energy ejects electrons from a semiconductor, to
generate electricity.
1999 because fossil fuels were relatively cheap and there manufacture n-layers (the “n” indicates “negative”). The
were no economic incentives to support the plant in insertion of boron atoms in a layer of silicon produces
?
the long term. Since that early, experimental period, p-layers (the “p” indicates “positive”) that have fewer
concentrating solar generation power plant designs have free electrons.
advanced considerably, and new plants are being built When an n-layer and a p-layer are joined, excess
all over the world. In addition to towers, other solar electrons in the n-layer near the junction instantaneously
What effects might
concentrators use curved mirrors that focus energy on a migrate from the n-layer to the p-layer, producing
pipe containing a liquid (Figure 10.6b) or use a mirrored relatively positively charged and negatively charged
solar development
dish that concentrates solar energy to run an engine that regions along the junction between the two layers have on the economics
drives a generator. (Figure 10.7). When energized by a photon of light, the of desert regions
electrical field pushes the electrons on the p-layer side of around the world?
Photovoltaic Generation the junction back through to the n-layer. This induces an
electrical current in conductors attached to the surfaces
Solar energy can be used to generate electricity directly
of the n- and p-layers that can be tapped for applications
using photovoltaic cells (solar cells). In these systems,
ranging from lighting to powering an electric vehicle.
light induces the photoelectric effect, a flow of electrons
in a semiconductor. A semiconductor is a material that
conducts current, but only somewhat. The semiconductor
has properties somewhere between that of an insulator
! Think About It
(e.g., rubber), which blocks current, and a conductor 1. How can we reason that human economic
(e.g., copper), which allows current to pass freely. Most systems have relied ultimately on solar energy photoelectric effect The
semiconductors are crystalline materials, most commonly throughout our history as a species? ejection of electrons from
silicon. If a semiconductor absorbs enough light energy, a substance (e.g., a metal
an electron will move from its position within the 2. What is the fundamental physical difference in or semiconductor) in
response to stimulation by
semiconductor. The result is a flow of electrons, that is, an how electricity is generated using concentrating light energy.
electrical current, as many electrons are stimulated. solar technology as opposed to photovoltaic cells?
Several industrial processes can be used to increase semiconductor A
the efficiency of the photoelectric effect by producing 3. Thinking at the level of individual photons material that conducts
solar cells made up of layers of semiconductors that differ of light and electrons, explain which areas current, but only somewhat,
of more intense sunlight have a higher potential because its properties
in their relative number of electrons. The addition of lie somewhere between
phosphorus atoms produces an excess of electrons in a for generating electricity using photovoltaic those of an insulator and a
silicon-based semiconductor. These materials are used to systems. conductor.

EVOLUTION OF WIND POWER
MODERN WIND TURBINE
Gear box
Generator
Wind
Blade
(Iberdrola Renewables, Inc./NREL
Tower
(symbiot/Shutterstock)
Electricity
Traditional Dutch windmill Modern wind turbines
FIGURE 10.8 The traditional windmills of The Netherlands have used wind energy for centuries to pump water from the country’s
low-lying lands. Today, advanced engineering taps the power of the wind to generate electricity.
10.2 Wind, water, and broadened to include lumber milling and water
pumping. Today, we are rediscovering the usefulness of
geothermal energy add clean, renewable wind energy, especially for generating
to the renewable energy electricity (Figure 10.8).
portfolio On a regional scale, winds arise by the Sun’s uneven
heating of the atmosphere, which creates differences in
The natural world is always in motion. Trees sway in the atmospheric pressure. Air ends up flowing from areas of
wind. Water crashes down a mountainside. Lava bursts high pressure to areas of low pressure. In Chapter 8 (see
forth from volcanoes. Early human engineers recognized Figure 8.2, page 232), we discussed the role, at a global
that they could harness this energy to perform useful scale, of winds in atmospheric and oceanic circulation.
work, and today, that often means finding ways to Wind systems also occur on local scales. The most
efficiently convert it to electricity. common examples are the daily alternations between
land and sea breezes or between mountain and valley
Wind Energy
winds (Figure 10.9).
Windmills have been used to grind grain for many During the day, the land along a shoreline warms more
centuries. As windmill design improved, their uses quickly than the nearby water body does. The warm air
SEA AND LAND BREEZES
DAY: SEA BREEZE NIGHT: LAND BREEZE

Warmer air over land rises and is replaced by cooler, denser air Warmer air over sea rises and is replaced by cooler, denser air
over a water body. over land.
FIGURE 10.9 Shifting

gradients in atmospheric
pressure created by
different rates of warming
and cooling produce
predictable daily cycles of
sea and land breezes.

303
WIND SPEED AT 50 METERS’ ELEVATION AVERAGED FROM JUNE 1983 TO JUNE 1993
AVERAGE
WIND SPEED
AT 50 METERS
lowest highest
FIGURE 10.10 Wind speeds are greatest over the oceans and coastal regions. On land, wind speeds are highest across prairies
and deserts and lowest over forested landscapes. (Data accessed from NASA, 2009)
rises and reduces the atmospheric pressure over land. The

resulting gradient in atmospheric pressure causes air to
generation. Water power was first used, like wind energy,
for a variety of work in manufacturing, including milling
?
One of the most
flow from the higher pressure over the sea to the lower grain, processing cloth, forging iron, and sawing stone
pressure over land; that air is called a sea breeze. Rapid (Figure 10.11). Today, however, the main use of water
common surnames in
cooling of land at night reverses the atmospheric pressure power is to generate electricity. the United States and
difference between land and sea; thus, the local air flow Hydroelectric power is electricity generated by across Europe is (or
changes direction, producing a land breeze. Mountain tapping the energy of water being driven downhill means) “Miller.” How
and valley winds are produced in an analogous way, under the force of gravity. Beginning in the early 20th does this fact reflect
as mountain slopes warm and cool more rapidly than century, engineers began damming Earth’s major rivers historical energy use?
nearby valleys.
There are great differences in the
amount of wind energy across Earth. For
example, wind velocities are higher over
the ocean than over land, where winds FLOWING WATER: A USEFUL SOURCE OF ENERGY
are slowed by friction (Figure 10.10).
Winds blow uninterrupted by land across
the Southern Ocean, regularly producing
wind velocities of 160 kilometers per
hour (100 miles per hour) or more.
Consequently, the southern coasts of
South America, Africa, and Australia
facing the Southern Ocean are exposed
to tremendous wind energy. The North
Pacific, North Atlantic, and their
associated coastlines are also regions of
high wind velocities. On land, the areas
with highest wind energy are the plains
of central North America, and the deserts
(Pecold/Shutterstock)
and plains of central Asia, northern

Africa, and Australia.
hydroelectric power
Water Power Electricity generated by
FIGURE 10.11 Prior to the Industrial Revolution, flowing water powered the tapping the energy of water
Water, because of its abundance on Earth, workings of many important economic activities, such as grinding grain in this being driven downhill under
provides many possibilities for power water-powered mill. the force of gravity.

HOOVER DAM
HYDROELECTRIC SYSTEM
Electricity
Reservoir Dam
Generator
Water flow
(Michael R. Rosen/U.S. Geological Survey)
Screened Turbine
water intake
River
Water outflow
Hoover Dam and Lake Mead, Nevada
?
FIGURE 10.12 Built between 1931 and 1936, Hoover Dam continues to generate hydroelectricity to this day.
How does the to provide growing cities with a steady supply of water developing countries, especially China, Brazil, and India
and electricity (Figure 10.12). Many of these dams were (Figure 10.13).
development of wind
constructed in deep river canyons that become flooded, One form of hydropower, hydrokinetic power,
and water energy to
forming a large water reservoir. These reservoirs can be does not rely on reservoirs. Instead, power stations use
generate electricity thought of as a giant battery because they store potential waterwheels to harness the kinetic energy in rivers and
echo the time when energy, the amount of energy an object has due to the tidal channels, which is the energy of the moving water.
millers were the configuration of its parts (see Chapter 2). The amount The flow in tidal channels is driven by the rise and fall
high-tech members of potential energy in a reservoir is proportional to the of the tides. Those gravitational forces are strongest, and
of communities (see difference in height between the surface of the water tidal fluctuations greatest, when the moon and Sun are in
Figures 10.8 and and the outflow at the base of the dam. Today, most alignment, as they are during the full and new phases of
10.11)? large-scale hydroelectric systems are being built in the moon. Tidal currents are a highly reliable source of
THREE GORGES DAM AND HYDROELECTRIC POWER STATION

(PRILL/Shutterstock)
hydrokinetic power A
form of hydropower in
which power stations use
the kinetic energy of waves,
tidal currents, or river flow to FIGURE 10.13 Completed in the first decade of the 21st century, the Three Gorges Dam has a
generate electricity. generating capacity of 22,500 megawatts, the world’s highest hydroelectric generating capacity.

305
BAY OF FUNDY: A PLACE OF MASSIVE TIDAL FLOW
(Edward Kinsman/Getty Images)

(Melissa King/Shutterstock)
Hopewell Rocks, Bay of Fundy, Canada, low tide Hopewell Rocks, Bay of Fundy, Canada, high tide
FIGURE 10.14 The daily ebb and flow of the tides is a largely untapped source of hydrokinetic energy.
kinetic energy and tidal channels along coastal areas such mounted on the sea floor and generate electricity from
as New York City’s East River or the Bay of Fundy are rising and dropping pressure.
being increasingly sought out as a source of water power The greatest amounts of wave energy are concentrated
(Figure 10.14). on coastlines facing the southern and northern oceans
(Figure 10.16). The North Atlantic, under the influence of
Wave Energy strong winds coming out of the west, has a well-deserved
Wind blowing across the ocean produces waves, another reputation as a place of treacherous, unrelenting waves.
source of hydrokinetic power (Figure 10.15). One way to Portugal, which faces these waves, installed the first
harness wave energy near the shore is to use a buoy that commercial wave-energy generator off its northern coast
floats on the water surface and is connected to the sea in 2008. Likewise, the coastlines along the North Pacific
floor. As the ocean rises and falls with each wave, it drives are also subjected to a steady pulse of waves crashing on
a pump that produces electricity. Other types of wave their shores. High levels of wave energy occur along the
generators oscillate back and forth with the waves or are southern coast of Australia and New Zealand as well.
WAVE POWER DEMONSTRATED

(Four Oaks/Shutterstock)
FIGURE 10.15 The energy content of ocean waves is revealed as they break on the shore.

FIGURE 10.16 Wave

energy is highest along AVERAGE AVAILABLE WAVE ENERGY ALONG COASTAL AREAS
coastlines in far northern and
southern latitudes. (Based
on research from Barstow
et al., 1998)
WAVE
ENERGY
Lowest Highest
?
Could the geothermal
resources of Iceland be
used to grow tropical Geothermal Energy The regions most suitable for developing geothermal
plants year round? energy are “hot spots” that occur at plate boundaries or
When a volcano erupts, it gives us a peek at the awesome
How? at places where the crust is thin enough to let the heat
power contained beneath the surface of Earth. The heat
through. These are areas of significant volcanic activity,
energy produced in Earth’s core by the radioactive decay
such as the “ring of fire” that encircles the Pacific Ocean
of chemical elements, such as uranium, is known as
?
(Figure 10.18). Geothermal activity is also intense in
geothermal energy. Where accessible near Earth’s surface,
areas of sea floor spreading. The mid-Atlantic ridge
it becomes a valuable source of renewable energy.
is a place where two tectonic plates are diverging,
Geothermal energy is used in two principal ways.
How is renewable producing much volcanic activity—and Iceland has
Where it heats water that flows to Earth’s surface as
energy availability hot springs, geothermal energy can heat buildings. For
capitalized on it, generating 66% of its energy from
related to the geothermal energy. The Great Rift Valley of East Africa,
example, all the buildings in Reykjavik, the capital of
distribution of natural with its great rift lakes and towering volcanic peaks, is
Iceland, are heated by water from geothermal springs.
physical hazards to another region of substantial geothermal activity.
The second way geothermal energy can be used is to
There are three types of geothermal power plants
people and property? drive electric generators (Figure 10.17).
(Figure 10.19). Dry steam plants use the steam from
geothermal wells directly to turn generator turbines.
The Geysers in northern California, the largest
ENERGY FROM EARTH’S CORE geothermal generating system in the world, is a dry
steam plant. Flash steam plants, the most common
type in use today, pull deep, high-pressure hot water
into lower-pressure tanks. As this hot water enters a
lower pressure chamber, it “flashes” into steam, which
is used to drive a generator turbine. The third type,
the binary-cycle geothermal power plant, can be run
with geothermal waters of moderate temperatures,
well below the boiling point of water. In a binary-
cycle plant, geothermal water is passed through a heat
exchanger, where the heat it contains flows to a second
fluid with a much lower boiling point than water. This
transfer of heat converts the second fluid to vapor,
(Eco Images/Getty Images)
which drives the associated turbine.
! Think About It
1. Using Figures 10.4 to 10.18, determine which
FIGURE 10.17 Where hot springs, waters that are heated by geothermal energy,
occur near Earth’s surface, they can be used to heat buildings or to generate regions have the most, and least, diversity of
electricity, as at this geothermal power plant in Iceland. renewable energy resources.

307
FIGURE 10.18 The

DISTRIBUTION OF GEOTHERMAL ENERGY availability of geothermal
energy is closely associated
with areas with significant
volcanism. (Based on
research from Duffield and
Sass, 2003)
Geothermal
hotspots
2. How does the hydrokinetic energy represented

THREE BASIC GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANT DESIGNS
by waves in deep water differ from that
?
represented by flowing river water? In what ways
DRY STEAM POWER PLANT
are they the same?
Turbine Generator
Electricity
3. Which forms of energy discussed in this section Which form of
are not ultimately driven by sunlight? Explain. renewable energy
technology is the
most technically
Steam Condensed steam 10.3 Biomass fuels revolutionary? Explain.
(water)
represent stored chemical
energy
FLASH STEAM POWER PLANT
Flash tank Turbine Generator

When you cook food over a campfire, you’re burning
a biomass fuel, a combustible fuel derived from
biological materials. Wood is certainly the most
?
What factors contribute
common biomass fuel used today, but it’s not the only
Electricity
one. In places without forests, local people have long to the common use of
Steam
burned dung from livestock and wild animals as fuel for biomass fuels today
cooking and for warmth (Figure 10.20). In addition, among the poor in
plant oils (e.g., olive oil) and animal fats (e.g., whale developing countries?
Hot Separated Condensed steam blubber) have also been used as sources of light
water water (water)
and heat.
Increasingly, biomass is becoming an important
renewable source of fuel for transportation and for
generating electricity. It may be used directly in
BINARY CYCLE POWER PLANT relatively raw form, such as when wood is burned for
Turbine Generator
Electricity
FIGURE 10.19 Dry steam power plants are driven
directly by steam that pushes up from the well driven into
Binary
vapor
the geothermal formation. In a flash steam power plant,
hot water rising from the geothermal formation enters the
Binary liquid lower pressure of the flash tank, where some of the water
“flashes” into steam driving a turbine. In binary-cycle biomass fuel A combustible
Hot Heat Cooled power plants, lower-temperature geothermal waters are fuel derived from biological
water exchanger water used to vaporize a liquid with a boiling point lower than materials (e.g., wood, charcoal,
that of water. dung).

308 CHAPTER 10 REN E WA B LE ENER GY
ethanol from grains, including corn, barley, and rice, has

A RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCE SINCE ANCIENT TIMES been known for thousands of years—since humans first
learned to make alcoholic beverages. Although modern
techniques to produce ethanol for biofuel have progressed
far beyond those traditional practices, most ethanol is still
made by using yeast to ferment starches from grains and
simple sugars from sugarcane (Figure 10.22).
Using whole plants to produce ethanol is more
challenging. The process has been limited by the
difficulty and cost of converting large cellulose
molecules, the main chemical component of woody
plant material, to simpler sugar molecules that are easily
fermented to ethanol. These technical barriers are rapidly
falling, however, in the face of intensive research and
development. This research has provided the technical
basis for opening commercial-scale biomass refineries
that convert wood and other cellulose-rich materials
(Ullstein Bild/Getty Images)
to ethanol, a product referred to as cellulosic ethanol

(Figure 10.23).
In addition to producing ethanol, used mainly as
an additive to gasoline, several methods are under
development to convert wood and other plant material
FIGURE 10.20 Dung, a biomass fuel, is still gathered and into gasoline, diesel, and jet fuels, using genetically
used for cooking and heating by many people around the world,
such as this young dung gatherer in Mongolia.
modified bacteria. One advantage of converting
terrestrial plant biomass to these types of fuels is that
they are more energy-dense: They have one-third
higher energy content than ethanol per unit volume.
heat, or it may be converted to a variety of liquid or Consequently, fuel mileage is about 30% higher when
gaseous fuels known as biofuels, the production of which using these alternative fuels.
has grown rapidly (Figure 10.21).
Biofuels from Plants

ETHANOL FROM SIMPLE SUGARS
Ethanol, one of the common biofuels, is widely used
as a gasoline additive. The process of manufacturing
GLOBAL BIOFUEL PRODUCTION
60
MILLION METRIC TONS OIL EQUIVALENT
50
40
(Paulo Fridman/Bloomberg via Getty Images)
30
20
10
biofuel A liquid or gaseous

fuel derived from biomass 0
(e.g., ethanol, biodiesel). 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010
YEAR FIGURE 10.22 These trucks are hauling sugarcane to
cellulosic ethanol Ethanol FIGURE 10.21 The production of biofuels increased an ethanol-producing plant in Brazil, where most ground
produced from wood and approximately 650% between 2000 and 2010. (Data from transportation is fueled by ethanol made from sugars extracted
other cellulose-rich materials. BP, 2011) from sugarcane.

309
BASIC STEPS IN CELLULOSIC ETHANOL PRODUCTION
1 Harvest plant 2 Grinding and 3 Using enzymes 4 Fermentation 5 Distillation to

biomass liquefying by to break down of sugars by extract ethanol
treating with cellulose into yeast and
heat and acids simple sugars bacteria
FIGURE 10.23 Producing ethanol from cellulose is a technically challenging process, compared with producing ethanol from the
starches in grains, such as corn, or from the simple sugars in sugarcane.
Biofuels from Algae some limits of that technology, or limits as we understand

it today, which doesn’t mean it’s limited forever.”
Today, soybean oil, canola oil, and palm oil represent
the primary source materials for the biofuel known as
biodiesel, a fuel made from vegetable oils and animal ! Think About It
fats. However, there are other sources of biodiesel under 1. How are biomass fuels similar to fossil fuels? How
development. The algae that float in swimming pools,
are they different?
ponds, and the open ocean are remarkably efficient at
capturing sunlight and turning it into the energy and 2. What were some of the first biofuels used by
materials they need for growth. Some algae can double humans?
in number in just 12 hours. Their exponential growth
means that, compared with corn, they are able to produce 3. What are some advantages of biodiesel over
at least 10 times more fuel in the same amount of time. ethanol?
Moreover, they can also be grown in brackish waters
and in marginal conditions that do not support food
crops. Perhaps their best attribute is that they naturally 10.1–10.3 Science:
produce and store oils that are similar to the vegetable
Summary
oil you can buy at the grocery store. Oil can be more
readily harvested and converted into fuels we already use, Renewable energy resources include solar,
including biodiesel, gasoline, and even jet fuel. That’s one wind, water, and geothermal energy, along
reason why the major oil companies—ExxonMobil, Shell, with biomass fuels. Solar energy can be used to
and Chevron—are funding research efforts to develop generate electricity directly using photovoltaic
algal fuels. cells or via concentrating solar power plants that
Scientists are studying thousands of algal strains run steam turbines. Other forms of renewable
around the world to find those that grow the fastest and energy include hydropower dams, tidal power
have the greatest potential for biofuel production. For stations, and wind turbines that harness the
instance, a group of researchers at the Scripps Institute kinetic and potential energy in the water
of Oceanography have managed to genetically modify or wind.
diatom algae to produce more oils than they normally Wave generators are a new technology to
would, without negatively affecting their growth. In 2009 capture wave energy in the oceans. Geothermal
Synthetic Genomics in La Jolla, California, which was energy is heat energy produced in Earth’s core
founded by the human genome sequencing pioneer by nuclear fission. Biomass and biofuels provide
J. Craig Venter, received a $600 million commitment from sources of chemical energy, which will be critical
ExxonMobil to build an algae biofuel plant. Nevertheless, for powering the transportation sector. Biofuels
substantial research and development will be required currently on the market include corn-based
before algae-derived biofuels can compete with ethanol and biodiesel from vegetable oils.
petroleum. Recently, ExxonMobil CEO Rex Tillerson told Researchers are also developing commercial-
biodiesel A liquid fuel
PBS that the company is still 25 years away from creating a scale cellulosic ethanol and algal biofuels. made from vegetable oils
commercially viable product: “We’ve come to understand and animal fats.

10.4–10.7 Issues
R enewable energy development comes with many

benefits, including reduced mining impacts, much
lower production of climate-altering CO2 (see Figure
impact. However, this is just the beginning. Siting of wind
and solar energy farms, electrical switching facilities, and
transmission lines on the plains, valleys, and mountains
14.33, page 453), and less hazardous waste. Building this of the region has the potential to damage or destroy large
new, cleaner infrastructure, however, still requires some tracts of natural habitat.
depletion of natural resources, the destruction of wildlife
habitat, and the burning of fossil fuels. As we transition Habitat Destruction and Fragmentation
from an economy based primarily on nonrenewable
Agassiz’s desert tortoise, Gopherus agassizii, is about the
energy sources, we should do a careful accounting of both
size of an American football and lives in the deserts of
benefits and costs so that we can minimize environmental
the southwestern United States, a region where solar
impacts associated with renewable energy development.
developments have been expanding rapidly. At one time,
you could find as many as 1,000 tortoises per square
10.4 Solar power remains mile, but their numbers have declined significantly
due to livestock grazing, off-road vehicles, and disease.
costly and can damage the Unchecked solar development could represent the fatal
environment blow to this threatened species.
As we push for rapid development of renewable energy Figure 10.24 shows potential areas for solar energy
resources, we run the risk of damaging critical wildlife developments in deserts. Several of those areas fall within
habitat. A single switching station, called Tres Amigas the range of the Agassiz tortoise and a related species
and planned for eastern New Mexico, will join three of conservation concern, Morafka’s desert tortoise, G.
major electrical grids of the United States and will require morafkai. Tortoises and other species living near solar
the clearing and development of 57 square kilometers developments are vulnerable to vehicle traffic, the
(22 square miles) of land. The new transmission lines collapse of burrows by heavy equipment, destruction of
serving such facilities could have an even more extensive habitat through vegetation removal, altered topography
MAP OF U.S. SOLAR ENERGY ZONES
Dry Lake
Millers Wah Wah Valley
Valley
North Milford Flats South
De Tilla Gulch
Gold Point Escalante Valley
Fourmile East
Amargosa Los Mogotes
Dry Lake East
Valley Antonio Southeast
Riverside East Brenda

West Chocolate Gillespie
Mountains
Imperial East Agua Caliente
Afton
Solar energy zones
FIGURE 10.24 Large tracts of land across the southwestern United States have been identified as potential areas for
solar energy development.

311
and drainage patterns, and road construction. These

threats not only impact wildlife populations but also ROADS AND WILDLIFE HABITAT FRAGMENTATION
add to the costs of constructing and operating solar
power plants. For example, Bright Source Energy, a
company developing solar energy in the Ivanpah Valley
in California, spent more than $56 million protecting and
relocating desert tortoises. Mitigation efforts included
building an 80-kilometer-long (50-mile-long) tortoise-
proof fence to prevent the relocated animals from
returning.
In addition to damaging habitat and adding to
mortality in wildlife populations, energy development will
bring new service roads to the deserts of the southwestern
United States, fragmenting habitats and impeding the
(NPS Photo by Andrew Cattoir)

movements of threatened animals. In the Southwest,
desert tortoises, desert bighorn sheep, and desert mule
deer could be seriously affected (Figure 10.25).
Water Consumption by Concentrating

Solar Power FIGURE 10.25 Roads can reduce free movement of many species of wildlife, such
as this desert bighorn sheep, across the landscape, subdividing populations into
Although concentrating solar power stations can smaller isolated units, each more prone to local extinction.
reduce our reliance on nonrenewable resources, they
can potentially consume a large amount of water and
generally operate in arid regions where water is scarce.
The most energetically efficient concentrating solar
power plants draw on turbine designs developed in
energy-wise: You are expending the same amount of energy
that will ultimately be extracted or produced. The higher
the EROEI, the better the energy source. Recent analyses
?
How might efforts
coal- and gas-fired power plants and require cooling for indicate that hydroelectric power and wind energy have
condensing steam back to liquid water. a greater EROEI than coal or natural gas (Figure 10.27). to protect desert
As shown in Figure 10.4 (see page 299), the areas However, solar energy remains relatively more costly in tortoise habitat benefit
receiving the highest amounts of solar energy are terms of energy input—on par with nuclear power. other species in the
concentrated in arid and semi-arid regions. Water loss ecosystem?
is the result of evaporation in the cooling towers where
water is cooled before returning to the steam condensers. WATER USE BY DIFFERENT GENERATION
?
And, of course, all types of power-generating stations TECHNOLOGIES
use more water than photovoltaic or wind-generating
4,000
stations, which do not require cooling (Figure 10.26).
Consequently, concentrating solar power development 3,500 What factors may
WATER CONSUMED BY COOLING
faces some fundamental questions. Where would the contribute to the high
3,000
water for cooling come from and at what cost to other rates of water use by
(LITERS PER MW/h)
competing uses? Can alternative technologies reduce 2,500 concentrating solar

water consumption by concentrating solar power stations? power plants operating
2,000
in deserts?
Competitive Energy Returns on Investment 1,500
A critical test of the sustainability of any energy source 1,000
is how much energy must be expended to obtain it. For

500
example, to prepare coal to generate electricity, it must
be mined, processed, and transported to a power station, 0
all of which require energy. During the production of

s
d
r
ic
el
s o tin g
ea
as
in
ta
r
fu
energy return on energy

la
W
cl
om
ol
a
il
tr
Nu
ov
ss
photovoltaic cells, energy is expended in producing the

Bi
en
investment (EROEI) The

ot
Fo
nc
Ph
semiconductor crystals, fabricating the solar cells, and

Co
ratio of the energy content

GENERATION TECHNOLOGY
building the inverter, which converts direct current (dc) of an energy source (e.g.,
to the alternating current (ac) used in the electrical grid. FIGURE 10.26 A comparison of medians and ranges of water gasoline) to the amount of
consumption by recirculating water cooling systems associated energy that must be used
The ratio of energy spent to energy obtained is called with different generation technologies shows that concentrating in, for example, drilling,
the energy return on energy investment (EROEI). For solar power generation consumes more water than other transporting, and refining to
example, an EROEI of 1 means you are just breaking even, technologies. (Data from Carter and Campbell, 2009) produce the energy source.

FIGURE 10.27 The EROEI

ENERGY RETURN ON ENERGY INVESTMENT WIND TURBINES AND BIRDS
for electrical generation using
renewable hydroelectric (EROEI) FOR ELECTRICAL POWER, USING
and wind energy sources VARIOUS ENERGY SOURCES
is competitive with coal,
whereas the EROEI of 45
ENERGY RETURN ON ENERGY INVESTMENT

generating electricity
40
with photovoltaic cells is
comparable to generation 35
using natural gas or nuclear
30
energy. (Data from Inman,
2013) 25
20
(Ian Duffield/Shutterstock)
15
10
r
d
al
as
lt a l ar
r ic
ea
FIGURE 10.28 Most bird mortality associated with wind
in
i c)
Co
lg
ct
vo S o
W
cl
le
ra
Nu
development results from collisions with turbines and
oe
tu
Na
dr
to
associated structures. Many kinds of birds, but particularly
ho
Hy
ENERGY SOURCE (p birds of prey—such as this golden eagle, falcons, hawks,

and owls—appear to be particularly subject to collisions with
earlier-generation wind turbines.
! Think About It Somewhere between 300 million and 1 billion birds die
each year from colliding with buildings (Figure 10.29).
1. How do the wildlife conflicts associated with
Collisions with transmission lines (10 million to
solar energy development in arid regions challenge
154 million) and communication towers (4 million to
the commonly held perspective of these biomes as 50 million) also kill vast numbers of birds. In addition,
“empty places”?
2. The largest use of water in arid and semi-arid ESTIMATED ANNUAL BIRD DEATHS (MEDIANS
regions is for irrigation. How do we weigh electrical AND RANGES) IN THE UNITED STATES,
production against food production in such regions? RESULTING FROM COLLISIONS WITH VARIOUS
STRUCTURES
10.5 Wind turbines and 1,000

ANNUAL BIRD COLLISION DEATHS (in millions)
transmission lines kill birds

and bats 800
Wind turbines work best when mounted on tall towers

where winds are the strongest. The electricity generated, in 600
turn, requires high-voltage lines to transmit the generated
power to the population centers. All these structures can
400
maim or kill birds and bats that collide with them.
Wind Turbines 200
Between 2005 and 2007, the 5,000 wind turbines at

the Altamont Pass Wind Resource Area (APWRA) in
0
northern California killed approximately 9,000 birds Buildings Power lines Communication Wind turbines
towers
each year. Eagles, hawks, falcons, and other birds of prey
STRUCTURES
proved to be particularly vulnerable, accounting for about
one-fourth of this mortality (Figure 10.28). FIGURE 10.29 Estimates of annual bird deaths resulting
from collisions with wind turbines were estimated at 573,000,
But to put this problem in perspective, the estimated compared with an estimated 300 million to 1 billion deaths
number of birds killed by wind turbines around the resulting from collisions with buildings. (Data from American
country is just 0.04% of the total annual collision deaths. Bird Conservancy, 2015)

313
TWO BAT SPECIES VULNERABLE TO WIND ENERGY DEVELOPMENT
(Alvin E Staffan/Science Source/Getty Images)

(Merlin Tuttle/Science Source/Getty Images)
Eastern red bats, Lasiurus borealis Silver-haired bat, Lasionycteris noctivagans
FIGURE 10.30 Bat mortality at wind turbines appears to be the result of both collisions and barotrauma, that is, lung damage
resulting from bats entering low-pressure micro-environments created by the moving turbine blades. Two particularly vulnerable
species are eastern red bats, Lasiurus borealis, and silver-haired bats, Lasionycteris noctivagans.
each year in the United States, cars, pesticides, and cats kill today (Figure 10.31). The additional transmission
an estimated 60 million, 70 million, and 100 million birds, lines required by utility-scale wind and solar power
?
respectively. But wind power represents a growing threat: plants will add significantly to bird mortality.
By 2030, when the number of wind turbines is projected to Some bird species are particularly subject to
reach 100,000, the number of birds killed by wind turbines collisions with transmission lines. Unfortunately,
in the United States may reach 1 million annually. planning for the routing of transmission lines has Should there be more
While early environmental concern related to wind sometimes failed to consider such vulnerabilities. efforts to reduce fatal
energy development was focused on birds, bats are also For instance, a proposed switching facility in eastern bird collisions with
vulnerable. Surprisingly, most bat deaths at wind farms New Mexico would place electrical transmission lines buildings?
occur at low wind velocities of less than 22 kilometers across the Middle Rio Grande of central New Mexico,
per hour (13 miles per hour). Ongoing research obstructing the daily flight path of wintering greater
indicates that at least some of bat mortality is the result
of barotrauma, resulting from rapid expansion of their
lungs as they enter areas of low air pressure near moving
U.S. TRANSMISSION LINE GRID
turbine blades.
The most vulnerable bats are tree-roosting migratory
species such as eastern red bats, Lasiurus borealis, and
silver-haired bats, Lasionycteris noctivagans (Figure 10.30).
By 2020 more than 100,000 bats could be killed annually
in the Mid-Atlantic Highlands region of the United States
alone. This level of mortality could also affect a significant
ecological service bats regularly provide: eating insects.
A 2011 study (Boyles et al., 2011) estimated the value of
bats’ contribution to controlling insect pests in the United
States alone at nearly $23 billion annually. Reduced bat
populations could translate into more insects attacking
crops and farmers using more pesticides to counter them.
Transmission Lines
The high-voltage transmission lines leading into and U.S. transmission grid
out of a wind farm, or any other type of power plant,

are a significant source of bird mortality. There are
approximately 800,000 kilometers (500,000 miles) of FIGURE 10.31 Transmission line networks are responsible for millions of bird deaths annually in
high-voltage transmission lines in the United States the United States alone.

because they avoid any tall structures where hawks, their

VULNERABILITY TO ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION LINES natural predators, may roost. Regardless, wind energy
development may be subdividing remnant populations
of prairie chickens into increasingly isolated habitat
fragments. One species of special concern in sagebrush
habitats is the sage grouse, Centrocercus urophasianus,
which abandon their mating areas when tall structures
are built near them (Figure 10.33). Conservationists fear
this could increase their risk of extinction.
! Think About It
1. Considering the relative bird mortality caused
by different factors, are concerns about mortality
resulting from wind development out of proportion
to actual impacts on bird populations? Argue both
for and against this position.
(Manuel Molles)
2. With house cats currently killing approximately

1,000 times the number of birds that die from
FIGURE 10.32 Some birds, such as the sandhill crane (Grus canadenis), are especially collisions with wind turbines, should we consider
vulnerable to death from collisions with electrical transmission lines.
discouraging outdoor foraging by pet cats?
sandhill cranes (Grus canadensis), a species for which

10.6 Hydroelectric
?
Although underground
transmission lines can be a major source of morality
(Figure 10.32). development can have
multiple environmental
Wind Developments Harm Wildlife Habitat and social impacts
transmission lines cost
In the Great Plains, researchers have found that Hydroelectricity comes with a number of environmental
far more than above- bird diversity and densities are lower in areas where costs. We discussed several of these impacts in previous
ground towers, should wind-generation facilities have been built, compared chapters. As we saw in Chapter 6, dams harm aquatic
underground electrical with off-site reference areas. In one study, biologists biodiversity by trapping nutrient-rich sediments in
transmission be phased followed the movements of prairie chickens fitted reservoirs; in Chapter 8, we reviewed how dams restrict
in gradually to reduce with radio collars and found that they avoid power migrations of fish such as salmon. Dams also present
environmental impact? transmission lines and wind generators. This may be social and environmental challenges for people.
PRAIRIE BIRDS IMPACTED BY WIND DEVELOPMENT
?
How might basic
studies of the
behavior, ecology, and
evolutionary history of
sensitive species, such
(U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service)
(Jeannie Stafford/USFWS)
as prairie chickens,
help in the design of
low-impact renewable
energy systems?
Prairie chicken, Tympanuchus spp Sage grouse, Centrocercus urophasianus
FIGURE 10.33 Prairie chickens and sage grouse inhabit prime areas for wind energy development. Unfortunately, both species
can be impacted by such developments because they avoid tall structures, such as wind turbine and transmission line towers, which
hawks and other raptors may use as perches from which to spot prey and launch attacks.

315
Reservoirs Can Harm Water Quality

HUMAN IMPACTS OF LARGE-SCALE HYDROELECTRIC
Reservoirs built for hydroelectric power can negatively DEVELOPMENT
impact water quality. Building dams can turn
crystalline rapids into murky, polluted reservoirs. The
decomposition of organic matter in reservoirs can deplete
oxygen, creating anoxic conditions in deeper waters.
When these anoxic waters are released downstream, it
restricts the types of organisms that can inhabit them.
Large reservoirs with anoxic layers also release climate-
altering greenhouse gases (see Chapter 14, page 431),
particularly in tropical regions such as Brazil. In addition,
the decomposition of flooded forests releases mercury,
which enters the food chain and is eventually ingested by
fish (see Chapter 11, page 339). In places where fish have
(China Photos/Getty Images)

high levels of mercury, people eating them can suffer
brain and liver damage.
Impacts on Human Populations

Hydroelectric installations are constructed to generate
FIGURE 10.34 Because they often inundate sizable areas of fertile
and deliver dependable electrical energy to people, often riverside land, large-scale hydroelectric developments often disrupt human
at distant locations, which is a clear social and economic populations. For example, this woman cooks in her half-demolished home
benefit. However, these benefits should be weighed before it was inundated by the reservoir created by the Three Gorges Dam.
against the impact that such construction has on local
populations. For example, building the Three Gorges than in reservoirs fed by rivers that drain arid
Dam project on the Yangtze River in China (see Figure regions?
10.13) flooded 13 cities, 140 towns, and 1,350 villages.
?
The Chinese government estimates that 1.3 million 2. As a consequence of the environmental impacts
people were relocated as a result and that an additional of dams and reservoirs, some have argued that
half million people may yet be relocated. Furthermore, hydroelectricity is not “green” energy. Use Internet
the dam has harmed migratory fish populations and rare resources to develop arguments for and against this Reservoirs are very
species that rely on wetlands, such as the endangered position. much appreciated as
Siberian crane. sites for recreational
Another example of how dam-building impacts local 3. How would you weigh the benefits of a
boating and fishing,
populations is found in Brazil. About 2,000 indigenous hydroelectric installation, such as Three Gorges
which can be significant
people in Brazil consider the Xingu River a lifeline, Dam or the Belo Monte project, against their
providing their domestic water supply and fishing
contributors to local
environmental and human costs?
grounds (Figure 10.34). But the Belo Monte dam project, economies. How
which would be the second-largest hydroelectric dam in might these factors
the world and which received a provisional approval in 10.7 Biofuel development be included in any
2010, includes canals that will reroute most of the Xingu assessment of the
can reduce food supplies
River away from its natural channel. It will also flood costs and benefits of
approximately one-fourth of the city of Altamira, Brazil, and harm the environment hydroelectric reservoirs?
displacing about 20,000 people. In 2008 worldwide food prices began to skyrocket,
The Brazilian government did not consult the leading to mass protests and outbreaks of famine in
indigenous people about the impacts of the Belo Monte developing countries. One catalyst for this crisis was
?
project—reportedly because they were told they would the boom in biofuels, which led to over 30% of the
not be displaced by the flooding of the reservoir. Later, U.S. corn crop being diverted to ethanol production.
the human rights commission of the Organization of When corn is transformed into biofuel, it can deprive
American States ruled that this lack of consultation was a the human population of a food source (Figure 10.35). Why is it perhaps not
violation of the international accords Brazil had agreed to. One United Nations official concerned with global surprising that building
food distribution called the situation a “crime against large reservoirs will
! Think About It humanity.” Nevertheless, the production of ethanol from
corn continued to increase, and by 2011, the share of
often displace human
communities?
1. Why would oxygen depletion be more common the U.S. corn crop going into ethanol production rose
in reservoirs fed by tropical rivers like the Amazon to 40%. Such growth is fueled in the United States and

ETHANOL PRODUCTION FROM CORN (MAIZE)
(Bloomberg/Getty Images)
(stanley45/Getty Images)
Corn (maize) combine unloading raw kernels Corn (maize) ethanol plant in Colorado
FIGURE 10.35 Production of biofuel from corn has diverted food from human populations, resulting in significantly higher food
prices around the world.
elsewhere by governmental programs providing subsidies and other vertebrate animals, whose diversity has been
to farmers growing crops for ethanol production. reduced by over 60% in palm oil plantations.
?
Expanding production of corn and other biofuel In Brazil, large tracts of forest have been cleared for
crops around the world has the potential to cause production of soybeans, much of which is used for
environmental harm by increasing soil erosion, nutrient biodiesel production. Recent analyses have also shown
How do we decide depletion of soils, nitrogen and phosphorus pollution that biofuels indirectly lead to rain forest destruction.
between the need for of surface and groundwater, as well as herbicide and As old pastures are converted to biofuel production,
liquid fuels and the insecticide pollution. It also has the potential to reduce ranchers end up clearing new forest for grazing lands.
biodiversity, as lands set aside for conservation are
need for food?
converted to intense agriculture (Figure 10.36).
In Southeast Asia, plantations of palm oil, which is used ! Think About It
for food and fuel, represent the number-one driver of 1. What are the benefits and costs of ethanol
forest loss. The Union of Concerned Scientists estimates biofuels made from corn?
that 300,000 hectares of tropical forest are cleared in
Indonesia each year—an area about the size of the state of 2. How should the costs and benefits of biofuel
Delaware. The loss of forests there threatens the orangutan development be weighed and prioritized?
ECOSYSTEM CONVERSION FOR BIOFUEL PRODUCTION

(Tony Ifland/USFWS)
(rsooll/Shutterstock)
Diverse mixed-grass prairie, north-central Kansas Cultivated field of young corn (maize)
FIGURE 10.36 As natural grassland ecosystems are converted to intensive corn (maize) agriculture, or as tropical forests are
converted to oil palm plantations or soybean fields, biofuel production reduces biodiversity.

317
10.4–10.7 Issues: Hydroelectric dams have impacts on

downstream ecosystems, biodiversity, and
Summary migratory fish. Often, large dams displace
Developed carelessly, renewable energy people, which can cause social and economic
can cause many environmental problems. disruption. Production of fuels from biomass
Concentrating solar power plants, for instance, may reduce human food supplies, increase
are located in hot, arid regions and may require soil erosion, deplete soil nutrients, and pollute
as much or more water for cooling than do surface and groundwater. Biofuel development
conventional power plants. Developing solar also threatens biodiversity, particularly in
and wind facilities and expanding the electric tropical regions such as Southeast Asia and
grid can fragment and destroy wildlife habitats, Brazil, where expansion of biofuel production
such as that of the desert tortoise in the has resulted in deforestation.
southwestern United States. Wind turbines are a
significant source of bird and bat mortality.
A s we saw on the island of Samsø, it is possible to
transition almost completely to renewable energy,
but only with government incentives, technological FALLING COSTS OF RENEWABLE ENERGY
improvements, and community buy-in. For renewable TECHNOLOGY
energy to succeed in the long term on a large scale, it 100
AVERAGE MODULE PRICE ($/W)
must be cheaper than the alternative. A 2012 economic

analysis by Citi Research, a research and analysis division
of the international financial company Citi, indicates 10
that the cost of generating electricity with wind and solar 1972
energy is approaching the costs of that using fossil fuels Installed base: 4 MW
Average module price: $74.48/watt
(Figure 10.37). 1
However, there’s no “one size fits all” solution for 2012
Installed base: 93,586 MW
transitioning to renewable energy. Different regions Average module price: $0.97/watt
will embrace different approaches, depending on their 0.1
costs and local geography. No matter what, a sustainable 1 10 100 1,000 10,000 100,000
solution to our long-term energy needs must include CUMULATIVE SOLAR PV INSTALLED BASE (MW)
impact on the environment as part of the cost of using

any energy sources, including those that are renewable.
FIGURE 10.37 As
Here, we explore ways of reducing the environmental 4 Denmark Global
AVERAGE TURBINE PRICE ($/W)
and Germany installed generation capacity

costs of renewable energy. by renewable energy has
increased, the costs of
generation in dollars per
10.8 Smart solutions to 2
watt have decreased
issues associated with significantly. The average
cost of photovoltaic modules
solar power are under 1
decreased by more than
development
1984 2011
Installed base: 274 MW Installed base: 234,777 MW 70 times in 40 years.
Average price: $2.50/watt Average price: $1.12/watt Between 1984 and 2011,
There are, as we have seen, several issues associated with the cost of wind turbines
0.5
developing large-scale solar power installations: water 100 1,000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000 fell by 50%. (Data from Citi
consumption, impacts on biodiversity, and the fact that CUMULATIVE WIND INSTALLED BASE (MW) Research, 2012)

FIGURE 10.38 A Distributed Rooftop Generation

comparison of median and REDUCING WATER USE BY
ranges of water consumption CONCENTRATING SOLAR POWER Another way to reduce water consumption by solar
by water, hybrid, and air- generation is to move from concentrating solar
3,000
cooling systems for tower- generation to photovoltaic generation. For example, in
based concentrating solar
arid regions, energy developers are building utility-scale
WATER CONSUMED BY COOLING

power generation shows 2,500
that hybrid and air-cooling photovoltaic power plants. Such plants use less than
systems result in considerable 20 liters (5 gallons) per megawatt hour, generally just
2,000
enough to clean the surfaces of the photovoltaic panels.
(LITERS/MWh)
water savings. (Data from
U.S. Department of Energy, However, because such systems require covering large
2009) 1,500
areas with solar panels, they have a much larger footprint
1,000
on the land than do concentrating solar power plants.
One proposal to avoid damage to wildlife and valuable
500
agricultural land is to install photovoltaic panels in
already disturbed and developed areas (Figure 10.39).
0
For instance, solar panels can be placed on agricultural
Water Hybrid water and air Air
land that has been damaged by salt buildup. In
COOLING SYSTEM addition, the potential for generating electrical power
on rooftops is enormous. Germany, with more than
it provides only intermittent power. Fortunately, these 43% of the world’s installed photovoltaic power in 2010
issues are being addressed. (mostly mounted on buildings), is the world leader in
photovoltaic power generation (Figure 10.40).
Producing Solar Power Day and Night In late 2011 the U.S. Department of Energy provided
loan guarantees to support the installation of over
?
The Gemasolar plant in Seville, Spain, has 2,650 sun-
750 megawatts of additional photovoltaic generating
tracking mirrors called heliostats, with a total reflective
capacity on approximately 750 roofs on large commercial
area of over 30 hectares (75 acres) that powers a
buildings in 28 states. The project is intended as a model
17-megawatt turbine. Rather than using oil to store heat,
Has responding to for further rooftop solar development in the United
this plant heats salt to its molten state and then stores it
the need to transition States. Recently, the city of Los Angeles identified nearly
in insulated tanks at temperatures up to 565°C (1,049°F),
to renewable which can be used to produce steam superheated to
5,000 hectares (12,000 acres) of suitable roof space in
energy stimulated the city with the potential to support 5,500 megawatts
540°F (1,004°F). What this means is that the Gemasolar
other technological (5.5 gigawatts, GW) of photovoltaic generating capacity.
plant can continue generating electricity on demand for
revolutions? How so? Because rooftop solar developments occur in the
15 hours without additional input of solar energy. In
population centers that consume the energy generated,
other words, unlike photovoltaic systems without battery
storage and concentrating solar power plants without heat
storage, Gemasolar can generate electricity day and night.
?
Coupling efficient tracking of solar angle by its heliostats ALTERNATIVE SITES FOR SOLAR ENERGY
DEVELOPMENT
with heat storage, Gemasolar is capable of producing
110,000 megawatt hours (MWh) of electricity annually,
Should solar system enough to power approximately 25,000 homes.
installations be
excluded from Water-Saving Solar Concentrating Power
wildlands until Newer concentrating solar power plants in the
alternative, low-value, southwestern United States use water-saving technology
disturbed sites have that combines either air-cooling only or water- and air-
been developed? cooling in a hybrid system. Both hybrid and air-cooling-
only systems substantially reduce water consumption
(Brian Snyder/Reuters/Landov)
by tower-based solar concentrating power plants

(Figure 10.38). A company called SolarReserve plans
to use these technologies to build three of the world’s
largest-capacity solar concentrating power plants in
the water-scarce American Southwest. By using molten
salt for heat transfer and storage, these three plants will
FIGURE 10.39 There are sufficient areas of disturbed land,
provide round-the-clock electricity, totaling an estimated such as this site of a former manufactured gas facility, available
450,000 megawatt hours annually—enough to power for the installation of solar power systems to generate plenty of
140,000 homes during periods of peak power demand. power without disturbing intact natural ecosystems.

319
they also reduce the need for building high-voltage

transmission lines. ROOFTOP SOLAR POWER
Policy Initiatives and Incentives

As with any new technology, there are often practical,
legal, and economic barriers to overcome. With regard
to developing photovoltaic (PV) systems, obstacles have
included difficulty acquiring permits to connect to the
electrical grid, gaining approval for financial assistance
to install a PV system, and locating trained licensed
contractors to install PV systems. In the United States,
such hurdles have been partly overcome through the
Renewable Portfolio Standard, or RPS, which requires
(© Agencja Fotograficzna Caro/Alamy)

electrical utility companies to obtain a certain percentage
of their power from renewable energy.
For example, the RPS for New York State requires that
investor-owned utilities produce approximately 30% of
their electricity from renewable energy by 2015. Similarly,
California and Colorado each have an RPS requiring
approximately 30% of electrical generation from
FIGURE 10.40 Germany, which has generated more than 40% of its electricity using
renewables by 2020. To facilitate renewable development,
photovoltaic panels, has been particularly successful at installing rooftop photovoltaic
the U.S. federal and state governments offer a variety generation, as shown by this photo of a solar village in Freiburg, Germany.
of incentives, including tax credits for businesses and
individuals who install renewable energy systems, as well
as financial assistance in the form of grants and loans. In 50,000 km2 (19,300 mi2), an area roughly half the size of
addition, in many areas, consumers who install photo-
?
Ohio, will have to be developed for wind energy to reach
voltaic systems tied to the grid are generally paid wholesale its goal of generating 20% of the nation’s electricity by 2030.
rates for any electricity generated in excess of their use. To avoid damaging wildlife habitats, one proposed strategy
would site wind farms on disturbed landscapes, including
Should we wait for
agricultural lands and areas of oil and gas development.
! Think About It In addition to reducing habitat loss, developments on
costs to decrease before
1. Could water-saving solar technology actually agricultural land can provide supplemental income to
setting aggressive RPS
make more water available for natural ecosystems farmers or other landowners (Figure 10.41). requirements?
in some circumstances?
2. What does the extensive solar development in WIND TURBINES ON AGRICULTURAL LAND
Germany, situated in northern Europe, suggest about
the potential for solar energy development in
a country like the United States or Australia?
3. Some rural electrical cooperatives resist high RPS
requirements and do not encourage members to
install their own photovoltaic systems. They argue
that doing so would reduce demand for centrally
generated power and, as a consequence, increase the
cost of power to consumers. Argue for and against
this position.
10.9 Less damaging wind-

(majeczka/Shutterstock)
generation strategies are

under development
Wind energy development impacts more land per unit
of energy produced than do many other forms of energy FIGURE 10.41 Locating wind turbines on agricultural land can increase farm
production. The U.S. Department of Energy estimates that income, while preserving undisturbed natural ecosystems as wildlife habitat.

A recent analysis shows that there are sufficient areas installed at Solano Pass, California, which increased the
of disturbed land across the United States to meet the generating capacity of the wind farm more than four-fold,
Department of Energy goal of 20% wind-generated power from 25 megawatts to 102 megawatts.
by 2030. The area of disturbed lands suitable for wind
energy development across the lower 48 states totals Decreasing Hazards to Bats
14.5 million km2 and could provide about 3,500 gigawatts While the redesign of wind turbines has benefited birds,
of energy—more than 14 times the Department of Energy’s
?
bat mortality has increased to the point that in some
goal for 2030. Disturbed lands of low conservation value regions, it exceeds bird mortality by a factor of 10 to 1.
in Kansas alone have the potential to generate over half the The number of bats killed by wind turbines is highest
Department of Energy’s 2030 capacity target. during migration in late summer and fall, and they tend
What incentives might
to die from wind turbines spinning at lower speeds. Using
federal, state, and local Reducing Bird Mortality this information, researchers performed an experiment
governments create to at a site in southwestern Alberta, Canada, where high bat
Changing the way that wind generators are operated and
encourage wind energy mortalities had been documented during migration. In
using newer types of wind generators appear to reduce
development on lands the experiment, wind turbines were reprogrammed so
wildlife mortality. For instance, ongoing studies at the
with lower conservation Altamont Pass Wind Resource Area (APWRA) have that they only began spinning and generating electricity
value? documented that newer wind turbine designs cause at higher wind speeds. As a result, bat mortality during
significantly lower mortality than older wind turbines migration was reduced by approximately 60%, with
operating at the same time (Figure 10.42). Researchers little loss in power generation (Figure 10.43). Similar
have suggested that the older wind turbines attracted birds changes in wind turbine operations at a wind project in
?
Should siting of
because the towers supporting them were constructed
of a lattice-like framework, which offered perching sites
for birds. In contrast, newer wind turbines with a single
Pennsylvania reduced bat mortalities at the site by 44% to
93%, with losses in annual power generation of less than
1%. However, better solutions are on the horizon. Bladeless
wind turbines, now in development, may eventually
pole have no perches. Researchers estimate that replacing
transmission lines also these older turbines (“repowering”) at the APWRA would eliminate the threat of wind turbines to both birds and bats.
take into consideration reduce mortality rates among birds of prey by 54% and
the potential impacts among all birds by 65%. These projections are consistent Reducing Transmission Line Impacts
on human, as well as with the results of studies of bird mortality at wind power One of the simplest ways to reduce bird mortality due
natural, communities? developments outside of California. to transmission line collisions is to locate new wind-
On those wind farms, where wind turbines are mostly generation facilities as close as possible to existing
of newer designs, researchers have observed rates of transmission lines and switching stations. Such siting
mortality among raptors that are approximately 60% would not only reduce the amount of new lines, but also
lower than on wind farms across California and more reduce development-related costs. Another way to reduce
than 70% lower than bird mortality rates at the APWRA. impact is to build transmission lines where existing rights
In response, utilities are actively replacing older wind of way can be used. Transmission line routes should avoid
turbines with newer ones that are safer for birds and that roosting and feeding areas of particularly vulnerable
will generate more electrical power in the same area. For birds, such as sandhill cranes and other waterfowl
instance, 50 newer turbines replaced 235 older turbines (see Figure 10.32, page 314).
REDESIGNING WIND TURBINES FOR REDUCED IMPACT ON BIRD POPULATIONS
FIGURE 10.42 Research

has shown that the design
of some of the older wind
turbines was responsible
for much of the high bird
(© Johnny Stockshooter/Alamy)
mortality at the Altamont

(Beata Becla/Shutterstock)
Pass Wind Resource Area.

Consequently, the older wind
turbines have been largely
replaced by newer, taller wind
turbines with fewer potential
perching sites. Old generation wind turbines New generation wind turbines

321
extensive, it is not economically feasible to mark all lines.

STRATEGIES FOR REDUCING BAT MORTALITY
Current research is focused on identifying bird collision
AT WIND FARMS
“hot spots” so that mitigation efforts will have the greatest
12 likelihood of success.
! Think About It
AVERAGE BAT DEATHS PER TURBINE
Low wind start

10
Higher wind start
1. How are concerns over bird and bat mortality

8
leading to innovation in wind-generator designs
6
and operation?
2. How can land classification by conservation
4
value and careful planning help us avoid many
impacts of renewable energy development?
2
0
10.10 Downsizing can
Hoary bats Silver-haired bats mitigate the impacts of
BAT SPECIES
FIGURE 10.43 Research done at a wind farm in Alberta,
hydroelectric development
Canada, demonstrated a significant reduction in bat mortalities Many of the problems with modern hydropower projects
when wind turbines were set to start generating at higher wind stem from their massive size. Focusing on smaller-scale
speeds. The adjustment resulted in minor losses in total power hydroelectric development and building lower dams can
generated. (Data from Baerwald et al., 2009)
mitigate most of these impacts. Lower dams reduce the
amount of water stored and the area flooded. Because
If new transmission lines must be built, marking them small dams store little water, they create little change in
with colorful spirals, plates, or spheres has been shown river flow and have minor effects on the temperature or
by several independent studies to reduce bird collision chemistry of a river. They also displace few or no people.
mortality by an average of nearly 80% (Figure 10.44).
However, because the transmission line network is so Run-of-the-River Hydroelectric Systems
run-of-the-river power
One common alternative to erecting large dams on the plants Hydroelectric
main channel of a river is to erect smaller power plants. systems that provide little
MARKING TRANSMISSION LINES FOR or no water storage in a
These run-of-the-river power plants, which provide little
REDUCED BIRD MORTALITY reservoir and divert a portion
or no water storage in a reservoir, divert a portion of river of river flow through pipes
flow through pipes that pass directly through a turbine that pass directly through a
(Figure 10.45). These systems have their own impacts, turbine.
RUN-OF-THE-RIVER HYDROELECTRIC SYSTEM
Low dam Intake
Powerhouse
River Penstock
Transformer
Electricity
(Courtesy Melvin Walters)
FIGURE 10.45 The low dam at the intake to a run-of-the-river hydroelectric power station
impounds only enough water to keep the intake to the penstock (pipe) submerged, therefore
FIGURE 10.44 Markers like these help birds see avoiding most of the environmental changes caused by large-scale hydroelectric systems. If
transmission lines, substantially reducing the number of a small fraction of the total flow on any given season is diverted, the river will continue with
collision-related deaths. something close to its natural flow pattern.

production. In such situations, we can add hydropower

FISH BYPASS AT LOW DAM turbines without building new dams. Researchers at
the Oak Ridge National Laboratory point out that there
are 54,000 unpowered dams in the United States alone
(Figure 10.47), and they estimate that the top 100 could
add 8 gigawatts of installed hydroelectric capacity to
the U.S. electrical grid. That’s equivalent to four Hoover
Dams (see Figure 10.12, page 304). The greatest potential
for such developments is found in the nation’s largest
rivers, including the Mississippi, Ohio, and Arkansas
Rivers—notably, rivers mainly found in regions of the
(U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service)
country not particularly rich in wind or solar energy.
Dam-Free Hydropower
It’s not always necessary to build a dam to harness the
kinetic energy of a river (Figure 10.48). In 2009 one such
FIGURE 10.46 Fish bypass systems are relatively simple to electric turbine was placed directly in the Mississippi River
design, where dams are low, as on run-of-the-river hydroelectric
at Hastings, Minnesota. The turbine actually sits beneath
systems. Increasingly, fish bypass systems like this one are
the outflow of an existing, conventional hydroelectric
?
being designed to blend with the natural landscape.
power plant. Tests of the turbine installed at Hastings,
which spins at 21 revolutions per minute, showed that over
but there are ways to mitigate them. First, water must flow 97% of fish were able to pass through it without injury.
Should the amount Similar projects are planned for many of the larger rivers of
of water diverted continuously through the main river channel at reasonable
water levels to maintain ecosystem health and biodiversity. the eastern half of the United States, with a total potential
by run-of-the-river generating capacity of 500 megawatts.
In addition, fish still need a bypass system to permit them
hydroelectric systems
to swim beyond the diversion dam. However, with a low
change during droughts
and times of abundant
dam, it’s much easier to build such a bypass system with
relatively natural structures and flows (Figure 10.46).
! Think About It
flow? If so, what 1. How could hydroelectric power complement solar
criteria should be Retrofitting Existing Dams and wind power in an electrical power system?
used to manage river
diversions? Many dams were built in the early 20th century for 2. How are the impacts of hydroelectric systems
water storage and flood protection—not hydropower on fish populations like those of wind generation
?
UNPOWERED DAMS ACROSS THE UNITED STATES
What are the potential

benefits to spreading
generating capacity
across 100 sites instead
of focusing generation
at just a few, Hoover
Dam–scale sites?
FIGURE 10.47 There are

tens of thousands of existing
dams in the United States
that could be retrofitted to NONPOWERED DAMS WITH
POTENTIAL CAPACITY
generate hydroelectricity. Just GREATER THAN 1 MW
100 of the top prospects
1–30 MW Major
for retrofitting could add rivers
30–100 MW
significantly to existing 100–250 MW Major
hydroelectric capacity. (Data 250–496 MW lakes
from Hadjerioua et al., 2012)

323
Basin, and indigenous people now control approximately

IN-RIVER HYDROELECTRIC TURBINE 20% of the basin. Strong enforcement and prosecution of
violators, including corrupt government officials, followed
the legislation creating these forest reserves.
Moreover, Brazil achieved this land protection while
increasing its overall agricultural production, including
production of biofuels, especially sugarcane and
soybeans. In response to pressure from environmental
groups, palm oil buyers and their producers in Southeast
Asia have formed a coalition called the Roundtable on
Sustainable Palm Oil, which seeks to reduce deforestation
and environmental harm from palm oil production. In
2013 Wilmar, the world’s biggest palm oil trader, which
controls 45% of the market, announced a landmark zero
deforestation policy; it will avoid development on areas
(Verdant Power/NREL)
with high conservation value. Other companies have

followed Wilmar’s lead, but it remains to be seen whether
they will live up to such voluntary commitments.
FIGURE 10.48 Water turbines like this one can be deployed Algae Can Turn Waste into Fuel
in rivers or tidal channels, where they generate renewable
electrical energy but do not endanger fish or other aquatic Another way to avoid many of the environmental threats
organisms. stemming from biofuel production is to turn from
terrestrial plants to aquatic algae (Figure 10.50). Growing
algae, as we noted earlier, will not compete with farm
production because they can be grown using brackish
on bird and bat populations? How are they
water too salty for irrigating crops or for drinking. They
different?
also happen to be fabulous environmental remediators.
Conveniently, algae need a steady supply of carbon
3. How might the cumulative impacts of many run-
dioxide, along with nutrients such as nitrogen and
of-the-river systems on a river equal or exceed the
phosphate. It turns out that agricultural and municipal
impacts of a few large systems? wastes are rich in nitrogen and phosphorus, which can
bioreactor A system
designed to cultivate algae;
pollute the water supply by causing harmful algal blooms. helps filter wastewater before
Diverting these nutrients to an algae bioreactor, which it enters the environment.
10.11 Less damaging, more
efficient biofuels are under
development as alternatives DECREASING DEFORESTATION RATES
to oil-based fuels
As we have seen, some forms of biomass fuel Soybean Cattle Deforestation
production herd rate
development (e.g., corn-based ethanol) come with
significant social and environmental costs. Fortunately, 300 30,000
SOYBEAN PRODUCTION (MILLION METRIC TONS)
a number of processes under development have the

potential to avoid most of those impacts. In addition,
AND CATTLE HERD (MILLION HEAD)
250 25,000
many are more efficient from an energy perspective. One
DEFORESTATION RATE (KM2/YEAR)
of those approaches converts whole plants or agricultural

200 20,000
and forestry wastes into ethanol.
Reducing Deforestation Due to Biofuels Production 150 15,000
With rising demand for biofuels comes the threat of FIGURE 10.49 Brazil
replacing natural ecosystems with bleak monocultures 100 10,000
has reduced the rates of
of oil palms or soybeans. However, Brazil, the second deforestation in the country
largest producer of biodiesel after Germany, has reduced 50 5,000
while increasing agricultural
its rate of deforestation mainly through the creation of production, including
production of soybeans,
indigenous reserves and other protected areas, including some of which are used for
0 0
some set aside for sustainable use (Figure 10.49). The 1995 2000 2005 2010 biofuel. (Union of Concerned
new reserves include over half the Brazilian Amazon YEAR Scientists, 2011)

FIGURE 10.50 Algae by electrical generating stations into algal cultures, it will
farms like this one may play BIOFUELS OF THE FUTURE? be possible to enhance their growth and sequester carbon
an important role in the future emissions at the same time.
production of high-quality
biofuels while minimizing
collateral damage to the Cellulosic Ethanol
environment.
Corn-based ethanol has an energy return on energy
investment (EROEI) that barely exceeds a value of 1.0
(Figure 10.51), much lower than gasoline. Although
ethanol is a cleaner-burning fuel than gasoline, corn is
clearly not going to solve our energy needs. Sugarcane
ethanol and soybean biodiesel, by contrast, have
EROEIs substantially higher than that of corn ethanol
and somewhat higher than gasoline extracted through
energy-intensive processes from the Athabasca oil sands.
How might a whole

? Unfortunately, such fuels are best produced in tropical and
subtropical climates, making them poorly suited for most
temperate regions. Now look at cellulosic ethanol: It has an
EROEI 10 times greater than corn ethanol and approaches
ecosystem approach that of gasoline from conventional oil. Could cellulosic
to biofuel production ethanol be the future? Quite possibly.
reduce costs and In 2013 the cost of cellulosic ethanol was still 30%
improve production? higher than a liter of corn-based ethanol. However, costs
(The Asahi Shimbun/Getty Images)
of production are falling rapidly and it should be on a par

with corn before 2020. One of the major current costs of
cellulosic ethanol is the cost of organic material suitable
for production.
Recent reviews identify five promising sources of
materials for cellulosic ethanol production (Figure
10.52). Developing these resources could improve
is a chamber designed to cultivate algae, provides environmental conditions in several ways. For example,
a means to recycle these nutrients and filter the growing perennial plants such as switchgrass (Panicum
wastewater before it enters the environment. In virgatum), native to most of the United States and
addition, by diverting the carbon dioxide generated Canada and that grows to 1 to 1.5 meters (3 to 5 feet)
ENERGY RETURN ON ENERGY INVESTMENT (EROEI)

KILOMETERS DRIVEN [PER UNIT (GIGAJOULE)
18 6,000
ENERGY RETURN ON ENERGY INVESTMENT
ENERGY INVESTED IN FUEL PRODUCTION]
16
5,000
14
12 4,000
10
3,000
8
6 2,000
4
1,000
2
0 0
Gasoline from Cellulosic Sugarcane Soybean Gasoline from Corn Gasoline from Cellulosic Sugarcane Soybean Gasoline from Corn
conventional oil ethanol ethanol biodiesel oil sands ethanol conventional oil ethanol ethanol biodiesel oil sands ethanol
FUEL FUEL
FIGURE 10.51 The left panel compares the EROEI for extraction and refining of crude oil or growing, harvesting, and processing
of biomass, for several fuels. The number of kilometers traveled by a vehicle using the amount of fuel produced from investment of
1 gigajoule of energy in production of the fuel is shown in the right panel. A gigajoule is approximately equivalent to the energy
content of 27 liters of crude oil. (Data from Schmer et al., 2008; Inman, 2013)

325
REDUCING THE IMPACTS OF BIOFUEL PRODUCTION
Energy crops Crop residues Municipal and Perennial plants Sustainably

mixed with food such as corn industrial grown on grown residues
crops or planted stalks and wheat wastes abandoned of forest
in the “off” or rice straw agricultural land management
season (branches and
thinned trees)
RENEWABLE
BIOFUELS,
LOW
ENVIRONMENTAL
IMPACT
FIGURE 10.52 Potential sources of materials (“feedstocks”) for biofuel production that minimize competition with food production
and reduce environmental impact.
in height, has the potential to improve soil fertility by

adding to soil carbon. In addition, switchgrass can grow
well on a variety of soil types, including shallow soils of
2. How could development of systems for producing
biofuels from aquatic algae complement land-based
biofuel production?
?
How might increasing
marginal fertility and low water content.
3. How do improvements in fuel economy demand for food from
a growing human
! Think About It complement the development of new technologies
for production of biofuels? population influence
1. Why is coupling legal protection with strong law the relative cost of
enforcement essential to Brazil’s efforts to curtail cellulosic ethanol?
deforestation?
10.8–10.11 Solutions: development is to build lower dams, which

decreases both the amount of water stored and
Summary the area flooded. Smaller dams are also easier
A number of strategies and technological to fit with fish bypass structures. Retrofitting
developments help address the environmental existing unpowered dams with hydroelectric
challenges facing solar energy development. generators and installing fish-friendly in-river
Concentrating solar power plants using molten turbines can also add to hydroelectric generation
salt for heat transfer and storage use water-saving capacity without further disruption of river
hybrid cooling systems that combine water ecosystems and biodiversity.
and air-cooling. Photovoltaic generation uses The dependence of the current transportation
even less water and, when moved to rooftops in sector on petroleum-based liquid fuels could be
population centers, reduces the impacts of solar addressed in a sustainable way by developing
development on wildlife habitats. biofuels of low environmental impact. Cellulosic
New wind-generator designs have reduced ethanol converts whole plants or agricultural and
bird mortality by nearly two-thirds but have forestry wastes into ethanol and has a higher rate
resulted in increased bat mortality; but that, of EROEI than corn-based ethanol production.
too, can be reduced by programing wind Several methods are being developed to convert
turbines to operate only at higher wind speeds. algae and terrestrial plant biomass directly into
A key to reducing the impact of hydroelectric gasoline, diesel, and jet fuels.

Central Question: Can we develop renewable energy resources to help sustain a

thriving economy without adversely affecting the environment?
10.1–10.3 Science 10.4–10.7 Issues

• How is solar energy captured and utilized? • What are the financial and environmental
drawbacks of solar energy?
• What role do wind, water, and geothermal
energy play in the renewable energy mix? • How do wind turbines impact wildlife?
• How is energy in biofuels stored and accessed? • What are the environmental and societal
impacts of hydroelectric power?
• How does using biofuel for energy impact food

supply and the environment?
Renewable Energy and You ! Consume energy wisely.
The future of civilization and the biosphere depends on how we manage Cut your own energy consumption: Choose efficient bulbs such
our remaining fossil fuel resources and transition to renewable energy as compact fluorescent lights; if you have access and your health
resources. The speed at which we achieve this energy revolution depends permits, set the thermostats in your home and/or workplace to
substantially on the actions of governments and industry. Still, individuals conserve energy—that is, a few degrees lower in winter and higher
can make a difference by staying informed and acting on evolving energy in summer. In many communities, it is possible to personally invest
challenges and opportunities. in renewable energy through your electrical utility by electing to
purchase power generated using renewable energy resources.
! Stay informed and engaged in energy issues.
Keep informed regarding rapid developments in renewable energy, ! Use energy-efficient transportation.
especially with regard to technological advances and growth in If you can do so securely, walk or bicycle to school or work. If you
electrical generating capacity around the world. Contact your state can’t, take a bus or train. If you must drive, try to carpool. If you
and federal lawmakers and ask them to support legislation that purchase a motor vehicle, consider models that are both safe and
incentivizes renewable energy and technologies that use it. fuel-efficient. While governmental mandates affect the fuel efficiency
For a list of incentives, rebates, and other programs, check out of vehicles produced by manufacturers, our choices as consumers
www.dsireusa.org. can also exert significant influence on manufacturing.

• What improvements are being made in the
technology of solar energy?
• In what ways are the use and technology of

wind turbines being improved?
• What strategies reduce the impacts of

hydroelectric power?
• How can we reduce the impact of biofuels?
Chapter 10 c. Natural gas–generated electricity

d. Wind-generated electricity
10. Which of the following statements about
renewable energy development is correct?
a. Renewable energy resources do not have
Review Questions 6. Which of these statements about wind environmental impacts.
turbines and bird mortality is true? b. Renewable energy resources have greater impacts
1. What sources of renewable energy does a. Collisions with wind turbines now result in more on the environment than nonrenewable energy
the Danish island of Samsø use to power its bird deaths than collisions with buildings. resources.
communities? b. Collisions with wind turbines now result in the c. There is no difference in the environmental impacts
a. Wind energy c. Solar energy deaths of a few hundred birds each year. of renewable and nonrenewable energy resources.
b. Biomass fuels d. All of the above c. Domestic cats kill fewer birds than do wind d. Development of renewable energy resources
2. Which of the following is a major technical turbines. will require addressing a number of associated
problem associated with solar energy? d. Bird deaths from collisions with wind turbines environmental impacts.
a. Very little solar energy strikes Earth. are projected to reach 1 million annually in the year
b. The potential for using solar energy is limited to the 2030.
deserts and tropics. Critical Analysis
7. What can be done to reduce the
c. Because of Earth’s day–night cycle, solar energy is
environmental impacts of solar power? 1. How might the development to full reliance on
intermittent.
a. Shift from water to air-cooling systems for solar renewable energy on Samsø Island in Denmark serve
d. Solar power can be generated only by rooftop
concentrating power plants. as a model for development of renewable energy
photovoltaic systems.
b. Site solar concentrating power plants on disturbed resources at larger national or global scales?
3. Which of the following is not a form of landscapes.
c. Mount industrial-scale photovoltaic systems on the 2. Discuss the environmental and social issues
“water power”?
roofs of commercial buildings. associated with hydroelectric development and how
a. Wave energy
d. All of the above. those issues can be addressed.
b. Geothermal energy
c. Tidal energy 3. What contributions can be made by industry,
8. How do new wind turbine designs mainly
d. Hydroelectric power government, and research scientists to facilitate a
help in reducing bird collision deaths?
a. The new turbines spin too fast for birds to hit them. transition to greater reliance on renewable sources of
4. What is the major challenge to producing
b. The brighter colors of newer-style wind turbines energy?
cellulosic ethanol?
a. Low supplies of biomass to fuel the process warn birds to stay away. 4. Even though producing ethanol from corn is simpler,
b. Low energy content of wood, straw, and other c. The single-pole support for the new wind turbines why are major energy companies investing heavily in
forms of biomass offers no perch sites. the development of cellulosic ethanol?
c. Lack of interest by researchers for developing an d. The new wind turbines are mounted closer to the
energy-efficient process ground where few birds fly. 5. Considering the major environmental and human
d. The need to break up complex cellulose molecules costs associated with corn-based ethanol production
into simple sugars 9. Which of the following is not an issue and its low EROEI, why do U.S. farmers continue
associated with biofuel development? growing large amounts of corn specifically for ethanol
5. Which of the following has the highest a. Deforestation production.
energy return on energy invested (EROEI)? b. Massive ozone depletion
a. Hydroelectric power c. Reducing potential human food supplies Find additional resources and links online at www.
b. Coal-generated electricity d. Threats to endangered species macmillanhighered.com/launchpad/molles1e.
Central Question: What is the
relationship between the environment
and human health and how can we Describe the toxic substances
and pathogens in the environment
manage that relationship? and their effects on humans.
(fotog/Getty Images) SCIENCE

C H A P T ER 11
Environmental Health,
Risk, and Toxicology
Explain the environmental and human Discuss how we might assess risk
health consequences of exposure to and deal with toxic substances and
toxic substances and pathogens. pathogens in our everyday lives.
330 C HAPTER 11 EN V IRONMENTA L HEA LTH , R I S K , A ND TOX I C OLOGY
(Ty White/The New York Times/Redux)

(AP Photo/Steve Helber)
Workers inspect an area where a toxic chemical that leaked from storage tanks contaminated the Elk River near Charleston, West Virginia, in January
2014. In the aftermath of the spill, which polluted domestic water supplies, residents of Charleston lined up to fill containers with potable water.
Chemical Spill on the Elk River

A toxic leak highlights how little we know about the numerous
hazardous substances that affect human health and the environment.
I n the mid-morning of January 9, 2014, residents in

Charleston, the sleepy capital of West Virginia,
noticed a sweet, licorice smell in the air. It wasn’t until
a health risk—but only after those chemicals have shown
evidence of harm. The 62,000 chemicals that were already
on the market at the time the law was passed were exempted
5:45 p.m. that the regional water utility began telling from regulation, and, of the 21,000 chemicals registered
customers to avoid drinking, cooking, or washing since then, only 15% have included health-and-safety data.
with the water. One mile upstream of the city, on the Data on these new chemicals are often hidden from the
banks of the Elk River, a rusty, storage tank owned by a public because companies argue they contain confidential
company called Freedom Industries had leaked as much business information.
as 7,500 gallons of a chemical used to process coal. Over On January 13, four days after the spill, officials lifted
the next 24 hours, some 700 residents had contacted the water advisory. The little data that existed on MCHM
poison control, complaining of rashes and nausea. indicated that drinking it could harm the liver and kidneys
Fourteen were hospitalized. at high doses, but no one really knew for sure how exposure
Like many industrial chemicals used widely in would affect people in the months or years to come.
the United States, little was publicly known about the Nevertheless, the incident revealed how environmental
toxicity of this chemical, 3-methylcyclohexanemethanol hazards, when unchecked by regulation, can affect our
(MCHM). Under the Toxic Substances Control Act, health and well-being.
which was passed in 1976, the U.S. Environmental Much of this book is concerned with the health of the
Protection Agency (EPA) can test chemicals that pose environment—that is, the condition of the environment
WH AT IS THE REL ATIO N SHI P B ETWEEN THE ENVIR ONMENT A N D H UMA N H E A LTH A ND H OW C A N WE MA NA G E TH AT R E LATI ONS H I P ?
331
itself or some part of it—

“If we are going to live so intimately for instance, whether a environmental health An area
with these chemicals—eating and wetlands ecosystem is clean, of research and action that as-
sesses and attempts to mitigate
productive, and sustainable. the physical, chemical, and biologi-
drinking them, taking them into the In this chapter, we look at the cal factors in the environment that
very marrow of our bones—we had related but distinct issue of impact human health.
environmental health, which
better know something about their refers specifically to human health and safety and the
nature and their power.” way the environment—both natural and human-created
Rachel Carson, Silent Spring aspects—affects them. This brings us to the Central
Question of this chapter.
Central Question
What is the relationship between
the environment and human health
and how can we manage that
relationship?

(fotog/Getty Images)
11.1–11.2 Science
H umans frequently encounter environmental
hazards, natural and human-made phenomena
that are dangerous to humans. These hazards range from
of the substance. A toxic substance that harms living
organisms through contamination of the air, water, or soil
is considered a pollutant (Figure 11.2). For instance, an
environmental hazards microscopic organisms to pollutants that spread around insecticide such as DDT, one focus of Rachel Carson’s 1962
Phenomena dangerous to
the globe (Figure 11.1). The World Health Organization book Silent Spring (see Chapter 1, page 18), sprayed in the
humans, including infectious
disease, toxic substances, (WHO) has estimated that one-quarter of all deaths— environment is considered a pollutant because its residue
and pollutants. 13 million people every year—result from exposure to contaminates soil, water, and plants and animals. We will
environmental hazards. This chapter explores biological discuss pollution and pollutants in detail in Chapter 13.
pollutant A substance (e.g.,
oil or pesticides) or condition and chemical environmental hazards: toxic substances, Pollutants can be lethal in high doses, as with the exposure
(e.g., excessive noise) infectious disease, and pollutants. of agricultural workers to various insecticides, and low
harmful to living organisms levels of exposure can damage the embryos of humans and
that contaminates air, water, other animals or can make adults ill.
or soil. 11.1 Chemical hazards
toxin A poisonous substance include toxic substances Natural and Manmade Toxic Substances
produced by a living organism and pollutants Toxic substances are generally divided into two
(e.g., a plant, animal, fungus,
or bacterium) that can harm Toxic substances can kill you—some of them very quickly, categories: toxins and toxicants. As discussed below,
human health. See toxicant. if you are exposed to a sufficiently high concentration a toxin is a poisonous substance produced by a living
ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS HAVE A WIDE RANGE OF SOURCES

(Munshi Ahmed/Bloomberg via Getty Images)
(Majority World/UIG via Getty Images)
(© David Chang/epa/Corbis)
Severe air pollution in Singapore Foot lesions caused by drinking arsenic-contaminated water Testing for avian flu in goose flock in Taiwan
FIGURE 11.1 Environmental hazards have both human and natural sources. In Singapore, forest fires in nearby Malaysia have caused severe air pollution. Drinking
water from a well contaminated with arsenic has produced lesions on this woman’s feet. In January 2015, health workers in Taiwan test a flock of geese for avian flu
viruses H5N2 and H5N8, which had been detected on the island.
333
organism, such as a plant, animal, fungus, or bacterium

POLLUTION, A MAJOR CONCERN OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE, IS
that can harm human health. For instance, botulin, UBIQUITOUS IN THE MODERN WORLD
the cause of the food poisoning botulism, is a type of
bacterial toxin. A toxicant is a toxic substance produced
by humans or as a by-product of human activity. Dioxins,
a class of toxicants that are by-products of a number of
manufacturing and industrial processes, are among the
toxic substances most dangerous to human health.
Some toxic substances are a natural part of the
environment (Figure 11.3). Arsenic, mercury, and lead
are toxic substances called heavy metals. Heavy metals are
found naturally in the environment and are typically not
(Federico Rostagno/Shutterstock)
harmful in small amounts. In most cases, heavy metals
become a problem to human health as a result of human
actions. Mining and road construction, for example,
expose fresh rock surfaces to rain that dissolves heavy
metals in the rocks. Rainwater carries the heavy metals
into streams and ponds and thus soaks into the ground, FIGURE 11.2 Industry, transportation systems, agriculture, and activities in the home are all
contaminating wells. potential sources of toxic pollutants. Here, an agricultural field is being sprayed with a pesticide,
Humans manufacture a vast number of potentially a potential source of pollution.
toxic substances—85,000 industrial chemicals are
produced in the United States alone, some of them
humans: (1) the duration of exposure, ranging from
in enormous quantities. Manufacturing more than
short to long; (2) the concentration of the substance,
450,000 kilograms (1 million pounds) per year of a
ranging from low to high; and (3) the frequency of
?
single toxic substance is considered a “high production
exposure, which can range from a single exposure to
volume,” and 2,500 chemicals fall under that category.
repeated exposures over time (Figure 11.4). Humans
Not all chemicals are toxic, of course, but we don’t
can be exposed to toxic substances by breathing them
know how many of the 85,000 industrial chemicals
in, swallowing them in food or water, or absorbing them What are the pros and
created are indeed toxic because most of them have
through the skin. The goal of toxicology is to define safe cons of requiring that
never been tested. Furthermore, 2,000 new chemicals are
levels of exposure to toxic substances. the toxicity of all new
synthesized every year and very few of those are tested
for toxicity before being placed in production. chemicals be tested
How Toxic Substances Affect the Human Body before they are put into
The science that studies the effects of toxic substances
on humans (and other organisms) is toxicology. Three Toxic substances, many examples of which are discussed production and released
factors determine the toxic effects of a substance on in this section, can harm the human body in several into the environment?
TOXINS VERSUS TOXICANTS

(Swasdee/Shutterstock)
toxicant A toxic substance

produced by humans or as a
(NPS Photo)
by-product of human activity.

See toxin.
Western diamondback rattlesnake Open burning of solid waste
toxicology The science
FIGURE 11.3 Toxicologists generally categorize toxic substances as either toxins, which are produced by organisms other than concerned with the effects of
humans, or toxicants, which are produced by humans or as a by-product of human activity. For example, the toxic substances produced toxic substances on humans
by venomous snakes are toxins, whereas the highly toxic dioxins produced during the open burning of plastics are toxicants. and other organisms.

system, behavioral changes, damage to the immune

THE THREE MAIN FACTORS INFLUENCING
system, neurological problems, and tumors.
TOXICITY
?
How do synergistic
How Toxic Substances Interact
Organisms are exposed to many different toxic
substances at the same time, and the combined effects
of two or more substances may take a variety of forms.
effects complicate
Some chemicals have antagonistic effects. In this
toxicity testing? situation, the toxicity of a chemical is reduced in the
LENGTH OF CONCENTRATION FREQUENCY OF
EXPOSURE Low to high EXPOSURE presence of a second chemical, which may be used as
Short to long Low to high
an antidote. In other cases, the toxic substances may
have additive effects. In this case, the toxicity of the two
substances is simply the sum of their individual toxicities,
for instance, 2 + 2 = 4. However, toxic substances may
neurotoxins Toxic TOXICITY have synergistic effects, where their combined toxicity
substances that attack nerve is greater than the sum of their individual effects; that
cells. is, instead of 2 + 2 = 4, it might be 2 + 2 = 6 or more.
carcinogen A substance For example, both mercury and a toxic compound from
that causes cancer by directly detergents called 4-nonylphenol accumulate in the sludge
damaging the DNA of cells. FIGURE 11.4 The toxicity of a substance to humans, or any
other organism, is influenced by a complex interaction among
in sewage treatment plants. Each of these chemicals is
teratogen A substance length of exposure, concentration, and frequency of exposure. toxic by itself, but when combined in a laboratory test,
that causes abnormalities each becomes about one-third more toxic to human liver
during embryonic growth and cells than if it were acting alone.
development, resulting in birth
different ways. They are generally grouped by the effects Humans are not the only animals affected by
defects.
they have on the body. synergistic effects of pollutants. A study of two chemicals
allergen A substance that
Neurotoxins attack nerve cells. Different types of (ethylene glycol and methanol) that are used to increase
activates the immune system,
inducing an allergic reaction. neurotoxins affect nerves differently: Heavy metals kill oil well production in the Gulf of Mexico found that
nerve cells, whereas chemicals called organophosphates exposure to both chemicals reduced the swimming ability
endocrine disruptor A
and carbamates (used in insecticides) inhibit signal of pompano (a popular game fish) much more than did
chemical that mimics
hormones, including female transmission between nerve cells. Chlorinated exposure to either of the chemicals alone.
hormones (estrogen and hydrocarbons, which are found in some cleaning fluids,
progesterone), male hormones
(testosterone), or thyroid
disrupt nerve cell membranes.
Carcinogens cause cancer by directly damaging
! Think About It
hormones.
the DNA of cells. Mutations that interfere with the off 1. Why is using sewage sludge as fertilizer on crops
antagonistic effect An
signal of the cell division cycle cause cells to multiply and pastures probably not a good idea?
interaction of two toxic
substances wherein the uncontrollably, forming a tumor. Common carcinogens
toxicity of one chemical is include chemicals such as benzene (which occurs in 2. What are the several types of toxic substances?
reduced in the presence of the cigarette smoke), radioactive substances such as radon 3. How can the antagonistic effects of one toxic
second chemical, which may (a gas that is released by some rocks and can accumulate
be used as an antidote. substance on another be used as an antidote?
in basements), and heavy metals including arsenic.
additive effect An interaction Teratogens cause abnormalities during embryonic
of two toxic substances growth and development, resulting in birth defects.
wherein their combined
toxicity is simply the sum of
The brain of a fetus is especially sensitive to pollutants: 11.2 Bacteria, viruses, and
their individual effects. Exposure to lead and mercury (both heavy metals), parasites are spread through
alcohol, and insecticides can result in low IQ or
synergistic effect An
neuromuscular defects that interfere with babies’ speech
the environment
interaction of two toxic
substances wherein their and movement. The Black Death: The very name evokes horrifying
combined toxicity is greater Allergens activate the immune system, causing an images (Figure 11.5). This pandemic outbreak of
than the sum of their individual allergic reaction. Allergenic effects can range from mild, bubonic plague, which peaked in Europe around 1350,
effects.
such as nasal congestion from pollen, to life-threatening, killed an estimated one-third of Europe’s population,
pandemic Expansion of such as anaphylactic shock from a bee sting. convincing many people at the time that they were
a disease affecting a large Endocrine disruptors mimic female hormones witnessing the end of the world. Bubonic plague is
proportion of a population
in a very large geographic
(estrogen and progesterone), male hormones only one of the devastating pandemics humans have
area (e.g., across an entire (testosterone), or thyroid hormones. The results include experienced; smallpox, infant diarrhea, malaria,
continent). damage to or changes in the male or female reproductive tuberculosis, and cholera have killed millions of people.
335
Bacteria are not the only pathogens

ARTISTIC REPRESENTATION OF THE “BLACK PLAGUE” (organisms that produce illness). Viruses
and parasites also produce disease in
humans and other organisms. Although
we now understand how most diseases
are transmitted, infectious disease has
?
How many people would
remained the leading cause of death due die if a pandemic killed
to environmental hazard over the last a third of the current
century. Let’s consider the three classes of global population?
pathogens—namely, bacteria, viruses, and
parasites—beginning with bacteria.
Bacterial Disease
(De Agostini/A. Dagli Orti/Getty Images)
Bacteria (singular bacterium) existed

billions of years before the first multicellular
organisms developed. Most bacteria are
single-celled and very small—a fraction of
the size of human body cells—with a very
simple structure (Figure 11.6). Because of
FIGURE 11.5 The bubonic plague swept Europe in the Middle Ages, their small size, bacteria remained invisible
killing an estimated one-third of the population and leaving the survivors to humans until the invention of the first
emotionally and psychologically shaken, as suggested by this painting from
microscopes in the late 1600s, and it would disease A condition in which
the period.
be more than a century before it was normal biological function is
discovered that bacteria cause diseases. impaired by bacteria, viruses,
parasites, improper diet, or
At the time, it was thought that the Black Death, Bacteria live everywhere—from down in the deepest
pollutants.
and disease in general—a condition in which normal mines to a piece of dust floating in the atmosphere—and
biological function is impaired by bacteria, viruses, are essential to the functioning of the biosphere. Most pathogen An organism that
produces illness.
parasites, improper diet, or pollutants—were caused bacteria are benign—that is, they do not cause disease—
by foul or noxious air. It was not until 500 years later, and many are, in fact, essential to human health. The bacteria Single-celled
organisms (singular bacterium)
in the late 19th century, that one of the key scientific body of an adult human includes more than 100 trillion
lacking a nucleus or other
breakthroughs in the fight against infectious disease cells, but only about 10 trillion of them are human cells. membrane-bound organelles;
revealed that infectious bacteria cause many diseases, The remaining 90% of cells in and on the human body, the vast majority of bacteria
including bubonic plague. your body, are bacteria; these 90 trillion bacterial cells are not pathogens.
BACTERIA: SIMPLE IN STRUCTURE AND SIMULTANEOUSLY ESSENTIAL AND HAZARDOUS TO ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH
Capsule
Cell wall
Plasma
(National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID))
(Hugh Spencer/Science Source/Colorization by Mary Martin)
membrane
Cytoplasm
DNA
Ribosomes
Pili
Flagellum
Nodules on clover roots house nitrogen-fixing bacteria Plague bacteria, Yersinia pestis
FIGURE 11.6 The simple physical structure shown here belies the metabolic complexity of bacteria. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria are essential to the functioning of all
ecosystems. Yersinia pestis, the bacterial species that was the source of the Black Plague, is still a hazard in many parts of the world.

make up only a small proportion of the human body’s

mass, but nearly all of them are beneficial. For instance, VIRUSES: SIMPLIFIED PATHOGENS
bacteria in the intestine help to digest food, and bacteria
on the skin and in the nose help prevent harmful bacteria a.
from invading those areas. Protein capsid

It is the harmful bacteria that cause bacterial diseases,
?
Genetic material
but they normally act with an environmental agent. An (DNA or RNA)
environmental agent can be as simple as a sharp object
that penetrates the skin and allows bacteria to invade
How does the discovery the tissues beneath; or it can be as complex as those
of the numbers and associated with the cholera bacterium, which adjusts its
essential services lethality in response to the pollution of water sources by b. 1
provided by bacteria human waste.
challenge the concept of The majority of disease-causing bacteria affect the
human individuality? host organism they invade by producing substances that
damage cells in the host’s body. Bacteria produce these
toxins in two ways. Exotoxins are proteins secreted by
bacteria into their surrounding environment. Some of 4 2
these exotoxins, such as botulin, which is responsible VIRUS

for the food poisoning known as botulism, are among REPRODUCTIVE
CYCLE
the most toxic natural substances known. Cholera, an
often fatal disease of the small intestine, is the result of
an exotoxin produced by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae. 3
By contrast, endotoxins are part of the cell membranes of
some bacteria, such as Salmonella, which is responsible
for another type of food poisoning. Endotoxins are
released when bacterial cells die and disintegrate.
Other bacterial diseases, such as tuberculosis, are the
result not of toxins but of bacteria growing in the tissues 1 A virus invades a host cell and releases its genetic material.
of their host and competing with the host’s cells for
nutrients. 2 The virus’s genetic material enters the host cell’s nucleus.
Viral Diseases 3 The virus’s genetic material takes control of the host cell’s
machinery and uses it to produce copies of the virus.
Viruses are responsible for numerous health problems,
4 Copies of the virus are released from the host cell, often
ranging from relatively mild diseases, such as the destroying the host cell in the process.
?
common cold, to some of the most destructive diseases,
including smallpox, rabies, Ebola, and AIDS (acquired FIGURE 11.7 Encased in a protein coat, the genetic material
immune deficiency syndrome), which is caused by HIV of a virus contains all the instructions necessary for taking over
(human immunodeficiency virus). the cells of its host. This simplified reproductive cycle shows
Do you think viruses how a virus invades a host cell and makes numerous copies of
are living organisms? Viruses, like bacteria, are pervasive in the environment. itself, killing the host cell in the process.
Although a virus is a microscopic pathogen like a
Why or why not?
bacterium, the two are quite different biologically. Viruses
consist simply of genetic material encased in protein; they
do not have the cell structures and biochemical pathways the damage to the body can be permanent. Polio is an
that allow bacteria to carry out all the processes necessary example of a viral disease that attacks nerve cells with
for life (Figure 11.7a). A virus can complete its own crippling effects. HIV attacks cells of the human immune
life cycle only by invading and taking over the cellular system, reducing the capacity of the body to resist
systems of animals, plants, or bacteria (Figure 11.7b). infectious diseases. The Ebola virus, which is endemic
virus A structurally simple
disease-causing agent Viruses essentially highjack the machinery of a cell and to several African countries, also attacks the immune
consisting of DNA or RNA use it to produce copies of the virus instead of carrying system. It causes fever and widespread inflammation,
encased in protein; viral out the normal functions of the cell. When cells stop their which damages the liver, intestine, and blood vessels and
diseases include common cold, normal processes, the symptoms of viral disease appear. potentially leads to bleeding from the eyes and nose.
flu, measles, mumps, chicken
The damage that some viruses cause can be repaired. One of the most common types of viruses that affect
pox, smallpox, rabies, herpes,
and human immunodeficiency Viruses kill the cells they infect, but if healthy cells humans is the influenza virus. Most of us have had the
virus (HIV, the virus multiply, they replace the dead cells. Some cells, such flu at one time or another and have suffered from its
responsible for AIDS). as nerve cells, are not actively replaced, however, and symptoms: fever, cough, congestion of the lungs, sore
337
throat, headache, sore muscles, and fatigue. Though infestations of bed bugs are becoming a problem for
most people recover from the flu within a week or two, travelers, even those who stay in expensive hotels. Both
the disease still takes a substantial toll on populations, lice and bed bugs are external parasites that suck blood,
especially among the elderly and the chronically ill. In the as are mosquitoes and other biting insects. A variety of
United States each year, approximately 100,000 victims of worm-shaped organisms are internal parasites of humans.
seasonal flu are hospitalized and there are about 20,000 Tapeworms live in the intestine. The largest human
flu-related deaths. Around the world, seasonal flu causes parasite, a tapeworm that can reach a length of more than
3 to 5 million cases of severe illness and a quarter to half 30 feet and has a life span of 20 years, can infect people
a million deaths annually. eating raw or undercooked fish. Hookworms also live in
“It’s flu season, be sure to get your shot!”—it’s a familiar the intestine, but they enter the body by penetrating the
refrain each year. Annual vaccinations are necessary for skin on the soles of the feet.
protection because viral genetic material, in this case that Many parasites do not cause a disease, but a heavy
of the influenza virus, can change. In other words, viruses infestation of blood-sucking parasites can produce
evolve. One of the most changeable of the viruses is HIV, anemia (an abnormally low content of hemoglobin in
which makes combating AIDS much more difficult. the blood) or reduce the levels of important vitamins
and minerals in the tissues. Some parasites transmit
Parasitic Diseases bacteria or viruses: Some ticks, for example, transmit
the bacterium that causes Lyme disease, and mosquitoes
Parasitism is another major source of disease in human
transmit disease-causing viruses, such as the West Nile
populations. A parasite is an organism that lives in or
virus and the eastern equine encephalitis virus.
on another organism, called the host (Figure 11.8).
Seven of the top 10 diseases targeted by the World
Parasitism is a particular type of ecological relationship
Health Organization’s Special Programme for Research
similar to that between predators and prey (see Chapter 3,
and Training in Tropical Diseases are parasitic diseases.
page 71), in which the host is harmed by the parasite and
Tropical parasitic diseases take a terrible toll on human
the parasite extracts benefits from the host, such as food,
populations, infecting hundreds of millions of people
protection, dispersal of offspring, and so forth.
each year. They are responsible for more than a million
Parasitism is a very successful way of life. Because
deaths annually and, in some cases, are spreading rapidly.
every species of animal, including all insects and other
The range of some tropical diseases, such as dengue
arthropods, is a host to at least one species of parasitic
fever, is expanding as global climate change allows the
roundworm, and because most animal species serve
mosquitoes that carry the disease to spread northward.
as hosts for multiple species of roundworms, there are parasite An organism that
probably more species of roundworms than all other lives in or on another organism,
Transmission of Pathogens
kinds of animals combined. However, they remain called the host; hosts are
harmed by the parasite, while
understudied, so we don’t know for sure. Pathogens are found virtually everywhere in the
the parasite receives various
Humans serve as hosts to at least several hundred environment. Bacteria and viruses travel in air, in water, benefits from the host (e.g.,
species of parasites that live on us and in us. For instance, and in the bodies of organisms. They can enter through food, protection, dispersal of
outbreaks of head lice plague schools every year, and open wounds, via the lungs, and via the intestine. offspring).
PARASITES HAVE EVOLVED TO EXPLOIT OTHER ORGANISMS

(CDC/Steven Glenn, Laboratory Training & Consultation Division)
(Raimund Linke/Getty Images)
(Juan Gaertner/Shutterstock)
Tapeworm Mistletoe Plasmodium
FIGURE 11.8 Tapeworms live in the digestive tract of animals, where they siphon off nutrients and energy in the food of their hosts. Mistletoe is a plant that
parasitizes other plants such as this poplar tree. Plasmodium is the parasite that causes malaria in many animal species, including humans.

THE COMPLEX LIFE CYCLE OF PLASMODIUM, THE PARASITE THAT CAUSES MALARIA
1 A malaria-infected mosquito transmits

Plasmodium parasites (sporozoites) into 1 2
a human host.
2 The Plasmodium parasites (merozoites)
infect liver cells, where they mature
and multiply.
Merozoites
Sporozoites
3 The Plasmodium parasites
(merozoites) rupture the liver
cells and are released into 3
the bloodstream. 8
(merozoites) infect red blood
cells, where they mature LIFE CYCLE
Merozoites
and multiply. OF THE
Sporozoites PLASMODIUM PARASITE
(merozoites) rupture the red
blood cells, spreading the
infection and destroying the 4
host cells in the process.
7
6 Some Plasmodium parasites (gameto-
cytes) are transmitted to a mosquito
that bites the infected human.
6 Merozoites
7 The Plasmodium parasites (gameto-
cytes) undergo a sexual phase and Gametocytes 5
produce sporozoites in the mosquito’s
stomach.
8 The Plasmodium parasites (sporozoites) travel
to the mosquito’s salivary glands where they
are ready to infect another human host. Gametocytes Merozoites
FIGURE 11.9 The life cycle of Plasmodium includes many life stages, each with unique characteristics and a specialized name. The
key element in perpetuating malaria around the world is its insect vector: mosquitoes.
However, pathogens must enter a host’s body before urine and feces; when the eggs enter a body of water,
they can cause an infection, and hosts are well protected. they hatch into free-swimming organisms that enter the
The dense populations of benign bacteria on the skin bodies of snails. There, they pass through more stages
and in the nose, mouth, and intestine form the first and are released into the water as yet another stage, called
line of defense against infection by pathogenic bacteria. cercariae. The cercariae penetrate the skin of humans
By occupying every site in the body that is suitable for who enter the water and travel through the body of the
bacterial growth, these harmless bacteria make it difficult human host, eventually lodging in the intestine, where
for invading pathogenic bacteria to find a place to live. they mature and produce another generation of eggs.
But, by invading in overwhelming numbers, disease-
causing bacteria can break through a host’s defensive
wall of protective bacteria. Hundreds, thousands, or
! Think About It
even millions of bacterial cells are needed to initiate an 1. Pathogenic organisms must damage their host
infection by most pathogenic bacteria. to get the nutrients they require, but they die when
Parasites are often transmitted indirectly, through their host dies. Thus, they must be able to infect a
secondary organisms called vectors. Some of the most new host before they kill their current host. What
significant vectors are biting insects such as mosquitoes
relationship would you expect to find between the
and flies. The Plasmodium protozoan, which causes
virulence of a bacterium (i.e., how sick it makes its
malaria, is carried by mosquitoes and is injected into its
animal host when a biting mosquito releases saliva to
host) and how it is spread to a new host?
vector An organism that prevent blood from clotting (Figure 11.9).
transmits a pathogen or
2. What benefit do bacteria gain from releasing
Schistosomiasis is a parasitic disease common in exotoxins that rupture the cells of their host?
parasite to other organisms
(e.g., mosquitoes transmit many parts of the world, especially in areas with poor
malaria and other diseases to sanitation. The organism that causes schistosomiasis 3. Why would you want to be careful not to kill off a
humans and other species). reproduces in humans. Its eggs are excreted with human bacterium, which releases endotoxins, too rapidly?
339
11.1–11.2 Science:
allergic reactions; teratogens harm embryos;
Summary and endocrine disruptors change or damage the
Thousands of chemicals are manufactured hormonal system.
and released into the environment each year, Bacteria exist everywhere on the planet. Most
but a minority have been tested to determine have no effect on humans at all; many bacteria
their impact on environmental health. Many are beneficial, but a few can cause illness or
of these chemicals persist and accumulate death. Viruses act by invading healthy cells and
in the environment and have the potential taking over the machinery of the host’s cell,
to harm humans and other animals. Toxic turning it to the production of more viruses.
substances cause harm through various Parasites live in or on other organisms. Many
processes: Neurotoxins damage the nervous parasites have no measurable effect on the host,
system; carcinogens and mutagens damage but some harm their host directly or carry
genetic material; allergens cause mild to severe pathogenic bacteria or viruses.
11.3–11.6 Issues
T he release of chemicals into the environment starts
a chain of events with profound consequences for
Only a few societies were refining such large quantities
of metals 2,000 years ago, and the resulting pollution
?
the health of humans and other animals, as well as for the damaged mainly the environments close to the smelters.
environment as a whole. Even pollutants that occur at low Farther away from the smelters, the concentrations of
levels can have an impact as they become more concentrated the metals and other toxins had been diluted below
as they move through the food chain. Our unfettered release levels that could cause damage. In fact, “The solution
of chemicals leads to situations in which good dietary
Pollution from metal
to pollution is dilution” remained the slogan of many
practices, such as the advice to eat fish that are high in industries through the mid-20th century. But this
smelting in the Roman
omega fatty acids, must be countermanded by warnings to “solution to pollution” is problematic. First, many toxic Empire had a global
avoid fish that are high in the food chain because of mercury substances are persistent, that is, they are resistant to reach. What does this
contamination and other toxic substances. degradation and may remain in the environment for a suggest about pollution
long time, move around the globe, and even increase in from today’s intense
toxicity. In addition, as the human population has grown industrial activity?
11.3 Toxic substances move and the standard of living has increased, the quantity of
through the environment pollutants that are released has increased enormously.
and can accumulate in large Toxic substances move through the environment,
carried by air, water, and even the tissues of plants and
concentrations animals. The solubility of a toxic substance generally
Pollution of the environment by humans on a global determines how and where it moves in the environment
scale has a long history. The levels of heavy metals in the or within an organism. Water-soluble compounds, such as
atmosphere began to increase about 7,000 years ago when alcohols and the metallic form of heavy metals, can move
humans first started to refine ores to extract metals such as freely and quickly in rivers, lakes, and oceans and within solubility The amount of
copper and lead. During the height of the Roman Empire, an organism. Oil- or fat-soluble substances, such as methyl a substance capable of
smelters in Italy and Spain were producing as much as mercury (the highly toxic organic form of mercury), are dissolving in a particular
amount of solvent.
100 million kilograms of lead, 15 million kilograms of generally carried in body tissues, especially fat deposits,
copper, and more than 2 million kilograms of mercury where they may remain for the lifetime of the organism. bioaccumulation The
each year. Pollution from these smelters spread around the Persistent toxic substances that are retained within an absorption and increase in
concentration of chemicals in
world—elevated levels of lead, copper, and mercury have organism build up to higher and higher levels over time, organisms, over time, including
been detected in the ice of a glacier in Greenland, more a process called bioaccumulation. As a consequence, potentially toxic chemicals.
than 4,000 kilometers away. larger fish (e.g., large tuna or swordfish) generally have See biomagnification.

FIGURE 11.10 As striped

bass grow, they accumulate BIOACCUMULATION IN STRIPED BASS AND BIOMAGNIFICATION IN A MARINE FOOD CHAIN
increasing concentrations of
mercury in their muscle tissue
BIOACCUMULATION BIOMAGNIFICATION
(left panel). Consequently, the
tissues of smaller, younger
0.7 1.2
individuals in the population
MERCURY CONCENTRATION (ppm)
MERCURY CONCENTRATION (ppm)

have lower concentrations of 0.6 1.0
mercury than do larger, older
individuals. The concentration 0.5
0.8
of mercury increases from
0.4
lower to higher trophic
0.6
levels in this arctic marine 0.3
food chain (right panel). As
0.4
a result, ring seals, the top 0.2
predators, have a much higher
0.1 0.2
concentration of mercury than
do the lower trophic levels. 0 0
(Data from Atwell et al., 1998; <70 70–84 85–100 >100 Particulate Filter feeding Arctic codfish Ring seal
FISH LENGTH (cm) organic matter clam
Burger and Gochfeld, 2011)
TROPHIC LEVEL (low to high)
higher concentrations of toxic substances such as mercury sea lions with high concentrations of DDT and DDE, they
than do smaller, younger individuals in the population have a nesting success rate of 20% to 40%. Meanwhile, the
(Figure 11.10). Arizona population of condors, which do not have access
The next step beyond bioaccumulation is called to the pesticide-laden carcasses, has a nesting success rate
biomagnification (see also Chapters 3 and 13, pages of 70% to 80%.
81 and 392), a process in which substances increase in
concentration at each successive trophic level in a food
chain. For instance, mercury released during the burning
! Think About It
of coal may be deposited into a body of water with rain 1. Why are pregnant women and children advised
or snowfall, where algae, absorb it. Invertebrate animals to limit consumption of certain fish?
and small fish retain mercury from the many algae
they eat. Larger fish, in turn, eat large numbers of those 2. What is the difference between bioaccumulation
smaller organisms, and the mercury is transferred to these and biomagnification?
predators’ bodies. As a result, the amount of the toxic
3. If you’re concerned about the potential of
substance increases at each successive trophic level—in
consuming unsafe amounts of a known toxic
other words, it is biomagnified (see Figure 11.10).
DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane) was first
substance, such as mercury, what should be the
recognized as a contact poison of insects in 1939 and trophic position of the seafood you eat?
quickly put to use. It was widely used during and following
World War II and was initially seen as a shining example
of the accomplishments of industrial chemistry. DDT was 11.4 Exposure to endocrine
inexpensive to manufacture, easy to apply, and it killed disruptors can affect the
insects while apparently not harming humans. Photographs health of humans and other
from that era show soldiers and civilians being sprayed
with DDT to kill lice and other external parasites.
organisms
But the dark side of DDT became apparent as it spread Many environmental health issues are worsened, or
into the environment: It is toxic to aquatic animals even caused, by our failure to apply basic biological
(fish and amphibians), and it causes cancer in some information. For example, we know that predatory insects
mammals. DDT also provided the first demonstrations control populations of plant-eating insects; yet we spray
of biomagnification. Its concentration in tissues increases crops with pesticides that kill harmful and beneficial
from the bottom to the top of the food chain, and a insects indiscriminately and then find their way into
biomagnification An breakdown product of DDT called DDE interferes with bodies of water, where they harm aquatic organisms. We
increase in concentration of a the formation of the eggshells of raptors, such as the also know that insects can evolve resistance to pesticides
substance (e.g., heavy metals California condor and peregrine falcons. The thin eggshells rapidly because they have short generation times, yet
or fat-soluble chemicals) at
break during incubation, killing the developing embryo we continue to use those chemicals in ways that almost
sequentially higher trophic
levels in a food web. See (see Chapter 3, page 81). Where the critically endangered guarantee the evolution of resistance (see Chapter 7, page
bioaccumulation. condors along the California coast feed on the carcasses of 208). In addition, we understand the effects of hormones
341
on humans and other animals, yet we release endocrine our kitchen sinks, styrenes are in cigarettes and automobile
disruptors, chemicals that have hormone-like effects, into exhaust, and parabens are in cosmetics. Two estrogen
?
the water that we use for drinking, cooking, and bathing. mimics are especially pervasive—bisphenol A, which is in
some plastics, and the synthetic form of estrogen that is in
birth control pills.
Endocrine Disruptors in the Environment
Bisphenol A (BPA) keeps polycarbonate plastics Why do humans
Hormones control many elements of the physiology flexible and is used in epoxy resins. Infant bottles and continue to cause harm
and development of organisms, including embryonic plastic water bottles contain BPA, and BPA is present to the environment
growth and the storage and release of glucose for in the epoxy resins that coat the insides of food cans.
when we know
cellular metabolism. Certain chemicals called endocrine Most human exposure to BPA comes from these sources.
in advance the
disruptors interfere with these processes (Figure 11.11). In 2012 the Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
They can turn on the signals that hormones carry did not ban BPA from food containers because their
consequences of our
to cells, turn them off, or change the meaning of the studies showed that the human liver detoxifies BPA, thus actions?
message a hormone is carrying. All these actions can concluding that humans have very low levels of BPA in
?
have drastic effects on tissue function. Interference with their blood. The same studies also showed, however, that
the development and function of sex organs is one of the other animals are not able to detoxify BPA, so the FDA’s
most conspicuous effects of endocrine disruptors. decision will allow the environmental effects of BPA
Many endocrine disruptors are by-products of to continue. Regardless of the decision, great demand How might the
manufacturing processes. For example, a chemical among consumers for BPA-free plastic products may lead mosquitofish in the
called androstenedione is an anabolic steroid, one of to a phasing out of its use in plastics manufacturing. Fenholloway River and
the hormones with masculinizing effects that gained The natural estrogen that women produce is excreted other species in other
notoriety because many athletes misused it in hopes in urine, and the synthetic estrogen found in birth environments function
of enhancing their performance. Problems have arisen control pills is not completely broken down in sewage
as canaries once did in
where this hormone is released into the environment. For treatment plants. Consequently, the sewage effluent that
example, androstenedione is released as a manufacturing
coal mines?
is released into lakes, rivers, or the sea contains mixtures
by-product in the waste from a pulp paper mill on the of these estrogens, which have a feminizing effect on
?
Fenholloway River in the panhandle of Florida. The aquatic organisms. Feminized male fish have been found
mosquitofish upstream from the mill have the expected in rivers even several kilometers downstream from the
50 : 50 ratio of males to females, but downstream discharge pipes of sewage treatment plants.
from the mill 90% of the females are partially or fully The list of species that have been feminized by What might be some
masculinized. environmental estrogens is long. It includes aquatic
long-term effects of
Androstenedione is unusual because it has a species (fish, frogs, salamanders, turtles, and alligators);
masculinizing effect; most endocrine disruptors are
endocrine disruptors on
terrestrial birds; mammals, invertebrates as well as
estrogen mimics that produce female characteristics. On a vertebrates; and marine species (harbor seals and harp biodiversity?
daily basis, we are surrounded by estrogen mimics: PCBs seals), including freshwater forms. Human males are not
(polychlorinated biphenyls; see Chapter 13, page 392) are immune to the effects of environmental estrogens; the
in the lubricants in our garages or basements, alkylphenols average sperm count of men in Europe and the United
are in the detergents in our laundry rooms and beneath States has decreased by about 50% since 1950. Because
HOW ENDOCRINE DISRUPTORS WORK
Endocrine disruptors that mimic Endocrine disruptors that bind to

natural hormones can overstimulate hormone receptors prevent natural
normal bodily processes. hormones from binding, which
inhibits normal bodily responses.
Normal hormone Normal hormone

Hormone mimic Hormone blocker
Hormone receptor Hormone receptor FIGURE 11.11 We are

surrounded by known
Cell Cell and suspected endocrine
Nucleus Nucleus disruptors to which we are
exposed through water,
food, and air. These are two
Cellular response No cellular response known modes of action by
endocrine disruptors. (Data
from NIH, 2010)

these environmental estrogens affect so many species, increase, given that CRE can spread the genes that
including humans, it’s clear that the hormones and destroy the effectiveness of antibiotics to other bacteria.
receptors of these organisms must have similar structures. When this happens, people can get severe infections, for
which few effective treatments exist.
! Think About It Why is the spread of CRE an environmental issue? If
it were a single deadly case, it would be a tragedy for the
1. Where are endocrine disruptors found and how patient and the patient’s family, but it is an environmental
are people exposed to them? issue because antibiotic resistant bacteria do not remain
isolated. For example, penicillin, the first antibiotic to
2. What effects do endocrine disruptors have on
be discovered, became available for clinical use in 1944
organisms? and in 1945 the first penicillin-resistant strains of golden
3. If endocrine disruptors are known to have such staph (Staphylococcus aureus) were reported. By 1959 half
wide-ranging negative impacts, why do we continue of the infections caused by golden staph were resistant
to penicillin, so a new drug, methicillin, was introduced.
to release them into the environment?
Initially, methicillin killed penicillin-resistant golden
staph, but within a year methicillin-resistant strains of
11.5 Misuse and overuse golden staph appeared. These strains, known as MRSA
have promoted resistance to (methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus), originated
in hospitals and then spread to the community.
antibiotics and insecticides Though drug resistance evolves as bacteria adapt
In March 2013 the director of the U.S. Centers for Disease through mutation and natural selection, human behavior
Control (CDC), Tom Frieden, held a press conference to is also implicated. Failure to take antibiotics as prescribed,
discuss a “nightmare bacteria” killing patients in long- as well as overuse of antibiotics, leads to increased
antibiotics Substances that
term medical care facilities. The bacteria, carbapenem- prevalence of antibiotic resistance in bacterial populations.
suppress bacterial growth
or attack and that are used resistant enterobacteriaceae (CRE), are resistant to Health providers sometimes prescribe antibiotics for
in modern medicine in nearly all antibiotics, cause high mortality rates, and patients who ask for them, even when there is no medical
the treatment of bacterial transfer their resistance to other bacteria. Resistance to necessity. Antibiotics will not cure a cold, for instance,
diseases. antibiotics, substances that suppress bacterial growth because viruses cause colds and antibiotics have no effect
MRSA (methicillin-resistant or attack, makes this bacterial pathogen very dangerous on viruses. Regardless, many people demand them from
Staphylococcus aureus) A because antibiotics are one of modern medicine’s main their doctors or get them from friends in the belief that
pathogenic bacterium resistant tools in the treatment of bacterial diseases. antibiotics can cure anything.
to the antibiotic methicillin;
Furthermore, it appears that CRE are spreading. In The overuse of these drugs can speed up the natural
MRSA originated in hospitals
and then spread to the broader the first half of 2012 alone, nearly 200 medical facilities selection process for antibiotic resistance. This is because
community. treated at least one patient who was infected with these one mode of competition among microorganisms is the
mutation A change in the bacteria. Scientists at the CDC have tracked CRE from a production and release of antibiotics. Thus, bacteria
structure of an organism’s single health-care facility in one state in 2001 to health- were coping with naturally occurring antibiotics billions
DNA, i.e., in its genes. care facilities in 48 states in 2015. That’s a very troubling of years before humans started to use antibiotics to
EVOLUTION OF ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE IN A POPULATION OF BACTERIA
Non-resistant bacteria Anitbiotic-resistant bacteria
Antibiotic Antibiotic
exposure exposure
FIGURE 11.12 As an
antibiotic becomes an
increasingly common part of
the population’s environment,
selection favors individuals
resistant to the antibiotic. As
a result, antibiotic resistance
increases in frequency in the INCREASING FREQUENCY OF
population. ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE
343
FIGURE 11.13 Because infectious

CONDITIONS FAVORING DISEASE TRANSMISSION disease is more readily transmitted in
dense populations, high population
density was one of the factors that
led to the heavy use of antibiotics as
growth promoters in industrial-scale
livestock-raising operations.
(Education Images/UIG/Getty Images)
?
treat bacterial infections. Penicillin is produced by the pounds) of antibiotics were used in the production of
mold Penicillium crysogenum, and most antibiotics used food-producing animals in the United States, mainly as
in medicine are still derived from microorganisms. additives to feed. This accounts for approximately 80%
Thus, exposure to antibiotics and the evolution of of the total use of antibiotics in the United States (Figure Do individuals have
antibiotic resistance have been part of bacterial biology 11.14 on the next page).
an ethical obligation to
throughout their evolutionary history. What is new It is hard to imagine a more effective method of selecting
the larger community
is the use of antibiotics to treat infections, the high for antibiotic resistance than to expose bacteria in the guts
frequency of antibiotic resistance found in bacteria in of livestock to constant low levels of antibiotics. Resistant to avoid misusing
some settings, and the increasing occurrence of bacteria bacteria that originated in livestock have been found in soil, antibiotics?
that are resistant to multiple antibiotics (Figure 11.12). ponds, and groundwater near sites where large numbers
?
The consequences of these new factors have enormous of animals are being reared. Furthermore, the transfer of
significance for human health. antibiotic-resistant bacteria from animal to animal and
from animals to farm workers has been documented.
Industrial Meat Production and Antibiotic Antibiotic-resistant intestinal bacteria have been isolated Might livestock farmers
Resistance from wild animals as well—from field mice and bank voles be able to develop
in England, from magpies and rabbits in Wales, from forest a profitable market
Medical misuse and overuse of antibiotics are important
birds in Brazil, from Canada geese in New Jersey, and from for meat produced
issues, but the use of antibiotics as growth promoters
wild frogs in New York. None of these species has direct
in agriculture overshadows them. Antibiotics—in without the overuse of
contact with humans, and the antibiotic resistance of their
many cases, the same ones prescribed to humans—are antibiotics?
bacteria probably originated in farm animals.
administered in food and water to cattle, hogs, sheep, and
poultry to reduce the incidence of bacterial disease when
animals are kept in crowded conditions. The crowding ! Think About It
reduces both the amount of feed and the time required to
1. What drives antibiotic resistance?
bring an animal to slaughter weight. However, crowding
also creates ideal conditions for the evolution and spread 2. How do the large population sizes and short
of antibiotic-resistant bacteria (Figure 11.13). generation time of pathogenic bacteria add to the
Meat producers in the United States administer more challenge of controlling them?
antibiotics per kilogram of meat produced than in any
other country. A study by the Pew Charitable Trusts 3. Is antibiotic resistance just about the misuse of
estimated that in 2011, 13.6 million kilograms (30 million antibiotics?

found Ebola in chimpanzees, gorillas, antelopes, and

ANTIBIOTICS USED FOR MEAT PRODUCTION VERSUS
porcupines; but, like many zoonotic viruses, they believe
TREATING HUMAN DISEASES
the natural reservoir is fruit bats. Although it’s not known
exactly how the child in Meliandou caught Ebola in the
Antibiotics sold for meat and poultry production first place, before he fell ill, he was seen playing near a
Antibiotics sold to treat sick people
2011
hollow tree where bats roost. Another human-infecting
29.9 million virus harbored by fruit bats is severe acute respiratory
30
syndrome, or SARS, which resulted in an outbreak in
MILLIONS OF POUNDS SOLD
25 China in 2003 after it spread to a farm where wild civets

20 were being raised for meat. Researchers also suspect that
HIV was initially transferred to humans who came in
15
2011
contact with meat from chimpanzees or gorillas.
10 7.7 million
5
Evolution Challenges Efforts to Control Malaria
0
Diseases have evolved over millions of years to persist
2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 in species and ecosystems, and our efforts to eliminate
YEAR them are often foiled by natural selection. One such
FIGURE 11.14 In 2011 approximately 80% of the antibiotics sold in the disease is malaria, which is caused by a protozoan
United States were used for the production of beef, pork, and poultry. About parasite carried by mosquitoes. Scientists have identified
90% of that total was administered to promote growth of the livestock. (Data more than 100 species of malaria that infect birds,
from Pew Charitable Trusts, 2013) reptiles, and mammals. Six of these species are known
to infect humans, primarily in tropical countries where
malaria-carrying mosquitoes live. Each year, 300 to
500 million people become infected, and approximately
11.6 Infectious diseases spill 700,000 people die from the disease. Ninety percent of
these cases occur in sub-Saharan Africa, where a child
over from wild species and under 5 years of age dies from malaria every minute
continue evolving to evade (Figure 11.15).
our defenses The best weapons we have against malaria after a
?
How does a parasitic
The infectious diseases that plague human societies
emerged from natural ecosystems. Disease epidemics
can often be linked to environmental problems and,
person has already been infected are antimalarial drugs
and pesticides that can reduce infection rates by reducing
mosquito populations. However, both malaria parasites
and mosquitoes are living organisms, and purely by
disease like malaria sometimes, our misguided attempts to solve them.
chance some individuals within a population will be
show the complex resistant to any new pesticide or antimalarial drug. When a
relations between Ebola, Deforestation, and Bushmeat
pesticide or antimalarial drug is used, some of the resistant
environment and On December 26, 2013, an 18-month-old boy in the individuals will survive the treatment; those individuals
infectious disease? village of Meliandou, Guinea, came down with a fever, will give rise to a new generation with greater resistance
began vomiting, and had bloody stool. Two days later, he than their parents’ generation. This process repeats itself
was dead. Within a couple of weeks, several members of generation after generation, ultimately rendering the
his family came down with a similar illness, which was pesticide or antimalarial drug ineffective. Both these
later identified as Ebola. By then, the epidemic was in full evolutionary processes have frustrated efforts to control
zoonotic disease Any swing, spreading to the neighboring countries of Sierra malaria.
infectious disease that can Leone and Liberia. As of July 2015, there were 27,678 Quinine was an effective antimalarial drug during the
spread from animals to suspected cases of Ebola and 11,678 deaths, according to 18th and 19th centuries, as European nations established
humans. the World Health Organization (WHO). colonies in tropical regions around the world. But by the
bushmeat The butchered Ebola is a zoonotic disease, which is any infectious mid-20th century, resistant strains of malaria in many
meat of wild animals, most disease that can spread from animals to humans. areas forced quinine to be replaced by chloroquine.
commonly from African According to the U.S. CDC, 6 out of 10 infectious Resistance to chloroquine has now become common
forests.
diseases are zoonotic diseases. When humans come in in sub-Saharan Africa, Asia, and South America, and
malaria A disease transmitted close contact with wild animals through the pet trade attention has turned to a compound called artemisinin,
by mosquitoes that results or when they kill and butcher wild animals for so-called which is extracted from a plant called sweet sage. The
from infection by a protozoan
bushmeat, they are at risk of catching new and emerging first appearance of reduced susceptibility of the malaria
parasite of the genus
Plasmodium; its life cycle zoonotic diseases. parasite to artemisinin was reported in 2011. The team
uses hosts: mosquitoes and Deforestation in tropical countries also puts humans reviewing the international campaign to eradicate
humans. in closer contact with wild animals. Scientists have malaria wrote: “Losing . . . [artemisinin] to resistance
345
FIGURE 11.15 Although

GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF MALARIA IN 2011 once common in temperate
parts of the world such as
southern Europe and the
southern United States,
malaria is now found mainly in
tropical and subtropical parts
of the world. It is especially
prevalent in Africa. (After
CDC, 2012)
Malaria transmission Malaria transmission Malaria transmission

occurs throughout occurs in some parts is not known to occur
would be a disaster for the control of malaria and would

bring eradication efforts to a standstill.” 11.3–11.6 Issues:
Reports in a 2012 issue of the medical journal The
Lancet further emphasized the point: “Antimalarial
Summary
control efforts are vitally dependent on artemisinin Movement of toxic substances through the
combination treatments. Should these regimens fail, environment, persistence, bioaccumulation,
no other drugs are ready for deployment, and drug and biomagnification add to the potential for
development efforts are not expected to yield new harm to humans and other organisms. The
antimalarials until the end of this decade.” use of chemicals such as endocrine disruptors,
If the parasite can’t be eliminated, is it possible to antibiotics, and pesticides can cause significant
eliminate the mosquitoes that transmit the parasite? In the harm to the environment and to human health.
1950s and 1960s, the WHO conducted an anti-malarial Endocrine disruptors interfere with a variety
campaign that employed widespread application of DDT, of essential metabolic and developmental
often from trucks that cruised through neighborhoods processes. Alterations of the normal
every evening spraying DDT. Not surprisingly, mosquitoes development and function of sex organs are
responded by evolving resistance to DDT, and within a among their more conspicuous effects.
few years the effectiveness of DDT had declined in many Human factors such as misuse and overuse of
parts of the world. Other insecticides replaced DDT, but, antibiotics can increase the spread of antibiotic-
in a repetition of the earlier events, targeted mosquito resistant bacteria. The use of antibiotics in
populations are rapidly evolving resistance to the new agriculture, which now far exceeds their use
chemicals. for treating human disease, appears to be a
major contributor to the evolution of antibiotic
Think About It resistance among pathogen populations.
When humans come in close contact with wild
1. How does a lack of education hinder efforts to animals, they are at risk of catching diseases
stop the spread of zoonotic diseases such as Ebola? that can spread from animals to people. Studies
during the last half of the 20th century have
2. How might malaria control programs be demonstrated repeatedly that pathogens
managed to reduce the likelihood that the parasite can rapidly evolve resistance to pesticides,
or vector will evolve resistance? antibiotics, and other drugs. As a consequence
of our ignoring the evolutionary potential of
3. Why are environmental health scientists
pathogens, many serious diseases are now
concerned about how global warming may affect
resistant to one or several antibiotics.
efforts to control malaria?

W e have described a number of threats to
environmental health, but how do we know how
much of a risk each represents? While the word risk
characterization. Not every risk assessment encompasses
all four steps. In most cases, however, risk assessment is an
expensive process, costing from $1 to $2 million and taking
has many definitions, the EPA considers risk to be “the 3 to 5 years for a single chemical.
chance of harmful effects to human health or to ecological
1. Identification of the hazard. What health problems
systems resulting from exposure to any physical, chemical,
are caused by a given pollutant? During the first step of
or biological agent that can induce an adverse response.”
risk assessment, contaminants that are suspected to pose
The practice of controlling infectious disease is fairly
health hazards are identified. They are then tested to
straightforward because the underlying causes of disease
determine whether exposure may cause specific health
and antibiotic resistance are well understood. Solutions to
problems (e.g., cancer, chronic disease) and whether the
problems related to toxic matter, in contrast, require a hard
adverse health effect is likely to occur in humans. To
look at how much risk we are willing to tolerate.
obtain information for this step, existing scientific data for
a specific chemical are evaluated. In addition, researchers
11.7 We assess risk may study populations that have been exposed to the
both qualitatively and chemical, or they may experimentally test the effects of
the chemical on an animal (e.g., rats, mice, or monkeys).
quantitatively
2. Dose–response assessment. What are the health
Generally speaking, a risk is anything with the potential to
problems associated with different exposures? The
cause us harm or loss or to put us in danger. How we assess
likelihood and severity of adverse health effects
?
risk in any given situation, however, will be influenced
(response) are related to the amount of exposure to an
by our circumstances and the kinds of possible hazards
agent (dose). This relationship is described in a dose–
we are considering. We evaluate a possible risk both
response assessment. Typically, as the dose increases, the
Can risk be entirely qualitatively—how dangerous it seems to us personally, for
measured response also increases. At low doses there may
eliminated from our instance—and quantitatively—its statistical likelihood of
be no response until the exposure reaches a threshold
lives? harming us or its economic cost. Environmental scientists,
dose, which is the lowest dose (concentration) of a toxic
economists, and epidemiologists have developed a number
substance that induces a toxicity response in an organism.
of tools for assessing risk.
The most common type of dose–response testing is
Risk Assessment Practices done on animals such as mice or rats; it involves exposing
risk The chance of harmful the subjects to varying amounts of the toxic substance.
effects to human health or to
In the 1970s, vinyl chloride gas—the building block for Initial toxicity testing is intended to find acute or short-
ecological systems resulting
from exposure to any physical, PVC pipes, automobile interiors, and dishes—became a term toxicity effects. This normally requires an LD50 test,
chemical, or biological agent. ubiquitous industrial chemical. The United States was its which determines the amount and exposure of the toxic
number one producer. But researchers began to notice that substance that is a lethal dose to 50% of the animals in the
dose–response
assessment A test of the the chemical could cause liver and bone damage in animals test at the end of 14 days (Figure 11.16). Then researchers
response of an organism at very low doses. The pivotal moment came on January examine the animals further to discover which organs are
to a range in the dose, or 23, 1974, when the B. F. Goodrich Company announced affected, determine the reversibility of the toxic response,
concentration, of a potentially that it was investigating the cause of cancer deaths among and develop dosages for continuing experiments.
toxic substance.
three of its workers. In response, the EPA published its Researchers can then follow with more toxicity tests, such
threshold dose The lowest first-ever assessment of environmental risk for a chemical. as chronic (long-term) exposure to the toxic substance at
dose (concentration) of a The process of risk assessment became formalized with low levels of exposure.
toxic substance that induces
the National Academy of Science’s (NAS) groundbreaking
a toxicity response in an
organism. report Risk Assessment in the Federal Government: 3. Exposure assessment. How much of the pollutant are
Managing the Process. Since its publication in 1983, the people exposed to over a given period of time? How many
exposure assessment An people are exposed? Exposure assessment defines the
EPA has integrated the principles of risk assessment into its
assessment of the population
that might be exposed to practices and outlines four basic steps in the assessment of population that might be exposed to the agent of concern
an agent of concern and of a potentially toxic substance: Identification of the hazard, and identifies the routes through which exposure can
potential routes of exposure. dose–response assessment, exposure assessment, and risk occur. Exposure assessment also estimates the amount,
347
Precautionary Approach Revisited

DOSE–RESPONSE CURVES
Health and environmental regulations today are designed
100 to keep the amount of a given contaminant released
into the environment at a “safe” level, or to clean it up
after it’s already entered the environment. New products
75
Toxicant 1
and chemicals are often subjected to limited testing and
PERCENT MORTALITY
Toxicant 2
assumed to be “innocent until proven guilty”—that is,
LD 50 LD 50
until scientific evidence demonstrates them to be harmful.
50
4 mg/kg 10 mg/kg With this approach, it is possible for toxic chemicals to
be released into the environment or into our bodies until
sufficient evidence suggests that harm is being done.
25
Instead of the assumption of safety, the precautionary
Toxic at all concentrations
principle (see Chapter 1, page 12) offers protection before
Toxicity threshold = 2.5 mg/kg
0 harm is done—an approach that can be characterized by
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 the phrase “Better safe than sorry” (Figure 11.18). Invoking
DOSE (mg/kg) the precautionary principle, Canada banned the use of BPA
FIGURE 11.16 A central element in the assessment of toxicity in baby bottles. The European Union has also integrated
is determining the concentration of a substance (dose) under the precautionary principle into its process for making
study that causes 50% mortality of test animals (LD50 ), such as decisions on environmental and health-related issues.
mice or fish, during a predetermined time of exposure (e.g.,
In the 1992 Rio Declaration on Environment and
14 days). In this hypothetical example, toxicants 1 and 2 differ
significantly in toxicity. Development of the Earth Summit, the precautionary
?
principle was proposed in the context of protecting
the environment. Principle 15 of the Rio Declaration
duration, and frequency of the doses that people might states that “in order to protect the environment, where
receive as a result of their exposure. there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack What levels of risk
of full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason should be too high to
4. Risk characterization. What is the extra risk of health for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent
problems in the exposed population? This is the step in allow the release or use
environmental degradation.” The basic tenets of the
which risk assessment results are articulated. It includes precautionary principle involve taking preventative
of a toxic chemical?
the analysis of information from the first three steps action before scientific certainty of cause and effect,
to develop a qualitative or quantitative estimate of the seeking out and evaluating alternative products or
likelihood that any of the hazards associated with the services, and disclosing the potential impact on human
agent of concern will occur in exposed people. health and environment associated with the selection of
products or services.
Assessment in Action
The EPA conducts risk assessments for a variety of
agents, such as diesel exhaust, mercury, secondhand CHANGE IN PERCENTAGE OF U.S. CHILDREN
smoke, and ozone. The toxic metal lead is one such agent. WITH ELEVATED LEVELS OF LEAD
Known to damage the nervous system, kidneys, and
8
other internal organs, ingestion of lead in children can
cause developmental delays or mental retardation. Since risk characterization A
PERCENT OF U.S. CHILDREN
the 1980s, the EPA has phased out lead in gasoline and 6
qualitative or quantitative
has banned or limited lead used in consumer products estimate of the likelihood
that hazards associated with
like residential paint. As a result, the levels of lead in
an agent of concern will
the air have decreased by 94% between 1980 and 1999. 4
negatively impact an exposed
The amount of lead in people’s blood has also decreased population.
significantly in recent years. Of particular importance
precautionary principle A
is the decrease in blood lead concentrations among U.S. 2
principle advising that
children (Figure 11.17). precautionary measures
Furthermore, the EPA’s National Center for should be taken to protect
0
Environmental Assessment periodically evaluates 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015
human or environmental
the latest research concerning the public health and health, even if some cause-
YEAR
and-effect relationships
welfare effects of lead and publishes the most up-to-date FIGURE 11.17 The percentage of U.S. children with elevated related to potential threats
findings. The data are used for the establishment of the concentrations of lead in their blood fell from 7.6% to 0.56% are not fully understood
most current national air-quality standards for lead. between 1997 and 2011. (Data from CDC, 2013) scientifically.

The precautionary principle is one useful tool to

THE PRECAUTIONARY PRINCIPLE apply to environmental analysis and decision making,
but it is not without its critics. Some say that regulation
PRECAUTIONARY INNOCENT-UNTIL-PROVEN- of products and chemicals could deprive society of
PRINCIPLE GUILTY PRINCIPLE
significant benefits. In the United States, for example,
the FDA requires all new drugs to be tested before they
NEW PRODUCT are put on the market. In other words, the FDA requires
DEVELOPED testing as a precaution to prevent harm to human health.
Careful safety testing protects people from dangerous
side effects, but it slows the introduction of new drugs. In
the interest of precaution, the sickest of the sick may be
Extensive
Limited
prevented from receiving beneficial new medications.
?
testing, with only
PREMARKET or no
safest products
TESTING testing
brought to The Exposome
market
One promising approach to studying how the
How do we decide environment impacts your personal health has been
on the proper level dubbed “the exposome.” The exposome consists of all
of precaution to use PRODUCT the environmental exposures in an individual’s life and
AVAILABLE TO
when evaluating a new CONSUMERS how those exposures affect that individual’s health.
product that has the Because everyone is exposed to a wide range of pollutants,
potential to both benefit stresses, and other environmental variables, it has often
and harm? been difficult to link a specific disease, say, a type of liver
Limited cancer, to a specific cause. Recently, researchers have
POSTMARKET Extensive
testing
TESTING testing
begun measuring the exposome using a variety of high-
required
tech devices alongside chemical and genetic tools. For
instance, a scientist at Columbia University has created
special backpacks that children can wear to continuously
collect air samples while they are at home and at school.
Other researchers are analyzing exposures by identifying
chemicals in a person’s blood or looking for the fingerprint
Regulations and of chemical exposure on a person’s genome. Such work is
bans on unsafe still in the early stages, but it provides more data to give us
products
greater confidence in our risk assessments.
FIGURE 11.18 The precautionary principle emphasizes
! Think About It
investing heavily in testing before a product is released to
the public to ensure that only safe products are marketed. In
contrast, the “innocent-until-proven-guilty” approach can involve
more testing after a product is released and as problems arise. 1. Would it be possible for your school to implement
the precautionary principle? If so, where could it do
this?
Some cities have successfully used the precautionary
principle to guide policy. In 2005 San Francisco passed a 2. What can individuals do to protect themselves
purchasing ordinance that requires the city to use safer from environmental contaminants?
alternatives when purchasing commodities for the city,
3. What are the pros and cons of strict application
such as cleaning products or electronics. The idea is to
minimize harm by using the best available science to of the precautionary principle in the development of
identify safer, cost-effective alternatives. The logistics of new medications or other products?
that implementation requires many different groups to
participate. City employees with scientific backgrounds
read and interpret academic research and then identify
11.8 Risk management
alternative products with less toxicity. Purchasers involves reducing
accustomed to prioritizing cost over other factors now environmental hazards
think more holistically about purchasing decisions, and and controlling disease
janitors and other maintenance workers find the best way
to use new cleaning materials. Following implementation Modern approaches to disease control include
in San Francisco, the ideas of the precautionary principle cooperation among nongovernmental organizations and
have been applied in other U.S. cities, including Portland, governments, education, and awareness of culture and
Oregon, and Berkeley, California. values, as well as medicines and vaccines.
349
Diarrheal Diseases mosquito nets with indoor spraying. Mosquito nets

treated with pyrethroid insecticides, which are natural
Diarrheal diseases are caused by a variety of bacteria, plant products and biodegradable, are hung over beds to
?
viruses, and parasites transmitted in water that is protect people while they sleep (Figure 11.19a). Spraying
contaminated by feces. Thus, diarrheal diseases, which the interior of houses with one of several insecticides,
cause 2.5 million deaths per year, are most prevalent in including pyrethroids, further reduces the rate of malaria
countries with poor sanitation systems. According to the infection (Figure 11.19b). As shown in Figure 11.19c, How would improving
WHO, 88% of diarrheal diseases can be directly attributed combining indoor spraying with insecticide-treated nets living conditions
to poor sanitation and hygiene. Young children are reduced rates of malaria infection by over 50% in areas around the world
especially susceptible to diarrheal diseases, and half the with a medium risk of transmission and over 30% in high- reduce mortality from
victims of diarrheal diseases are children younger than risk transmission areas. infectious diseases?
2 years old. The research on the effectiveness of insecticide-treated
Reducing or eliminating diarrheal diseases hinges on nets is a cooperative project between the London School
?
better conservation of drinking water and management of
waste. Improved water supplies can reduce diarrhea cases
by 21%, while better sanitation can reduce them by 37.5%.
MALARIA CONTROL
Simply providing access to a latrine reduced incidence of Both historic attempts
diarrhea by 24% among children under 5 years of age in to control malaria by
Lesotho, South Africa.
widespread spraying of
mosquito populations
Ending the Bushmeat Trade
and using protective
In remote villages and logging camps in Africa and mosquito nets have
(© Anthony Asael/Art in All of Us/Corbis)
elsewhere, locals continue to hunt and eat wildlife, employed pesticides.

including fruit bats, gorillas, and porcupines, that may What are the differences
harbor deadly viruses such as Ebola. Although many between the two
people turn to bushmeat and wild game because it is a approaches?
cheap and readily available source of protein, it also plays
a cultural role in some societies; this has led to a rampant
national, and sometimes international, trade in bushmeat.
a. Family under treated mosquito netting, São Tomé, Africa
At John F. Kennedy airport in New York, U.S. customs
agents frequently confiscate bushmeat that African
nationals have brought into the country for friends and
relatives. Some of these wild species are endangered or
already protected, thanks to local laws and international
treaties; but one of the best ways to reduce the probability
of zoonotic outbreaks is through public health campaigns
that emphasize the dangers of harvesting certain
animals. In addition, ensuring food security among rural
(John Stanmeyer/VII/Corbis)
populations will also go a long way toward reducing

reliance on bushmeat.
FIGURE 11.19 Two of the
most effective ways to reduce
Malaria Control the rate of malaria infection
b. Indoor spraying for mosquitoes, Zambia, Africa have been sleeping under
Most attempts to control malaria, primarily by eradicating
insect nets treated with long-
mosquitoes, have not been sustainable. Health workers lasting insecticide proven safe
have long recognized that environmental changes can 1.00
for humans and spraying the
RELATIVE RATE OF INFECTION
impact mosquito populations and the spread of malaria. interior of the home with other
Dams and irrigation projects provide breeding grounds 0.75 No intervention long-lasting insecticides.
Studies in 17 countries in
for mosquitoes and reducing standing water is critical Spraying only
Nets only sub-Saharan Africa showed
to limiting their populations. Attacking the disease 0.50 Spraying that combining the use of
requires a two-pronged approach, focusing on both the and nets
insecticide-treated mosquito
environmental factors that allow mosquitoes and malaria nets with the spraying of the
to thrive, and a way to prevent it from being transmitted 0.25 houses’ interiors reduced
rates of malaria infection
to humans.
in children more than did
One of the most promising approaches to reducing 0
either using the nets alone
Medium High
rates of malaria infection, especially of young children transmission area transmission area or spraying alone. (Data from
and pregnant women, combines insecticide-treated c. LEVELS OF MALARIA RISK Fullman et al., 2013)

of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine (LSHTM), a leader

CHANGING MALARIA INCIDENCE AND DEATHS IN
in research on tropical diseases for over a century,
AFRICA
and the WHO. This project and others developed by
350 LSHTM have received extensive funding by the Bill &
Melinda Gates Foundation, a leading donor to malaria
300
research and response. Such cooperation is a crucial
CASES PER 1,000 AT RISK

250 part of finding a solution to any complex, large-scale
environmental health issue. In the case of malaria
?
200
in Africa, the results of such cooperation have been
150
significant. As insecticide-treated nets and indoor
spraying techniques have been widely applied, the
Why are the numbers 100 number of malaria cases and deaths from the disease
in Figure 11.20 has decreased substantially across sub-Saharan Africa
50
expressed as numbers (Figure 11.20).
per 1,000 and per 0
2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010
100,000 persons at YEAR Tuberculosis
risk instead of as total 150 Tuberculosis (TB) is a bacterial infection that usually
numbers? attacks the lungs. Cases of TB occur throughout the
DEATHS PER 100,000 AT RISK
125 world, but it is most prevalent in sub-Saharan Africa

and Central, South, and Southeast Asia. Controlling the
disease has become a major challenge to public health
100
systems worldwide. People at greatest risk of contracting
TB are the elderly, infants, and those with weakened
75
immune systems. The risk of contracting TB increases
when individuals are in frequent contact with someone
50 already infected, have poor nutrition, or live in crowded
or unsanitary conditions (Figure 11.21). This is part of
0 what we mean when we talk about an individual’s cultural
2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010
and social environment. Stamping out TB requires
YEAR
changing that environment.
FIGURE 11.20 The incidence of malaria per 1,000 persons at
risk of infection decreased by 23% between 2000 and 2010. One program receiving one of the widest applications
Over the same interval, deaths from malaria decreased by 33%. is the directly observed treatment system, or DOTS,
(Data from WHO, 2012) of the WHO. The centerpiece of the DOTS therapy
SANITATION: A KEY TO PREVENTING MANY DISEASES
FIGURE 11.21 One of

(Universal Images Group via Getty Images)
(Florian Kopp/ImageBroker/Newscom)
(Florian Kopp/imageBroker/Newscom)
the most cost effective

ways to prevent disease,
including tuberculosis, is
for a community to sustain
sanitary living conditions
for people, including good
air quality, proper sewage
treatment, and safe
drinking water. Children walking barefoot through a flooded dirt lane, Haiti Hygiene education, Haiti
351
is that patients diagnosed with TB take the treatment response to selection we create by using antibiotics or
while being directly observed by trained personnel insecticides. Adopting common-sense measures to limit
over the 6 to 8 months generally required for effective infections and infestations, and to reduce the chances of
treatment. Direct observation ensures that all treatments resistance genes increasing in frequency offers the best
are administered, thereby maximizing the chance for a hope of a long-term solution.
successful cure while minimizing the risk of incomplete
treatment, which runs the risk of producing antibiotic- Prevention and Appropriate Treatment
resistant bacteria.
Because the likelihood increases that bacteria will evolve
The DOTS system of treating TB combines the
resistance to antibiotics each time we use such treatment,
advantage of low expense with effectiveness. As a result,
it pays to try to prevent infections in the first place. For
estimates by the WHO indicate that DOTS treatment
example, good hygiene in medical care facilities and in
prevented approximately 20 million deaths between 1995
the home can reduce the spread of infectious disease.
and 2013. However, the DOTS treatment is effective only
Reducing the rate of infection decreases the need for
against strains of TB that are not drug resistant. Treating
treating patients. Having to treat fewer patients lowers
cases of multi-drug-resistant TB (MDR TB) requires up
selection pressure on pathogenic bacteria for antibiotic
to 2 years and is much more expensive. Treating rare
resistance. When treatment with antibiotics is necessary,
cases of extensively drug-resistant TB (XDR TB) are even
appropriate treatment is essential. Antibiotics should be
more difficult and costly.
used only when they can benefit the patient and should
A broad partnership of organizations has been
target a specific pathogen. In addition, the antibiotic
formed to combat these much more difficult forms of
must be taken in the appropriate dosage and for the full
TB on a global scale. The partnership involves several
length of time prescribed for effective treatment.
governmental and nongovernmental organizations,
including (again) the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation,
Lower Antibiotic Use in Livestock Production
which has been one of the largest nongovernmental
contributors to programs aimed at combating TB. For Reducing the use of antibiotics in livestock production
example, the foundation donated over $112 million can also lower the prevalence of antibiotic resistance
in 2011 to support development of better tools for among bacteria in meat products and animal waste
addressing the global TB epidemic, including shorter without compromising the welfare of the industry.
and simpler treatments, new and improved vaccines, For example, the amount of antibiotics given during
and better diagnostic tools. The foundation works as an
advocate for wider access and reduced TB treatment costs
around the world.
the production of a kilogram of meat in Denmark, the
world’s leading exporter of pork, is one-sixth that given
in the United States. Concerned about the growing
?
Why might some
problem of antibiotic resistance, Denmark banned the
! Think About It use of antibiotics as growth promoters for livestock in
1998. Since then, the antibiotics used in Denmark’s highly
agricultural interests
oppose changing the
1. How might cooperation between private and industrialized livestock production systems can only use of antibiotics in
governmental organizations make work on disease be administered to treat illness and upon prescription meat production in the
prevention and control logistically easier? by a licensed veterinarian. As a result, the amount of United States?
antibiotics administered to livestock in Denmark has
2. What are some factors that make addressing a been cut in half.
biological hazard, such as malaria, fundamentally To combat disease, Danish livestock producers
different from addressing a chemical hazard, such now rely less on antibiotics and more on preventative
as lead? hygiene—for example, more frequent cleaning of pens,
better ventilation, and reduced crowding. Adjustments
3. How might focusing on houses and sleeping areas such as these have increased the costs of production
for mosquito control reduce selection on mosquito by less than 1% and the meat-producing industry in
populations for pesticide resistance? Denmark continues to grow. Meanwhile, the occurrence
of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in livestock and meat
products in Denmark has decreased dramatically (Figure
11.9 Evolutionary biology 11.22 on the next page).
can help manage antibiotic Surveillance Is Essential for Managing Resistance

and insecticide resistance Surveillance, or monitoring, of pest and pathogen
The pathogens and insect disease vectors, such as populations aimed at detecting the appearance and
mosquitoes, that we are trying to control evolve in prevalence of resistance is essential to any program aimed

RESISTANCE DECLINE IN BACTERIA FROM PIGS
50 100
CONSUMPTION OF ANTIBIOTIC (mg/Kg)
PERCENT BACTERIAL RESISTANCE

Macrolide use
40 C. coli 80
30 60
20 40
10 20
0 0
1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009
YEAR
FIGURE 11.22 The use of macroclide antibiotics declined rapidly after Denmark’s 1998 ban on the use of antibiotics as growth
stimulators . Following that decrease, the occurrence of resistance to macroclide antibiotics in the bacterium Campylobacter coli in
pigs also decreased significantly. (Data from Pew Charitable Trusts, 2013)
at limiting antibiotic or insecticide resistance. As we saw low toxicity to mammals and is rated as safe for indoor
in Chapter 7, monitoring of pest populations is critical spraying. As we continue our quest for sustainable
to effective Integrated Pest Management in agricultural solutions, partnerships between research scientists,
settings (see page 221), and it is just as important to environmental health specialists, and business will be
controlling disease vectors. A surveillance program essential.
that detects the appearance of resistance early permits
a timely and effective response. An early response, such
as switching to an alternative antibiotic or pesticide, MORTALITY OF MOSQUITOES EXPOSED TO
is essential to prevent resistance from becoming too DIFFERENT HUT-SPRAYING TREATMENTS
frequent in pest and pathogen populations.
100
Diversifying Chemical Treatments
?
Developing a diversity of antibiotics and insecticides
75 Chloropyrifos methyl
PERCENT MORTALITY
with different modes of action is crucial for combating DDT

resistance. In their attempts to control malaria vectors, Pyrethroid
No spray
What role can the researchers have identified several new insecticides 50
that are highly effective against populations of malaria-
business community
transmitting mosquitoes. Of particular interest are those
play in efforts to control
new insecticides that are effective at controlling mosquito 25
malaria in Africa and populations now resistant to pyrethroids and DDT. For
elsewhere? example, controlled studies in Benin, Africa, conducted
0
by researchers from the London School of Hygiene and 0 to 2 3 to 4 5 to 6 7 to 8
Tropical Medicine and local scientists have demonstrated WEEKS
the effectiveness of an inexpensive, long-acting substitute
FIGURE 11.23 A new insecticide, Chlorpyrifos methyl, shows
for DDT and pyrethroid insecticides for indoor spraying promise for reducing malaria transmission by a population of the
(Figure 11.23). This insecticide, chlorpyrifos methyl, mosquito Anopheles gambiae known to be resistant to pyrethroid
which was developed by Dow AgroSciences, also has insecticides and DDT. (Data from N’Guessan et al., 2010)
353
! Think About It characterization. Based on risk assessment, the

1. Why should there be an evolutionary cost to EPA phased out lead in gasoline and banned or
antibiotic or insecticide resistance? limited lead used in consumer products such as
residential paint.
2. Is there likely to be any chemical defense against The precautionary principle can be used as a
pathogenic bacteria or insect vectors of disease that tool for making better health and environmental
will not eventually lead to resistance in the target decisions. It aims to prevent harm from the
population? Why or why not? outset rather than manage it after the fact.
Modern approaches to disease control go beyond
3. There are significant benefits to using large
vaccines and medicines to include cooperation
amounts of antibiotics in livestock production. among health organizations and governments,
What are the risks to people and the environment? innovative research, education, and awareness of
culture and values. The health risks associated
with the bushmeat trade may be reduced
11.7–11.9 Solutions: by public health campaigns that emphasize
the dangers of harvesting certain animals.
Summary Insecticide-treated mosquito nets and indoor
A risk is anything with the potential to cause spraying are being used to reduce the rates of
us harm or loss or put us in danger. Risk malaria infection, especially among children and
management practices include four basic steps: pregnant women. The principles of evolutionary
identification of the hazard, dose–response biology can contribute to more sustainable
assessment, exposure assessment, and risk control of pathogens and pests.

Central Question: What is the relationship between the environment and human
health and how can we manage that relationship?
11.1–11.2 Science 11.3–11.6 Issues

• What chemical hazards are present in the
• How do bioaccumulation and biomagnification
environment and what are their effects?
affect the concentration of toxic substances?
• How are pathogenic bacteria, viruses, and
• How do endocrine disruptors affect the health
parasites spread through the environment?
of humans and other organisms?
• How has resistance to antibiotics and

insecticides developed?
• What are the challenges to controlling malaria?
Environmental Health, Risk, skin than sanitizers. Sustain healthy eating habits and take other
preventative measures to avoid contracting infectious disease. Get
Toxicology, and You
an annual influenza vaccination. Take any antibiotics that might be
Environmental hazards can seem overwhelming because they come from prescribed by your physician for bacterial infections responsibly; finish
all directions, and they can change or simply overwhelm us. In the face of the entire prescription and do not share your pills.
such a challenge, what can you do to make a difference?
! Stay involved.
! Keep up to date.
Consider supporting or working with organizations that are
Stay current with developing issues by following news on the WHO concerned about the most pressing environmental health issues
website and other global online sources. Keep abreast of local and around the world. Organize neighborhood water clean-ups to remove
federal legislation that addresses health issues, for example, the FDA’s any containers or clogged gutters that might harbor mosquito
requirements for the testing of bottled water. populations.
! Apply your knowledge.
Practice good hygiene—20 seconds of hand washing with soap is

more effective at removing infectious bacteria and viruses from your
355

• How do we assess risk?
• What does risk management involve?
• How can evolutionary biology help manage

antibiotic and insecticide resistance?
Chapter 11 6. Which of the following conditions

contributes to the evolution of antibiotic
c. Contact with individuals infected with TB is a
common way to contract the disease.
resistance in bacteria populations? d. All of the above
Review Questions a. Small population size where mutations are more
1. What is environmental health? likely to occur 10. How much has decreased use of
a. Environmental health refers to the level of b. Infrequent exposure to antibiotics, which allows antibiotics and more attention to prevention
biodiversity in an ecosystem. resistance to build up in the population of disease increased the cost of livestock
b. Environmental health is determined by how close c. Patients always completing a full course of production in Denmark?
the actual primary production in an ecosystem is to treatment with antibiotics a. 1%
its potential. d. Frequent exposure to antibiotics, which exert b. 5%
c. Environmental health is a field of study concerned strong natural selection favoring resistance c. 15%
with how environmental factors affect human health d. 25%
7. What is the meaning of an LD50 in a dose–
and safety. response test?
d. Environmental health refers to how comfortable
people feel in an environment.
a. An LD50 is half the lethal dose of a toxic substance. Critical Analysis
b. An LD50 is the dose that is lethal to the population
after 50 hours. 1. What basis is there for considering individual
2. Which of the following interactions between
c. An LD50 is the dose that kills half the test humans as ecosystems or complex ecological
two toxic substances results in a level of
population. communities? How might these ecological concepts
toxicity much greater than the sum of their
d. An LD50 is the percentage of the population killed contribute to managing human health?
individual toxicities?
a. Antagonistic effects c. Additive effects by a lethal dose. 2. How are DDT and mercury pollution similar? How
b. Synergystic effects d. Hyper effects 8. Why are access to sanitation and clean are they different?
3. Approximately what percentage of the cells water serious environmental issues? 3. How should the precautionary principle be applied
in your body are human? a. Sanitation and clean water are engineering to the release of chemicals into the environment?
a. 100% c. 50% problems, not environmental health issues. Include detailed conditions for invoking the
b. 75% d. 10% b. Access to sanitation and clean water are social precautionary principle.
problems, not environmental health issues.
4. Which of the following classes of c. Access to sanitation and clean water are not 4. Outline and explain in detail the elements of a
toxic substances are most likely to show environmental health issues because those basic chemical risk assessment.
bioaccumulation? necessities were addressed long ago.
a. Water-soluble toxic substances 5. Discuss how the health of individuals is largely
d. Millions of people die each year because their
b. The various types of alcohols determined by the interaction between their genome,
environment does not provide access to sanitation
c. The metallic form of mercury their genetic makeup, and their exposome.
and clean water.
d. Methyl mercury, an organic form of mercury Find additional resources and links online at www.
9. Why is treating and controlling the spread of
macmillanhighered.com/launchpad/molles1e.
5. Why are endocrine disruptors an especially tuberculosis (TB) as much a social problem as
serious class of toxic substances? it is a medical problem?
a. They affect a wide range of organisms. a. Poor nutrition and crowded living conditions
b. They occur in so many common products. increase the likelihood of contracting TB.
c. They can alter sexual development. b. Ensuring completion of treatment often requires
d. All of the above careful guidance by caregivers.
Central Question: How can we reduce
the environmental impact of
solid waste and dispose of Describe the types of solid
hazardous waste safely? and hazardous waste.
(USFWS photo by Susan White) SCIENCE

C H A P T ER 12
Solid and Hazardous

Waste Management
Explain the problems that arise from disposing Analyze the tactics for dealing with
and storing solid and hazardous waste. solid and hazardous waste.
358 C HAPTER 12 SO L ID A ND HA ZA R DOUS WA S TE MA NA GEME NT
Route of the Khian Sea
Yugoslavia
START: Philadelphia
Bermuda
Atlantic Ocean
Haiti
Guinea Bissau
Honduras
Singapore
Remaining wastes were emptied in international Indian Ocean

waters of the Indian and Atlantic oceans.
The long odyssey of the Khian Sea. Traveling halfway around the world looking for a place to dump its cargo of waste, the ship left a trail of deception and
refuse that spanned three seas and two oceans.
Philadelphia’s Traveling Trash

One city’s refuse changed the way the world deals with garbage.
I n the 1970s, Philadelphia had a serious trash problem.

Its dumps were filled to maximum capacity and the city
started sending its paint cans, car tires, watermelon rinds,
Next, the Khian Sea tried the Dominican Republic.
No luck there, either. The ship was also turned away by
Honduras, Panama, Bermuda, Guinea Bissau, and the Dutch
and disposable diapers to New Jersey and other neighboring Antilles. In Haiti, the crew unloaded some 4,000 tons of
states. After New Jersey stopped accepting such waste in the ash, claiming it was “topsoil fertilizer.” By the time the
1984, city officials were paying to have their trash hauled Haitian government was alerted to the true nature of the
to places as far away as Houston, Texas. To reduce soaring material, the barge had departed.
costs, Philadelphia started burning its waste. Though The Khian Sea sailed onward, crossing the Atlantic,
incineration decreases waste volume by 70% or more, it passing through the Suez Canal, and drifting into Southeast
leaves behind ash laden with toxic agents that must be safely Asia. Despite changing the name and registration of the ship
stored somewhere. So Philadelphia came up with a plan: In twice in order to conceal its identity, no country would allow
1986 a barge named the Khian Sea was piled with 15,000 the foul ash to be unloaded onto its shores. After a final
tons of Philadelphia’s incinerated trash. Khian Sea would attempt at Singapore, the barge reversed course, crossed the
carry the ash to the Bahamas, where it would be dumped Indian Ocean, and dumped its toxic load into international
on a man-made island. When the Bahaman government got waters—16 months after first setting sail from Philadelphia.
wind of the plan, however, it turned the ship away. Meanwhile, the ash left in Haiti festered there for a dozen
H O W CAN W E RED U CE THE ENVI R ONMENTA L IMPA C T OF S OLI D WA S TE A ND DI S P OS E OF H A Z A R DOUS WA S TE S A F E LY ?

359
years before finally being shipped to Florida, where it sat on chapter. The bottom line is that the problem of how to safely
a barge for two more years until at long last, it was tested for handle refuse touches every person and every community
carcinogens. The waste was deemed safe and then sent back on Earth. Shrinking landfill space, rising waste disposal
to Pennsylvania for burial. costs, incinerating waste, and exporting hazardous waste are
challenges we still face today.
Prior to the environmental movement of the 1970s,
“There is no ‘waste’ in nature and no relatively little regulation existed regarding the disposal
‘away’ to which things can be thrown.” and treatment of solid waste. Dump sites created before
environmental legislation might be undocumented and
Barry Commoner, second law of ecology
contain hazardous waste, which might leach into the soil.
Moving into the future, we need to recycle as much as we
The global reaction to the Khian Sea incident and others can and limit the amount of nonrecyclable waste produced,
would contribute to the development of an international while ensuring that it is treated and contained safely. These
treaty known as the Basel Convention, discussed later in this goals lead to the central question of this chapter.
Central Question
How can we reduce the
environmental impact of solid
waste and dispose of hazardous
waste safely?

(USFWS photo by Susan White)

12.1–12.2 Science
J ust north of Oakland, California, lies the Emeryville
Shellmound, a pile of discarded clam, mussel, and
some places, where open dumps are still in use, waste
deposits have reached the size of small mountains
?
How do modern
oyster shells that was once over 60 feet high and 350 feet
wide. These are the remnants of more than 2,000 years
of habitation by Native Americans. Around the world,
(Figure 12.1). These growing accumulations on land and
sea loom as one of the great environmental challenges.
By understanding the way natural ecosystems generate
it was common to toss out waste in open dumps, and and recycle their own waste, we can find models for how
garbage heaps differ everywhere that humans lived, their trash accumulated. societies might address this challenge.
from those left by However, as the human population grew and the intensity
ancient people, such as of economic activity increased, we littered Earth with
that at Emeryville? more diverse types of waste, including toxic waste. In
12.1 The “waste” generated
by economic systems does
not occur in ecosystems
In the early days of human societies, it didn’t matter
A MOUNTAIN OF WASTE much if people just tossed waste out their back windows.
They produced little of it and their settlements were
small. Critically, most of the waste consisted of natural
materials—which simply decomposed over time due
to the activities of scavenging animals, plants, and
microorganisms. The chemical elements contained in
those wastes were eventually recycled by the ecosystem.
If one patch of land became too polluted, communities
could always just pick up and move.
(Jefri Tarigan/Anadolu Agency/Getty Images)
With explosive human population growth and

development of the modern industrial society, however,
the quantity, types, and sources of wastes produced by
humans have changed radically (Figure 12.2). Today,
much of human waste no longer cycles freely and rapidly
but too often meets a dead end—buried in a landfill
where it cannot be decomposed easily, preventing the
elements it contains from re-entering the biosphere.
FIGURE 12.1 The amount of waste generated by the billions of humans living Many human-made chemicals, such as plastics, have no
today is astounding. Solid waste from cities, called municipal solid waste, is
especially apparent because vast quantities can accumulate in waste dumps. In
natural cycling pathway, or are manufactured in such
several developing countries, waste dumps attract many people searching for abundance that those pathways cannot degrade them
usable resources. quickly enough.

361
SOURCES OF WASTE
INDIVIDUAL FACTORIES POWER PLANTS COMMERCIAL INSTITUTIONS

RESIDENCES • Assembly • Coal fired ENTERPRISES • Schools
• Apartments plants • Nuclear • Stores • Government
• Condominiums • Steel mills • Hydroelectric • Hotels buildings
• Houses • Food process- • Office buildings • Prisons
ing plants
WASTE
FIGURE 12.2 Nearly every human activity results in the production of some type of waste. In modern urban environments, the
numerous sources of waste range from individual residences to factories, power plants, commercial enterprises (e.g., stores and
hotels), as well as institutions such as schools, hospitals, and nursing homes.
A first step toward efficiently recycling human- 3. What basic steps might be taken to make our
generated waste is to understand the cycling of materials wastes better able to enter Earth’s natural cycles?
in nature. The law of conservation of matter (see (Hint: Consider the carbon cycle in Figure 2.13,
Chapter 2, page 42) states that matter in a closed system page 43, as a model.)
cannot be created or destroyed, only changed in form.
As a result, the chemical elements of which all matter
is composed can cycle indefinitely in ecosystems. For
example, the carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur 12.2 Waste has diverse
cycles (described in Chapters 2, 7, 8, and 13) trace the
movement of these elements through ecosystems. Similar
sources and properties and
cycling occurs for all the other elements, like calcium and varies with level of economic
iron, found in living things. development
Every living organism can be reduced to its building
Archeologists can infer a great deal about past societies
blocks, making them available for other organisms. Every
by studying waste dumps, such as the Emeryville
resource made by nature returns to nature—decomposed
Shellmound. In the modern world, waste comes from
by microbes, plants, and animals. Even crude oil will
many sources and is made up of countless forms of
degrade under the right conditions. And, at the very
discarded material. This mixture is called the waste
largest scale, the Earth system recycles the minerals that
stream. What would some future archeologist conclude
make up rocks, the most basic geologic component of the
about our contemporary world from studying our waste
planet (see Appendix B). waste stream The flow of
stream? Two conclusions would be inescapable: Rich discarded materials, especially
countries produce a lot more waste than poor countries,
! Think About It
municipal solid waste, from
and the types of things they each throw out differs greatly. institutions, homes, and
businesses.
1. What is the eventual fate of elements found
Municipal Solid Waste
within dead plants, animal waste, and other municipal solid waste
matter? While people everywhere generate solid waste, the (MSW) Solid waste from
amount of waste generated is particularly large in cities institutions, households, and
2. Earth is a closed system to nearly all forms of businesses, including paper,
because urban populations are particularly concentrated. packaging, food scraps, glass,
matter. How, then, has the biosphere been able to Municipal solid waste (MSW) includes all solid waste metal, textiles and other solid
support countless life forms across millions of years? from institutions, households, and businesses, including discards.

paper, packaging, food scraps, glass, metal, textiles, and

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE GENERATION AND
all other solid discards. Consequently, waste management
INCOME LEVEL
is one of the most critical services that cities provide.
In low-income regions, waste management is the most 2.5
PER CAPITA SOLID WASTE (kg PER DAY)

expensive item in municipal budgets. It’s so fundamental
to life in the city that most people don’t even think about 2.0
it—at least, not until the system fails. For example, in
hazardous waste A 2011, garbage collectors in Athens, Greece, went on
flammable, reactive, corrosive, 1.5
strike to protest potential tax hikes and salary cuts,
or toxic waste capable of
causing illness, death, or other allowing trash to pile up on curbsides for 17 days. Strikes
harm to humans and other by garbage collectors have had similar consequences in 1.0
organisms. many places around the world (Figure 12.3).
flammable Easily ignited; Because municipal solid waste is a product of 0.5
a flammable substance can economic activity, income level is correlated with
ignite and burn easily (e.g., the amount and composition of waste generated by a
from friction, absorption of population. As shown in Figure 12.4, the per capita 0
Low Low-middle High-middle High
moisture, or contact with other
waste materials).
production of MSW in the world’s richest countries is COUNTRY INCOME LEVEL
triple that of the poorest countries. FIGURE 12.4 On average, municipal populations in high-
reactive Chemically
There are many different types of solid waste, which income countries produce more than 3 times the amount of solid
responsive; a reactive
substance will readily undergo must be handled differently. The World Bank classifies waste per capita than do individuals in low-income countries.
a violent chemical change MSW into six categories: organic, paper, plastic, glass, (Data from Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata, 2012)
when in contact with other metal, and other (Table 12.1).
substances. Under the World Bank’s scheme, organic waste includes
corrosive Capable of causing food scraps, yard clippings, and wood. Paper and plastics In poor countries, organic wastes such as food, wood,
permanent damage to a variety are also chemically organic, but paper is highly processed and garden waste make up a full 64% of municipal solid
of surfaces, including living organic material and plastics are mostly synthesized wastes. By contrast, such items make up only 30% of
tissue; corrosive substances
from petroleum. The “other” category includes processed waste in cities of wealthy countries. Meanwhile, the
include strong acids (pH of
2 or less) or strong bases (pH organic material as well, including leather and rubber, but proportions of paper, glass, and metal in solid waste
of 12 or greater). also appliances, electronic waste, and ash. increase with income level (Figure 12.5). We can assume
that as poor nations develop economically, the generation
of these types of wastes will increase.
CONSEQUENCES OF A GARBAGE STRIKE
Properties of Hazardous Waste
Some wastes are so dangerous and toxic that they
cannot be disposed of with conventional means. The
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) defines
hazardous waste as having a “chemical composition
or other property that makes it capable of causing
illness, death, or some other harm to humans and
other life forms when mismanaged or released into the
environment.” More specifically, waste material that
has any of the following four properties is considered
hazardous:
1. Flammable: Substances that ignite and burn quickly

and easily. These can spontaneously ignite from friction,
absorption of moisture, or contact with other waste
(EPA/Ciro Fusco/Corbis)
materials.
2. Reactive: Unstable substances that readily undergo
a violent chemical change when in contact with other
substances, especially with water.
FIGURE 12.3 The vast amounts of waste produced in a large city and the essential service 3. Corrosive: Any strong acids (pH of 2 or less) or
represented by waste management are never more evident than during a garbage strike. When
negotiations between Naples, Italy, and waste collectors broke down in 2011, solid waste began
strong bases (pH of 12 or greater). These substances can
to accumulate in the streets, creating a health hazard, filling the city with noxious smells, and permanently damage a variety of surfaces, including
partially blocking foot and automobile traffic. living tissue.

363
TABLE 12.1 INCOME LEVEL AND MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE

CATEGORIES OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE COMPOSITION
The World Bank has made a thorough inventory of the

composition and amount of solid waste generated by populations Organic Plastic Metal
Paper Glass Other
around the world.
Waste category Examples 100
Organic Food waste, garden and yard waste, wood

Paper Office paper, cardboard, newspaper
PERCENT OF SOLID WASTE

Plastic Packaging, bottles, food containers, bags 75
Glass Bottles, colored glass, glassware

Metal Cans, household appliances, foil
50
Other Leather, rubber, ash, electronic waste
Information from Hoorweg and Bhada-Tata, 2012.
25
4. Toxic: Relatively low amounts of these substances are

harmful to living organisms. 0
Low Low-middle High-middle High
COUNTRY INCOME LEVEL

Hazardous wastes cannot be handled, treated, or FIGURE 12.5 Relative decreases in organic waste and
stored in the same way as other categories of waste. The increases in paper in the waste stream appear to be the main
risk of an explosive chemical reaction, harm to workers, changes in waste composition from low-income to high-income
populations. (Data from Hoorweg and Bhada-Tata, 2012)
or damage to lining of waste containers or landfills
is simply too great. (Hazardous chemicals are also
?
discussed in Chapter 11, as an aspect of environmental • Used motor oil (toxic, corrosive, flammable)
health, and in Chapter 13, as pollutants.)
• Mercury-containing products—old thermometers,
fluorescent light bulbs (toxic)
Sources of Hazardous Waste Does an increase in
• Antifreeze (toxic)
In the United States, the “basic chemical” industry, disposable income lead
• Batteries (reactive, flammable)
which produces everything from nail polish remover inevitably to increased
to chlorine for swimming pools, is responsible for over per capita waste
Because wealthier countries tend to have greater
half of all hazardous waste (Figure 12.6). In second production?
capacity for manufacturing chemicals than do poorer
place is the production of petroleum- and coal-based
countries, they tend to produce more hazardous
products, such as gasoline, plastics, and lubricants.
Taken together, five industry sectors accounted for
94% of the approximately 31 million metric tons of
hazardous wastes produced in the United States in
SOURCES OF HAZARDOUS WASTE IN THE
2011. The remaining 6% of hazardous wastes produced
UNITED STATES
in the United States comes from economic activities by
45 commercial and industrial sources, ranging from
paint manufacturing to sawmills. Basic chemical
While most household wastes aren’t dangerous, there manufacturing
Petroleum and coal
are some hazardous items commonly found in the product manufacturing
home that individuals should never simply place in a Metal processing and
manufacturing
trash can or pour down a drain, on the ground, or into Waste treatment
and disposal
storm sewers. For example, the following household Pesticide and other
wastes meet at least one of the EPA’s hazardous waste agricultural chemical
manufacturing
criteria: 45 other sources
• Medical waste—expired prescriptions, discarded

needles, bandages (toxic) FIGURE 12.6 Five economic activities account for 94%
• Chemical drain openers (corrosive) of the hazardous waste generated in the United States. Just toxic Poisonous; a toxic
two of these sectors are responsible for over three-quarters substance is harmful to living
• Paint thinners (flammable) of the hazardous waste produced in the country. (Data from organisms in relatively low
• Pesticides (toxic) Environmental Protection Agency [EPA], 2011c) amounts.

differences in income level among cities affect waste

HAZARDOUS WASTE GENERATION AND
INCOME LEVEL management issues?
160
3. While federal law requires industry to safely
dispose of hazardous waste, individuals and
PER CAPITA HAZARDOUS WASTE

households are not held to the same standards.
120 Do you believe the EPA should extend these laws
to include all waste producers? Explain why or
(kg PER YEAR) why not.
80
40
12.1–12.2 Science:
Summary
0
Low Low-middle High-middle High As long as human populations were small, the
COUNTRY INCOME LEVEL volume of waste they produced was low, and
FIGURE 12.7 Hazardous waste generation is much higher the waste stream consisted of natural materials.
in high-income countries than in high-middle-income and low- The situation changed with population growth
middle-income countries. Insufficient data were available for and the development of intensive industrial
low-income countries. (Data for 2006 from Wielenga, 2010) economies. Municipal solid waste includes all
solid waste from institutions, households, and
businesses, making solid waste management
?
waste. As shown in Figure 12.7, the average per capita
production of hazardous waste in high-income countries one of the most critical and expensive public
is approximately 3 times that in high middle-income services. National income is correlated with the
countries and over 16 times the rate in low middle- amount and composition of waste. The EPA
Does disposal of considers waste that is flammable, reactive,
income countries.
household wastes corrosive, or toxic as hazardous. In the United
have potential ethical States, the largest sources of hazardous waste
implications? ! Think About It are basic chemical manufacturing and the
1. What might future archeologists conclude about manufacturing of products from petroleum and
today’s human societies by studying our MSW? coal, such as gasoline, plastics, and lubricants.
Significant amounts of hazardous waste can
2. How might income level influence the also be generated in households.
composition of waste in different countries? How do
12.3–12.6 Issues
I n the Chinese town of Guiyu, hazardous waste piles up
on the streets as hundreds of thousands of untrained
workers dismantle cast-off electronics, including flat-
12.3 Municipal solid waste
management is a growing
screen television displays that contain mercury. Out in the problem
Pacific Ocean, so many tiny bits of plastic bags and bottles No one likes to take out the trash from his or her own
have been trapped in a circular ocean current that the house. But that’s just the beginning of the journey for our
water appears cloudy. At nuclear power plants around the waste. Consider, for a moment, the epic task of gathering
United States, spent fuel rods pile up with no permanent trash from each and every household in a city of several
repository open to store them. Every type of waste brings million and finding a place to put it. Waste collection
its own challenges, and as the population grows, these is a critically important task because uncollected solid
issues grow more severe with each passing year. waste can block drainage systems and cause air and water

365
By 2025 that total is expected to increase even further to

INCREASING GENERATION OF MUNICIPAL
approximately 2.2 billion metric tons of MSW per year
SOLID WASTE
(Figure 12.8a).
a. YEARLY GLOBAL WASTE GENERATION These increases represent not only the growth of urban
populations around the world, but also increased economic
3.0 development. As disposable incomes and living standards
increase, consumption correspondingly increases. More
BILLIONS OF METRIC TONS
2.5 consumption equals more trash. Between 2002 and 2012,

the amount of waste an individual produced doubled
2.0
from approximately 0.6 kilogram to 1.2 kilograms per
1.5 day. These numbers are predicted to rise by nearly 20% by
2025 (Figure 12.8b). When you consider the increase in
1.0 per capita waste production in combination with urban
population growth across the globe, solid waste will have
0.5
tripled between 2002 and 2025.
0
In the United States, however, we are beginning to see
2002 2012 2025 a slight decline, suggesting we’ve reached “peak trash”
YEAR
(Figure 12.9). Indeed, people today are throwing away
less trash than they did 15 years ago. Let’s take a closer
b. PER CAPITA WASTE GENERATION look at the numbers. In 1960 the United States generated
1.50
1.25 41 YEARS OF GENERATING MUNICIPAL SOLID

KILOGRAMS PER DAY
WASTE IN THE UNITED STATES

1.00
TOTAL WASTE GENERATION
0.75
250
0.50
MILLIONS OF METRIC TONS
200
0.25
0 150
2002 2012 2025
YEAR
100
FIGURE 12.8 (a) As a result of increasing per capita waste
generation and growth in the urban population, the total amount of
MSW will likely triple between 2002 and 2025. (b) The per capita 50
generation of MSW around the world approximately doubled
between 2002 and 2012 and is predicted to increase another
0
20% by 2025. (Data from Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata, 2012)
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020
YEAR
pollution. Waste disposal is yet another issue. What PER CAPITA WASTE GENERATION
happens in the long term to all that buried municipal
waste? Does it ever decompose? Does any of the waste 2.5
material find its way back into the soil and water systems
of the nearby environment? And if so, is it toxic and 2.0
KILOGRAMS PER DAY
therefore hazardous?
1.5
Municipal Solid Waste FIGURE 12.9 Total annual

1.0 waste generation increased
As the odyssey of the Khian Sea showed, getting rid of from 1960 until 2007, then
waste can be a fraught process. Around the globe, the decreased about 2.5%
0.5 by 2011 (top). Per capita
amount of municipal solid waste generated is soaring.
generation of waste (bottom)
As of 2002, just over 600 million metric tons of MSW peaked in 2000, decreasing a
0
was being generated per year; and in the following 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 full 7.5% by 2011. (Data from
10 years, that number doubled to 1.3 billion metric tons. YEAR EPA, 2013c)

80 million metric tons of MSW; that number increased to waste will decompose in the long term, it is filling up
233 million metric tons by 2007. After 2007 solid waste our country’s landfills; and as it decomposes due to the
generation decreased by 1.3% to 230 million metric tons actions of bacteria, fungi, and some species of insects, it
by 2013. What accounted for that decline? From 1960 to releases climate-warming methane into the atmosphere.
?
2000, people were becoming more wasteful: The per capita In addition, finite resources, such as the phosphate in
generation rate went from 1.22 kilograms per person per fertilizer used to grow the food, are removed from Earth’s
day to 2.15 kilograms per person per day. However, the per systems and locked away in landfills.
How could requiring capita rate then declined 7.5% over the next decade, down
to 2 kilograms per person per day in 2013. Plastic Waste
all packaging to be
According to World Bank statistics, these per capita
biodegradable change While some of our wastes, such as paper and food scraps,
rates of solid waste generation are comparable to those of
the waste stream? are biodegradable, others are not. All of our products
other developed countries—such as Australia, Canada,
begin as naturally occurring substances, including
Norway, and Denmark—but are higher than those of
crude oil, but through manufacturing they undergo
Japan, the United Kingdom, and Sweden. All these
processes of heating, molding, coloring, or are chemically
nations have a much higher rate of waste generation than
changed. The end products, in many cases, are non-
the low-income nations (see Figure 12.4, page 362). This
biodegradable, meaning living organisms cannot break
decrease may indicate a trend toward waste reduction
them down. As a consequence, the elemental components
among companies and consumers, a strategy that we will
(mainly carbon and hydrogen) of these substances will
discuss further in the solutions section of this chapter.
remain locked in this new form indefinitely.
Because plastics are not biodegradable, they
Food Waste
accumulate in waste dumps and, more significantly for
According to the EPA, Americans threw out the environment, in natural ecosystems. The Great Pacific
approximately 35 million tons of food in 2012. That’s Garbage Patch (Figure 12.10) consists of particles of
more than 3 times the amount we were throwing out plastic that have concentrated in the central Pacific Ocean
in 1980, and it represents more than 20% of our waste due to an oceanic current known as the North Pacific
stream. In fact, we throw away more food than plastic, Gyre (see Figure 8.2, page 232). Although the area with a
paper, or metal. The Natural Resources Defense Council, significant amount of plastic waste in the Pacific Ocean
an environmental advocacy organization, has estimated is undoubtedly large, according to the U.S. National
that 40% of our food goes to waste. Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration
You may think that it’s no big deal because food (NOAA), there is currently no scientifically sound
and other organic waste are biodegradable, meaning estimate of the area of this accumulation. Garbage
complex molecules can be broken down into their patches have also been found in both the Atlantic and
simpler elements and compounds. Even though such Indian Oceans.
OCEANS OF WASTE
Great Pacific Garbage Patch

Ocean currents
Western Eastern
Garbage Patch Garbage Patch
(© Andrew Payne/Alamy)
biodegradable A substance
that can be decomposed to
its chemical constituents by
biological processes.
The exact area covered by the Pacific Garbage Patch is unknown.
Greatest waste concentrations occur in western and eastern regions.
non-biodegradable A Waste in the Great Pacific Garbage Patch
substance that cannot be
decomposed to its chemical FIGURE 12.10 The oceans have been accumulating vast quantities of plastic waste that are concentrated by large circular
constituents by biological currents called gyres. The first of these garbage patches to be discovered, a bit of which is shown here, was the Great Pacific
processes. Garbage Patch.

367
PLASTIC WASTE: DEADLY TO SEA LIFE

(Coast Guard photo by Petty Officer 3rd Class Nicole Picklo)
(Linny Morris/The New York Times/Redux)

Sea turtle entangled in plastic waste Albatross remains, found on the Hawaiian Islands,
filled with ingested plastic debris
FIGURE 12.11 Larger pieces of plastic waste in the oceans regularly ensnare unsuspecting sea life. This sea turtle (left) was
trapped in a bundle of fishing gear off the coast of Central America and would almost certainly have died if not released by this
Seaman of the U.S. Coast Guard. The Laysan albatross chick (right), like thousands of others, was fed bits of plastic that its parents
mistakenly ingested as they skimmed the ocean surface in search of squid or fish eggs. Unlike the parents, however, the chick cannot
regurgitate the plastic; thus, its digestive tract gradually filled with the indigestible material and the chick eventually died.
The dominant waste in all these patches is plastic, 2. Why can we expect the amount of municipal
ranging in size from large chunks to microscopic particles. waste generated around the world to continue to
?
Because they are not biodegradable, these plastics do increase for the foreseeable future?
not decompose but rather are broken into smaller and
smaller pieces by mechanical action and by sunlight. The 3. What does the impact of plastics on Laysan
larger pieces are hazardous to sea life, including seabirds albatrosses tell us about the municipal solid waste Whose responsibility is
and turtles that can become entangled and drown. stream? it to clean up the Great
Many marine animals also mistake plastic particles for
Pacific Garbage Patch?
their natural food, with potentially fatal consequences.
A particularly hard-hit population is that of the Laysan 12.4 Hazardous waste
albatross of Midway Island, where many chicks die as a generation is increasing and
consequence of being fed large amounts of plastic debris is often handled unsafely
by their parents (Figure 12.11). The U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service estimates that adult Laysan albatross unwittingly Uncontrolled dumping of hazardous waste was once
feed approximately 5 tons of plastic debris to their chicks the norm—and it was also completely legal. Today, we
each year. must deal with contamination left behind by companies
The impact of this plastic waste goes beyond its operating during this time. In 1980 the U.S. Congress
physical effects. Plastic debris in the oceans passed the Comprehensive Environmental Response,
allows persistent organic pollutants such as PCBs, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA), or
polychlorinated biphenyls (see Chapter 13, page 392), to Superfund Law, to address this problem. One of the
enter the marine food chain. While these pollutants are goals of the Superfund program is to identify sites where
not very soluble in water, they adsorb on plastic particles the contamination of air, soil, and water by hazardous
and can be released into the tissues of animals ingesting substances has been sufficient to threaten human health
them. Because these compounds biomagnify (see or harm the environment. As of 2011, there were more
Chapter 11, page 340), their concentrations can be than 1,350 Superfund sites, which the EPA continues to
substantial in a variety of popular seafoods. actively manage.
Comprehensive
Environmental Response,
Love Canal
! Think About It In the spring of 1962, following an extremely wet year,
Compensation, and Liability
Act (CERCLA) Superfund
1. Can total waste generation by a population Law enacted in 1980 to
residents living in a new development in Niagara Falls,
regulate hazardous waste and
increase over time, while per capita waste New York, reported noxious fumes and colored liquids require companies to dispose
generation declines significantly? Explain. oozing from the ground and flooding roadways and of it safely.

yards. By the 1970s, residents noticed children were being history (Figure 12.12). Nevertheless, communities living
born with birth defects and anomalies, such as misshapen near brownfields in the United States may potentially be
feet and hands. Women were experiencing an abnormally exposed to a greater risk of cancer, congenital defects,
high number of miscarriages, according to the New York and other health problems.
State Department of Health. It didn’t take long for the
local newspaper, the Niagara Falls Gazette, to discover a Herr’s Island, Pennsylvania
dark secret buried in the land.
In the late 1940s and early 1950s, a chemical Herr’s Island sits on the middle of the Allegheny River in
manufacturing company called Hooker Chemical dumped Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. In the early 20th century, it was
21,000 tons of hazardous waste in an abandoned canal, home to a stockyard for cattle, a massive slaughterhouse,
a scrapyard, and a metal foundry for the Pennsylvania
?
the Love Canal. When the company sold the land to the
Niagara Falls Board of Education for $1, it disclosed the Railroad. Long after the land was abandoned, noxious
presence of this waste, but the city built a school there fumes still emanated from its contaminated soils,
anyway, along with low-income housing. Studies later which contained animal carcasses. An environmental
How can we assessment found a variety of hazardous wastes, including
identified 248 chemicals in the water, including high levels
explain people in of the carcinogens dioxin and benzene. In 1978 President PCBs (see Chapter 13, page 392) that had leached
the past knowingly Jimmy Carter declared the site a federal disaster area and from electrical transformers in the scrapyard. One
contaminating the more than 800 families were relocated. Love Canal would company operating there had also left behind a rusting,
landscapes that become one of the nation’s first Superfund sites. We discuss underground storage tank that leaked oil and heavy
have become today’s the cleanup of Love Canal and other Superfund sites in metals into the groundwater.
brownfields? greater detail in Chapter 13.
Sydney, Nova Scotia
Brownfields
The city of Sydney, on the coast of Nova Scotia, Canada,
seemed an ideal location for a steel plant. All the basic
Not all of the nation’s contaminated sites become
materials, including coal, iron ore, and limestone, could
Superfund sites. Brownfields are abandoned industrial
be mined nearby. A large harbor provided access to
sites that are often contaminated with hazardous waste
worldwide shipping routes to transport the finished
and unusable without remediation. The EPA estimates
brownfield An abandoned product. One of the waste products of this process was
that there are more than 450,000 brownfields in the
industrial site generally
contaminated with hazardous
coal tar. In Sydney, the coal tar was diverted from the
United States alone. Unlike for the Superfund sites, no
waste and unusable without ovens and stored in large tanks before being transported
national program exists to clean up brownfields, which
remediation. elsewhere. When the mills began to close in the 1960s,
are commonplace in any city with an extensive industrial
most of the storage tanks, storage lagoons,
and pipes were simply abandoned with
A BROWNFIELD: THE RESULT OF YEARS OF INDUSTRIAL ACTIVITY no cleanup. Twenty years later, chemical
wastes leaching from this site were
discovered in locally caught lobsters. The
Sydney Tar Ponds are a remnant of the
period of the industrial age before the
modern environmental movement, before
any significant regulations dealing with
pollution or waste were in place.
! Think About It
1. Is the phenomenon of brownfields an
example of a Tragedy of the Commons
(see Chapter 2, page 49)?
2. In spite of massive levels of
(David Frohnsdorff)
environmental contamination
around the world, some still argue
that businesses should be allowed to
FIGURE 12.12 Long-term industrial activity has contaminated sites around the world with operate unfettered by environmental
a variety of hazardous substances. These sites, called brownfields, generally need extensive
cleanup before they can be safely used for other purposes. This brownfield in Manchester, regulations. What are some of the
England, was the site of industrial activity for many years. arguments for and against this position?

369
12.5 New forms of hazardous AN ELECTRONICS REVOLUTION CREATES A

FIGURE 12.14 (a) In just
30 years, from 1980 to 2010,
waste are on the rise NEW WASTE STREAM U.S. sales of electronics
increased from 22 million
The generation of hazardous waste by the United
a. SALES OF ELECTRONICS to 443 million devices and
States and China, the world’s two largest economies, diversified from a market
increased by approximately 40% and 20%, respectively, 500 dominated by televisions
within a decade or less (Figure 12.13). Figures are to one made up of various
similar globally. The Basel Convention (discussed below) Mobile devices electronics, ranging from
400 Televisions computers to smart phones.
reported a 12% increase in hazardous waste being Computer monitors (b) As electronic devices in
generated in 43 countries over a period of just 3 years, Computer peripherals the United States reach the
from 2004 to 2006. 300
MILLIONS
Computers
end of their useful life, they
enter the solid waste stream,
Electronic Waste 200 creating a growing source of
hazardous waste. (Data from
One type of waste that is posing new challenges is EPA, 2011a)
100
electronic waste, or e-waste, which often enters the
municipal solid waste stream, even though it contains
hazardous components. The use of electronic products has 0
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
grown substantially over the past two decades, changing YEAR
the way we communicate, as well as our various sources
of information and entertainment. According to the b. INCREASING ELECTRONIC WASTE IN THE U.S.
Consumer Electronics Association, Americans now own
approximately 24 electronic products per household. These 2.5
levels of ownership are reflected in electronics sales in the

MILLIONS OF METRIC TONS
United States, which skyrocketed between 1980 and 2010 2.0
(Figure 12.14a). Whether you are in the Silicon Valley of

California or the so-called Silicon Savanna of Kenya, you 1.5
are guaranteed to spot people tapping away on their cell
phones. 1.0
At some point in the life cycle of these electronic
devices, they wear out or are replaced by improved
0.5
models. At that point, most unwanted televisions,
personal computers, laptops, tablets, phones, and media
players enter the waste stream as electronic waste. 0
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Electronic waste can be considered hazardous, as many YEAR
of the inner components are toxic, corrosive, or reactive.

YEARLY HAZARDOUS WASTE GENERATION BY Consider these common examples:
THE WORLD’S TWO LARGEST ECONOMIES
• CRT (tube-style) monitors and televisions each
40 contain significant amounts of lead.
HAZARDOUS WASTE GENERATED
• LCD (flat-screen) monitors contain mercury.

(MILLIONS OF METRIC TONS)
30 • Circuit boards found in nearly every electronic device

contain multiple toxic substances, including cadmium,
lead solder, and brominated flame-retardants.
20
The problem of electronic waste is growing, although
it is largely hidden from most consumers. In 2010 over
United States
10 China 2 million metric tons of e-waste were produced in the
United States (Figure 12.14b). But these increases in electronic waste
e-waste are not limited to the United States—high levels (e-waste) A portion of the
0
of e-waste occur in all middle- to high-income countries, waste stream consisting
2000 2005 2010 2015
of discarded electronic
YEAR and those amounts are growing.
products that typically contain
FIGURE 12.13 The amount of hazardous waste generated by Unfortunately, e-waste is often illegally smuggled from hazardous components (e.g.,
the United States and China increased during the first decade developed countries to developing countries for disposal. heavy metals like lead, and
of the 20th century. (Data from EPA, 2011c; UNSD, 2011) It’s the story of the Khian Sea all over again. The cottage other toxins).

INFORMAL E-WASTE PROCESSING IN GUIYU, CHINA
(Norman Ng/MCT via Getty Images)
FIGURE 12.15 The methods for recovering valuable components from e-waste used by the informal sector in
Guiyu, China, and elsewhere create conditions harmful to the health of workers and contaminate the environment with
hazardous waste.
e-waste business involves labor-intensive and often many health hazards. For instance, women working in
hazardous manual dismantling of equipment, using simple these conditions run the risk of having children with
tools like hammers and screwdrivers and salvaging and birth defects, and the child workers are likely to suffer
?
How is poverty
selling reusable component parts from circuit boards,
compressors, appliances, and other electronic devices. The
most lucrative practice is to separate out precious metals
impaired neurological development. Although the
Chinese government has banned these informal e-waste
recycling practices, the environmental damage they cause
and then refine them. However, these cottage e-waste will persist for many years and will require substantial
connected to unsafe workers lack the technology, equipment, and training to effort and resources to mitigate.
recycling of e-wastes? safely manage the process.
Substandard informal recycling practices include open
burning or melting of plastics, toner sweeping, dumping ! Think About It
of lead-containing CRTs, acid stripping of printed 1. Many electronic items have a label of a trash
wiring boards, and de-soldering of chips, as well as bin with a line crossing through it. How might
dumping waste chemicals onto the soil or into water disposing of electronic waste with the rest of a
sources. These common practices pose direct risks to
household’s waste have far-reaching environmental
the health of workers and to the local environment.
consequences?
The global center for unsafe recycling practices has
been Guiyu, China, a coastal city that imports electronic 2. Why does the problem of e-waste receive a great
waste from all over the world (Figure 12.15). People from deal of media attention, while the much larger
rural areas migrate to Guiyu, seeking jobs disassembling, amount of other hazardous wastes generated goes
burning, and melting the precious metals from circuit largely unreported?
boards. With a population of 150,000, including 100,000
migrants, Guiyu is home to more than 300 companies
low-level nuclear waste and 3,000 individual workshops that are engaged in 12.6 Safe nuclear waste
Radioactive waste, including e-waste recycling. These e-waste workers, many of whom disposal requires long-term
any item that has become are women and children, earn an average wage equivalent
contaminated with small
to USD$1.50 per day. security
amounts of radioactive
particles, including instruments, According to the Basel Action Network, the majority Nuclear power plants produce two types of radioactive
protective suits, or clothing (80%) of children in Guiyu have elevated levels of lead waste that must be disposed of (see Chapter 9). Low-
from nuclear facilities. in their blood. Workers at these recycling sites face level nuclear waste includes any item that has become

371
contaminated with small amounts of radioactive half-life of plutonium-239, for example, is approximately
particles, including instruments, protective suits, or 24,000 years. The durability of even the oldest known
clothing from nuclear facilities. High-level nuclear waste human structures, such as the 4,500-year-old pyramids
is radioactive waste consisting primarily of nuclear fuel at Giza, pales in comparison. Finding a suitable storage
rods that have been depleted to the point that they can structure and location to accommodate these slow rates
no longer contribute to efficient production of electricity. of radioactive decay presents a tremendous technical
These fuel rods still contain uranium in addition to challenge. For the time being, most of the high-level
several other waste products of nuclear fission. nuclear waste in the United States is temporarily stored in
Over very long periods of time, radioactive waste will concrete and steel towers called dry casks on the site of the
completely decay and become harmless. However, most reactors themselves, as the country searches for a long-
radioactive isotopes take so long to decompose that the term solution. These casks, while stable, cannot realistically
timeframe is essentially meaningless in terms of human be expected to last for the full length of time needed for the
timescales. Meanwhile, tiny particles and rays of energy radioactive isotopes to decay to safe levels (Figure 12.16).
are released during active decay, which can damage
living tissue, including the DNA blueprint found within Social Resistance
the nucleus of all organisms. Safety requires that nuclear
One of the biggest challenges to creating a long-term
wastes be disposed of properly so that they do not
solution for nuclear waste is that no community
contaminate the environment and endanger humans and
wants it in their backyard, due to fears of radioactive
other organisms.
contamination. The United States has been successful in
building and operating a repository for defense-related
Technical Challenges
radioactive wastes at the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant in
Developing a permanent repository for high-level nuclear southern New Mexico. The proposed facility for storing
waste requires addressing complex technical issues. To high-level waste from civilian nuclear reactors is located
prevent radiation from escaping, nuclear waste must be at Yucca Mountain, Nevada, where nuclear wastes
securely stored within several feet of steel and concrete. would be stored approximately 300 meters below ground
In the short term, this is a relatively simple task. What and a similar distance above the level of groundwater
makes storing nuclear waste so difficult is the great length (Figure 12.17). However, plans for the facility were
of time needed before some unstable elements decay into halted in 2009, a year before it was to begin storing waste
harmless ones. (see Chapter 9). The main reason for the cancellation was
Radioactive isotopes all decay, but at different rates. The political opposition by local communities, who didn’t
time needed for half of a given amount of a radioactive want nuclear waste transported through their towns.
isotope to decay is known as its half-life. While some There were also questions concerning the suitability
nuclear fission waste products decay quickly, in a matter of the Yucca Mountain geology. Fractures in the geologic
of hours or days, others require thousands of years. The formation could provide an avenue for radioactive
ONSITE MANAGEMENT AND STORAGE OF HIGH-LEVEL NUCLEAR WASTE
high-level nuclear
waste Radioactive waste,
(Guilaume Souvant/AFP/Getty Images)
primarily nuclear fuel rods that

(Nuclear Regulatory Commission)
have been depleted to the

point that they can no longer
contribute to the efficient
production of electricity.
half-life The time needed for

half of a given amount of a
20-meter-deep cooling pool for spent fuel rods On-site storage casks for spent nuclear fuel
at a nuclear power plant at a nuclear power plant
radioactive isotope to decay.
FIGURE 12.16 Following a period of cooling in heavily reinforced and carefully monitored pools of water called spent fuel pools, dry casks Steel and concrete
high-level nuclear waste can be moved to onsite dry storage casks constructed of steel and concrete until a permanent repository structures used for temporary
is available. storage of nuclear waste.
S CIE NCE ISSU ES SOLUT IONS

FIGURE 12.17 After

investments of billions PROPOSED NUCLEAR WASTE REPOSITORY AT YUCCA MOUNTAIN, NEVADA
of dollars in geologic
and engineering studies,
construction, and
370 meters
development of detailed Processing Yucca Mountain
handling procedures for site
high-level nuclear waste,
plans for the Yucca Mountain Tunnels
Repository were abandoned
in 2009. Discussions
concerning opening the site
250 meters
were reopened in the U.S.
Water
Congress in 2015, which table
added uncertainty to the
proposed repository. (From
U.S. Nuclear Regulatory
Commission)
1 Canisters of waste 2 Waste transferred from 3 Storage containers 4 Containers placed on

shipped to the site. shipping casks to multi- moved to the tunnels. their sides for long-term
layered storage container. storage.
materials to contaminate groundwater below the storage

facility. This would be particularly likely if the regional 12.3–12.6 Issues:
climate became wetter, which is possible during the Summary
million-year time frame that the facility is supposed to
?
remain secure. Despite these concerns, in 2015, the U.S. Around the world, the amount of municipal
Congress renewed efforts to open the Yucca Mountain solid waste generated is increasing with urban
repository, but whether the proposal will be approved population growth and economic development.
What roles should remains uncertain. Meanwhile, the country remains Food waste and other biodegradable waste
science, economics, and without a site for disposing of high-level nuclear waste. take up valuable landfill space and represent
an unnecessary and avoidable problem. Non-
politics play in choosing
a repository for high- ! Think About It biodegradable waste also creates significant
environmental problems. For example, plastics
level nuclear waste? accumulate in natural ecosystems, such as
1. Explain what physical properties of nuclear waste
preclude its disposal using conventional means. the Great Pacific Garbage Patch, where they
threaten sea life.
2. With the many hazardous wastes to which we Hazardous waste represents a great threat
may be exposed, why does nuclear waste appear to to the environment—contaminating land and
generate an especially high level of concern among water the world over. This type of contamination
the public? produced brownfields, abandoned industrial
sites contaminated with hazardous waste that are
unusable without remediation. The increase in
the use of electronic devices has created a new
source of waste—e-waste. Finally, radioactive
waste poses unique challenges in that it must be
sequestered in structures sufficient to shield the
environment from harmful radiation. Nuclear
waste remains in temporary storage at nuclear
power plant sites across the United States and
around the world.

373
T he world was outraged by the Khian Sea saga. In
1993, as the environmental organization Greenpeace
held a protest outside the Philadelphia City Hall, the ship’s
that finds its way to a disposal site. The centerpiece of
integrated waste management is a hierarchy of options
in which reducing waste and reusing materials are given
operators were convicted of perjury for lying to a federal highest priority, followed by recycling and composting
grand jury about the dumping. The imbroglio catalyzed and energy recovery, with disposal as the least preferred
the development of an international treaty known as the option (Figure 12.18).
Basel Convention, which was drawn up in 1989. Known
formally as the Basel Convention on the Transboundary Reducing the Waste Stream
Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal, the
Reducing the amount of material that enters the waste
treaty’s intent was to limit the exportation of hazardous
stream is referred to as source reduction. As consumers,
waste, including electronic waste, from developed to
we can contribute by reusing, repairing, borrowing,
developing countries and to encourage the safe treatment
or renting goods, which, for many, means adopting
and disposal of hazardous wastes within the countries
a new approach to living and consuming. Consider
where they were generated. The Basel Convention, which
the purchases by a typical family. Boxes, cans, plastic
came into force in 1992, now includes 179 countries and
wrappers, bags, and other packaging material surround
the European Union as parties. The United States signed
nearly every type of food available at the grocery store.
the treaty in 1990 but has not yet ratified it.
Plastic shopping bags, disposable diapers, bottled water,
Laws and treaties are just one piece of the puzzle
and other disposable products represent conveniences to
needed to find solutions to our growing garbage problem.
consumers. The short-term benefit of these goods to the
As global economic development continues, waste
consumer is offset by the long-term consequences to the
generation will continue to increase unless individuals
environment. In addition, nearly all the packaging for
embrace the four R’s: Refuse, Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle.
these items is non-biodegradable plastic.
Refuse means to refuse unnecessary products and
An effective way to encourage consumers to make a
disposable items like plastic bags—and even to refuse the
different choice is to use incentives or penalties. Incentives
latest technological gadgets. Reduce means to buy less and
include offering discounts for bringing your own
use less. Reuse means to use things you already own and
beverage container or shopping bag. Several high-profile
opt for reusable items rather than disposable ones. Recycle
means to sort your waste stream and recycle objects made
of paper, plastic, metal, glass, and organic matter for
INTEGRATED WASTE MANAGEMENT REDUCES
composting. In this section, we discuss how such a simple
THE WASTE STREAM
strategy is being implemented.
WASTE MANAGEMENT PRIORITIES
Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act (RCRA) A law
12.7 Modern waste
Highest
passed by the U.S. Congress

management emphasizes REUSE MATERIALS AND REDUCE WASTE
that banned open dumping of
reduced disposal COMPOST ORGANIC WASTE
wastes and set standards for
solid waste landfills.
PREFERENCE
AND RECYCLE
The first step to solving our waste problem is reducing integrated waste
the amount of trash being generated in the first place. USE AS ENERGY RESOURCE management A management
The main federal legislation governing the disposal of strategy that minimizes waste
solid and hazardous wastes in the United States is the disposal by stressing the
TREAT AND
Lowest
importance of reducing waste,

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, or RCRA, DISPOSE
reusing materials, recycling,
which was passed by the Congress in October 1976. composting, and recovering
RCRA banned open dumping of wastes and set standards FIGURE 12.18 The U.S. EPA takes a prioritized, hierarchical energy from waste materials.
for solid waste landfills. The act recommended reducing approach to waste management, with the highest priority given
to waste reduction and reuse. Of the amount of waste eventually source reduction A waste
the amount of waste and recycling. Under the auspices
discarded, as much as possible is recycled, composted (organic management tactic aimed
of RCRA, the EPA developed a management framework wastes), or used as an energy source. The remainder is stored in at reducing the amount of
called integrated waste management, an approach sanitary landfill disposal sites constructed to avoid environmental material that enters the waste
that aims ultimately to minimize the amount of waste contamination. (After EPA, 2013c) stream.

businesses offer such incentives. Penalties are imposed expense of hazardous waste treatment, transport, and
when customers are asked to pay extra for these items. disposal. For example, Siemens Water Technologies, a
Governments can also intervene. In California, 138 cities leader in hazardous waste treatment and source reduction,
and counties have banned single-use plastic bags, and in helped Marathon Norco Aerospace in Waco, Texas, reduce
September 2014, a statewide ban went into effect, forcing its generation of hazardous waste by 70%. Marathon Norco
retailers to charge 10 cents or more for recycled paper bags Aerospace manufactures high-quality nickel cadmium
in order to encourage customers to bring in reusable bags. batteries for the aerospace industry, but in the process
The bill did not pass without controversy, however. Within generates waste containing hazardous concentrations of
days of it being signed into law, plastic bag manufacturers heavy metals, especially cadmium and chromium. The
launched a drive to put a referendum on the issue before volume of these wastes and the concentrations of metals in
the voters, arguing that banning single-use plastic bags them add to manufacturing expenses due to the high costs
would eliminate jobs. As a result, the fate of the law will be of transport, disposal, and recordkeeping associated with
?
How might banning
decided in a statewide vote in November 2016. Other states
and municipalities are also considering such laws.
The business community can make fundamental
hazardous waste management.
By installing a modern Siemens wastewater treatment
system, Marathon Norco Aerospace reduced the
contributions to source reduction by redesigning concentrations of cadmium and chromium in effluent at
single-use plastic products and packaging. Simply reducing the weights of the plant to below permitted levels. The new equipment
bags create economic packaging or using lighter-gauge metals in appliances and also lowered costs by decreasing the volume of waste sent
opportunities? other products, without impairing function, could reduce for disposal and eliminating the high labor costs associated
the amount of solid waste. For example, manufacturers with the outdated equipment that the Siemens’ system
have reduced the weights of aluminum cans by over replaced. In most settings, waste reduction has not entirely
?
15% in recent years. Another example of the business eliminated the need for hazardous waste disposal.
community reducing waste is through the reuse of
Could a chemical
shipping pallets. Millions of the wooden pallets used
for shipping heavy goods are now being reused instead
! Think About It
company that of being discarded after one use. The online retailer 1. Explain how the term “cradle to grave” applies to
developed ways to Amazon.com has introduced a frustration-free packaging the RCRA. How might requirements such as these
reduce its hazardous program, which requires manufacturers to offer products have reduced the number of brownfields across the
for shipment in easy-to-open, recyclable packages and to United States?
waste production
avoid using plastic clamshell casings. Tallying up the total
become more profitable 2. Reducing the amount of material used in
environmental impact of a product from the cradle to the
as a result? grave—that is, from raw material extraction to recycling manufacturing goods seems like it will reduce
and disposal—is known as life cycle assessment; it has waste. Can you think about how such efforts might
?
the potential to help consumers make informed choices cause problems?
about their buying decisions (see Chapter 14, page 453).
Hazardous Waste Reduction

12.8 Food waste and other
How long could 220 biodegradable trash can be
pounds of food feed you Because of the threat they pose to humans and other
personally? organisms, hazardous wastes are particularly problematic.
reduced and repurposed
As individuals, we need to take care to properly dispose According to the EPA, in 2013, Americans threw away
of any hazardous household wastes. Fortunately, many 35 million tons of food. That’s over 100 kilograms (220
local communities have special collection sites available pounds) of food for every person in the country. Therefore,
or dedicated days scheduled to dispose of this waste it is imperative that we find alternative uses for nutrient-
safely. The activities of significant industrial generators rich food waste; keeping it from taking up valuable landfill
of hazardous waste are subject to a variety of local, state, space represents an important environmental challenge.
federal, and international regulations. One of the most The nutrients this waste contains could be cycled back into
life cycle assessment An notable provisions in the RCRA requires manufacturers the environment, making it available for use in natural and
estimate of the total
to keep records on the generation, transport, treatment, human-dominated ecosystems.
environmental impact of a
product or technology as and eventual disposal of hazardous wastes. Had such
a law been enacted at an earlier time in U.S. history, it Reducing Food Waste
a result of activities such
as extraction of an energy would likely have prevented the creation of the hundreds Several non-profit organizations, such as Waste No
source (e.g., coal), transport, of thousands of brownfields that dot the country today. Food in California and the industry-backed Food Waste
processing of raw materials,
As with municipal solid waste, reducing the amount Reduction Alliance, are working to raise awareness of the
construction, maintenance,
dismantling, removal, and of hazardous waste is critical. Preventing the release of problem and create a roadmap for industry and consumers
recycling or disposal of hazardous waste is not only good for the environment to reduce food waste. It’s important to note that problems
structures. but can also be economically beneficial by reducing the of food waste differ in the developed and the developing

375
world. In the latter, about one-third of crops are spoiled very little oxygen is available. Therefore, the bulk of
or wasted before they even reach consumers. A lack of decomposer organisms found in landfills are anaerobic
refrigeration and poor transportation systems in these bacteria. In this anaerobic environment, bacteria produce
parts of the world make food spoilage a fact of life; food methane (see Chapter 2, page 36) as a waste product—
waste can only be reduced through the development of methane is a potent greenhouse gas (see Chapter 14,
mobile processing technologies and improved methods for page 437). This biologically generated methane is
getting food to where it’s needed most. chemically identical to the main constituent of the natural
In the developed world, however, food waste occurs gas used for household heat and cooking, as well as for
primarily among end users, restaurants, and residences. industrial purposes (see Chapter 9, page 268). However,
For instance, a restaurant may stock too much of a so-called landfill gas is usually a 50-50 mixture of methane
perishable ingredient, which can’t be used in its entirety and carbon dioxide. Nonetheless, in the United States,
before spoiling. Preventing such problems requires landfills are the third largest source of methane emissions
making a periodic “dumpster dive” and seeing what to the atmosphere, after industry and agriculture.
?
ingredients are consistently getting thrown out. Of Increasingly, landfills have systems that collect emerging
course, it’s not always possible to run a business—or a gas to reduce their emissions of methane, which can be
family kitchen—and be certain which items will get used used as an energy source. The level of treatment needed
and which will not. Many restaurants have partnered for landfill gas depends on the intended use. Direct use of How could you reduce
with humanitarian organizations to make daily or weekly landfill gas to heat boilers and kilns generally requires only food waste in your
donations of surplus food they no longer anticipate using. primary treatment, which removes moisture, particulates, home?
A significant amount of food waste comes from unused and the trace amounts of sulfur dioxide generally present
trimmings and leftovers, some of which can be used in (Figure 12.19). Because primary-treated landfill gas still
animal feed. Finally, used cooking oil and grease can be consists of roughly half carbon dioxide, it has lower energy
sold to biofuel manufacturers (see Chapter 10, page 309). content than does natural gas. For use in applications
where higher energy content is required, such as heating
Composting
Rather than dumping food scraps and yard waste in
landfills, such material can be composted. Composting
is a method for returning the nutrients found in organic PUTTING LANDFILL GAS TO WORK
matter back to the environment, using processes that
mimic the natural biogeochemical cycling of matter. The
process involves naturally occurring bacteria, fungi, and
invertebrates that gradually break down organic wastes Landfill gas
into “compost,” a dark-colored substance resembling soil. collection
Compost, which adds both nutrients and organic matter

to soils, makes a great fertilizer for growing crops.
An example of an effective composting program
is found in the sanitation system of San Francisco,
California. This city has a food scrap collection program
in areas with high numbers of restaurants. The food waste
is collected in special bins every week by garbage trucks Gas processing
in a separate run. The waste is delivered to a facility that
grinds and mixes it, then places it in huge black plastic
bags for about 2 months. Once the composting process
is complete, the “black gold” is delivered to farms and
wineries throughout the state, where it is used as organic
fertilizer. San Francisco’s composting system mimics the
nutrient cycles found within nature and does an effective
job of preventing this biodegradable waste from entering composting A process
landfills. Home gardeners can also compost in their own involving aerobic
backyards, layering food waste from the kitchen with decomposition of organic
Generate electricity Fuel transportation material used to recycle
leaves and sawdust and turning it periodically. Heat buildings
garden waste and organic
components of municipal
Turning Decomposing Waste into Energy FIGURE 12.19 The energy-rich methane produced during
solid waste.
decomposition of organic matter under anaerobic conditions
When organic material such as food waste ends up in in landfills is widely collected and burned to run electrical anaerobic An environment
landfills, naturally occurring bacteria gradually break it generators, heat buildings, fuel industrial processes, and power without molecular oxygen
down. However, landfills are largely anaerobic, meaning transportation networks. (O2 ).

homes and running natural gas vehicles, secondary Finally, the product is kept out of the waste stream for at
treatment is required. The additional treatment involves least one more round of use.
removal of carbon dioxide, nitrogen, oxygen, and other
trace gases. The result is “pipeline quality gas,” which is Financial Incentives for Recycling
nearly pure methane and approximately equivalent in
One way to increase recycling rates is to require deposits
energy content to natural gas.
on bottles and cans. The state of Michigan, for example,
imposes a 10-cent deposit on all its recyclable beverage
! Think About It containers, the highest of any state. This deposit is
returned to the customer when the container is recycled.
1. What are some other beneficial uses for food In response to this incentive, the recycling rate for
waste? these containers in Michigan from 1990 to 2012 was
97%—more than double the national average. Over this
2. Why is the methane emitted by landfills now period more than $9 billion in deposits were paid by
considered a valuable resource? consumers and refunded. Of the approximately $300
million in unclaimed deposits, 75% was returned to the
12.9 Recycling and state government to fund environmental programs, and
beverage retailers retained 25%.
demanufacturing are
critical to reducing waste Take Back Laws and Demanufacturing
No matter how much we reduce our waste, it’s a fact of One recent development is take back laws, which
life that many consumer products must be purchased typically require manufacturers of televisions, computers,
with a disposable container. However, these materials can and other electronics to pay for e-waste recycling
be kept out of the waste stream by promoting recycling, programs. Such laws have been passed in 24 states,
the process of returning the raw materials present in a including New York and Texas. California’s Electronic
form of waste back to the manufacturer to be used again. Waste Recycling Act is similar, but it requires consumers
Commonly recycled materials include glass, plastics, to foot the bill for recycling, paying a special fee to
metal, paper, and cardboard (Figure 12.20). retailers when they purchase certain devices. Utah lacks
Recycling has a number of benefits. When a disposable a take back law, but it does require manufacturers to
product, such as an aluminum can, is recycled, both raw participate in e-waste recycling programs and to inform
material and energy are conserved. Less source material, consumers.
bauxite ore in this case, must be mined and processed. Dismantling electronic equipment into constituent
The amount of energy needed to melt and mold recycled components and scrap metals is called demanufacturing.
material is much less than when starting with raw ore. Although the process can be dangerous when conducted
RECYCLING: AN ESSENTIAL AND GROWING PROCESS
recycling The process of

returning raw materials in
(Ricky Carioti/The Washington Post via Getty Images)
waste (e.g., glass, plastics,

metal, paper) to the
manufacturer for reuse.
take back laws State

regulations that require
(© Darren Kemper/Corbis)
manufacturers of various
electronics to pay for e-waste
recycling programs.
demanufacturing The
dismantling of equipment,
Taking out materials for curbside recycling Sorting mixed materials at a recycling center
especially electronics, into
constituent components and FIGURE 12.20 Recycling is essential to sustaining economic productivity over the long term. One way to encourage recycling
scrap metals that can be by consumers is to provide collection centers in convenient places. From such locations, materials to be recycled are generally
reused or recycled. transported to a sorting center.

377
(e.g., food and garden wastes), and one for solid waste
CHANGES IN THE MANAGEMENT OF MUNICIPAL
SOLID WASTE IN THE UNITED STATES
destined for the landfill (Figure 12.22).
Based on San Francisco’s waste handling system and
100 other measures, an independent study has ranked it as
the “greenest city” in North America. However, the city’s
?
ultimate goal is zero waste. While no municipality has yet
75 attained this goal, Europe’s greenest city, Copenhagen,
PERCENT OF WASTE
Denmark, with a disposal rate of only 2% of the waste

generated, comes close. Like San Francisco, Copenhagen
50 How can the recovery of
stresses waste reduction and reuse, recycling, and
valuable resources from
Energy recovery composting. In addition, any waste that cannot be
Composting
recycled or composted is burned to generate energy in
e-waste be transformed
25 Recycling
Disposal electrical power plants. from a process that
negatively impacts
0 Incineration and Energy Recovery both human and
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 environmental health
YEAR After removing everything that can be recycled or
to a positive for both
FIGURE 12.21 In 1960 nearly all MSW in the United States composted, the remaining trash can be burned to
reduce the waste volume by up to 90%. Less waste the economy and the
was disposed of in a landfill or was incinerated. By 2013 nearly
half was recycled, composted, or used as an energy source. volume means less landfill space is needed. However, environment?
(Data from EPA, 2015) incineration is economically viable only where space
for landfills is highly restricted. Incineration facilities
are expensive to build and pollution control systems are
essential for reducing hazardous emissions. One potential fly ash Particles formed
informally, without the oversight of environmental or source of environmental impact is the ash produced by during combustion that are
health regulators, it has the potential to separate hazardous light enough to become
incinerators. There are two forms of ash produced by airborne and exit a combustion
waste from valuable materials that can be recycled. Several incinerators. Fly ash is made of lighter, noncombustible chamber with exhaust gases,
electronics recycling centers have emerged in urban material that is normally sent airborne during including soot and dust.
centers, supporting the view that demanufacturing could incineration. Bottom ash is the heavier, noncombustible
be a vital source of jobs and income. bottom ash The ash that
material left over after incineration. Fly ash has a high accumulates at the bottom
concentration of toxins, and incinerators are required to of an incinerator during the
Progress in Municipal Waste Management have filters and electrostatic precipitators, similar to those combustion of solid waste.
The problem of waste disposal in Philadelphia, now
managed in a more integrated fashion, is much less
pressing than during the time of the Khian Sea. City
ordinances were passed to support a goal of a 50% MAKING RECYCLING EASY IN SAN FRANCISCO
recycling rate. Although this goal has not yet been reached,
recycling rates have steadily improved, as they have across
the United States. From 1960 to 2013, the amount of MSW
recycling increased from just 6% to 25%. Over this same
period, the amount of waste composted increased to 9%
and the amount burned for energy recovery rose to 13%.
As a consequence, the amount of MSW ending up in
landfills across the country fell from 94% to 53% between
1960 and 2013 (Figure 12.21).
While the progress made in reducing disposal rates
across the United States is encouraging, some cities are
doing better than others. For example, San Francisco
has succeeded in reducing the amount of solid waste
(© 2015 Recology.com)
ending up in landfills to just 20% of the total generated.

The city has achieved this low level of waste disposal
by emphasizing the key elements of integrated waste
management: reducing and reusing, recycling, and
composting. To facilitate these management goals, FIGURE 12.22 Providing all residents with color-coded bins to dispose of materials
residents have access to three refuse bins, one for for recycling, composting, and disposal has helped the city of San Francisco achieve
recyclable materials, one for compostable materials exceptional reductions in its rates of waste disposal.

CONVERTING MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE TO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
Acid gas removal Water vapor and

Pollution control systems system cleaned flue gases
Mercury and dioxin
removal system
Nitrogen oxide Particulate
removal removal
system system Pollution
Flue gases
control
Steam Electric tests
turbine generator
Electricity
Trash
storage
bunker
Ash Ash conveyor belt Ash to

landfill
FIGURE 12.23 This schematic shows that using solid waste as a fuel source to generate electricity via a steam-powered turbine is
similar to using the other fuels reviewed in Chapter 9 (page 270). However, because of the many potentially hazardous contaminants
in solid waste, the U.S. EPA requires that such plants be equipped with advanced pollution control systems.
in coal-fired power plants, to collect fly ash and prevent and heat to consumers. The two plants have a combined
it from being released into the air. Many substances that capacity to process 410,000 metric tons of waste
will not burn (e.g., heavy metals and dioxins) will be left annually, with an energy equivalent of over 100,000
behind in bottom ash. metric tons of oil.
Once recyclable metals have been recovered from
incinerator ash, the residual is sent to a disposal site.
The EPA requires regular testing of ash from incinerator ! Think About It
?
waste for the presence of hazardous waste. When the 1. San Francisco’s drive toward a zero waste future
presence of hazardous substances exceeds certain is accompanied by strict ordinances that require
thresholds, the ash must be treated as hazardous waste
the sorting of waste into recyclable, compostable,
What opportunities and disposed of in specially designed hazardous waste
and other fractions by residents. Penalties for not
are there for turning disposal sites. Otherwise, in the United States, ash in
these plants is disposed in sanitary landfills designed to
doing so include stiff fines. Could the achievements
“wastes” into valuable in waste reduction in the city have been attained
accept standard MSW. Several European countries use
resources? without such laws and penalties? Explain.
nonhazardous incinerator ash for highway building and
other construction. 2. Compare and contrast the typical human system
While properly built and managed incinerators
of waste management with an ecological cycle. Why
are costly, they can be used to recapture some of the
is the human system considered unsustainable?
chemical energy that remains in MSW by including a
steam-powered turbine in the system (Figure 12.23). 3. What contributes to the fact that incinerating
Increasingly, MSW is being recognized as a valuable waste to generate electricity is a more common
energy resource. According to the EPA, in 2013 there part of waste management in Europe than in North
were 86 “waste-to-energy” power plants in the United
America?
States using MSW to generate electricity. The agency
estimates these plants burned 32.7 million tons of
MSW—approximately 13% of the total municipal solid 12.10 Safe and secure
waste stream during that year. long-term disposal is the
These power plants must have the latest pollution
control systems to avoid releasing hazardous wastes
last resort
into the air. Similar plants are in operation in Europe. Today, the brownfield site of Herr’s Island in Pennsylvania
For example, two waste-to-energy power plants in has been renamed Washington’s Landing and is home to
Oslo, Norway (Figure 12.24), which are paid to accept a marina, office buildings, and an exclusive townhouse
solid waste from the United Kingdom and elsewhere, development. In order to achieve this transformation, the
make additional income by selling electrical power soil contaminated with hazardous waste was encapsulated

379
TURNING WASTE INTO ENERGY
(Klemetsrudanlegget AS)
(Klemetsrudanlegget AS)
Klemetsrud waste-to-energy electrical power plant Waste for incineration at

in Norway Klemetsrud power plant
FIGURE 12.24 Klemetsrud is one of two waste-to-energy power plants in Oslo, Norway, that, combined, have the capacity to process
410,000 metric tons of solid waste per year. Municipal solid waste generated locally and transported to Norway from other European
locations provides enough fuel for the two plants to generate sufficient electricity and heat to meet the energy needs of 84,000 homes.
with an impermeable barrier and buried under tennis barrier between the waste in the landfill and soils and
courts. Even as communities around the world push groundwater. In the modern landfill, this liner is made
toward a zero waste future, we are still going to need of thick, tough plastic placed over a layer of packed clay,
a safe way to dispose of waste that cannot be reused, which acts as an additional barrier between the waste
recycled, or composted. This includes municipal waste, and local soil and groundwater. Immediately above the
hazardous waste, and nuclear waste. liner is a layer of porous gravel or sand, through which
water that has seeped down through the waste in the
landfill passes easily until it reaches the plastic landfill
Municipal Landfills
liner. This seepage, called leachate, flows along the top
The most common and often most economical choice of the liner to a low point called a sump, where leachate
for municipal solid waste disposal is the sanitary can be pumped out and treated. Because leachate may
landfill, which consists of a lined pit constructed contain many hazardous substances, groundwater in
and managed in ways to minimize environmental the vicinity of the landfill should be tested on a regular
impacts (Figure 12.25). A bottom liner provides a basis, to ensure that the bottom liner has maintained its
BASIC STRUCTURE OF LANDFILL DESIGNED FOR DISPOSAL OF MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE
Vegetation planted to reduce erosion Groundwater

test well
Layers of clay, subsoil and topsoil
sanitary landfill A solid

Alternating layers
waste disposal site consisting
of waste and soil of a lined pit constructed and
Leachate managed in ways to minimize
Porous gravel or sand collection pipe environmental impacts.
and sump
Tough plastic liner
leachate Water that has
Packed clay seeped down through the
waste in a landfill; flows to
Groundwater a sump in a modern landfill,
where it can be pumped out
FIGURE 12.25 The modern landfill is designed to contain MSW sufficiently to prevent air, water, or soil pollution. and treated.

structural integrity and is not contaminating local water cuts back on its volume. For example, burning medical
supplies. wastes will kill any biological pathogens that may be
Once the basic structure of the landfill is in place, contaminating the waste. Also, the toxicity of some
filling it becomes a relatively simple task. Garbage trucks chemical wastes can be reduced by incineration at very
unload their contents into an open part of the landfill, high temperatures, up to 1,200°C (2,200°F). As in the
where bulldozers compress and spread the material as case of MSW, however, the by-product of incineration,
much as possible. At the end of each day, a layer of soil is ash, will require testing and disposal.
placed over the day’s trash collection, which prevents the
wind from blowing lighter materials away and protects Hazardous Waste Landfills
it from scavenging birds and other animals. The layers Landfills intended for disposal of hazardous wastes
of soil also help to dampen unpleasant odors emanating must be secure and therefore must meet much stricter
from the waste. Daily additions to the landfill continue
?
design and management standards than municipal
until the pit reaches its capacity. At that point, the landfill landfills. Under RCRA, the EPA requires a double liner
is capped, usually with successive layers of clay, subsoil, for hazardous waste landfills and a double leachate
and topsoil, which will be planted with vegetation chosen collection and removal system (Figure 12.26a). Such
Why is a reduction to reduce erosion.
in hazardous waste landfills must also include a leak detection system
Even after sanitary landfills are filled and capped with and ways to prevent the run on and runoff of storm
production especially layers of clay and soil, they are not waterproof. Rainwater water. Once a hazardous waste landfill is filled and
important not just from and water from melting snow can continue to percolate covered, removal of leachate must continue until it is
a health perspective but through the soil and through the buried waste, emerging no longer produced. Ongoing monitoring for leaks
also from an economic as leachate, which will need to be collected and treated. and for groundwater contamination is also required.
perspective? Approximately 10% of hazardous waste disposed in the
Treatment and Disposal of Hazardous Waste
United States is stored in secure landfills. RCRA prohibits
The RCRA requires that hazardous wastes be treated the storage of liquid hazardous wastes in landfills.
before disposal to reduce the danger they pose to the
environment. Predisposal treatments involve a variety of Surface Impoundments
physical, chemical, or biological processes to reduce the Natural or excavated depressions can be used as surface
threat hazardous wastes pose to the environment. impoundments for temporarily storing or treating liquid
hazardous wastes (Figure 12.26b). These structures must
Incineration
have double liners, a system for collecting and removing
Burning, or incinerating, some types of hazardous waste leachate, and a leak detection system. They must be
can reduce the dangers of certain kinds of waste and regularly monitored, inspected, and eventually sealed.
THREE MAIN WAYS FOR HAZARDOUS WASTE DISPOSAL
a. SECURE HAZARDOUS WASTE LANDFILL b. SURFACE IMPOUNDMENT c. DEEP WELL INJECTION
Ground water
Low-permeability
rock layer
Low-permeability
Double liner Double leachate Leak detection Double liner Double leachate Leak detection
rock layer
collection and system collection and system
removal system removal system
FIGURE 12.26 Landfills dedicated to the disposal of hazardous waste are subject to much more stringent standards of
construction and management than landfills for the disposal of MSW. Surface impoundments used for temporary storage of liquid
hazardous waste are carefully constructed to avoid leakage. Deep well injection of liquid hazardous waste is the means by which
approximately 90% of hazardous waste is disposed of in the United States. (Information from EPA, 2013a)

381
Deep Well Injection waste in “temporary” storage continues to accumulate,

like all those shells that Native Americans piled up near
Of the liquid hazardous waste disposed of in the United
Oakland, California.
States, approximately 90% is injected into wells drilled
?
into deep rock formations (Figure 12.26c). Deep well
injection is regulated by RCRA and the Safe Drinking ! Think About It
Water Act of 1974. The average depth of deep injection 1. Within a hierarchy of preferred options in
wells is 1,200 meters (4,000 feet), far below the level
an integrated waste management system, why What factors make
of groundwater supplies. The EPA requires that deep
would landfills be at the very bottom, even below nuclear waste disposal
injection wells be located in areas with stable geology
and without fractures that might allow injected waste to incineration? so controversial to the
migrate upward and contaminate drinking water supplies. general public?
2. The intent of sanitary landfills is to safely contain
The drilling and casing of deep injection wells also waste indefinitely. Is this realistic? Explain why or
include multiple safety features to minimize the chance of
why not.
groundwater contamination.
3. Describe in detail the approach you would use to
Nuclear Waste Disposal: An Unresolved solve the problem of nuclear waste disposal, if you
Hazardous Waste Problem were given the authority to do so.
Nuclear reactors around the world continue to produce
waste, yet the problem of waste disposal remains
unresolved. Several countries at the forefront of nuclear
energy technology favor deep geological storage of 12.7–12.10 Solutions:
intermediate- and high-level nuclear waste. Despite the
Summary
consensus among these nations, there is only one deep
geological disposal site that is currently licensed and Reducing the waste stream involves reducing
operating, the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP) located packaging, recycling materials when possible,
in the United States near Carlsbad, New Mexico. and composting biodegradable food and yard
The WIPP facility, which stores defense-related, scraps. Using these approaches can substantially
intermediate-level nuclear waste in thick salt deposits, reduce the volume of waste incinerated or
has been in operation since 1999. However, given the disposed in a landfill. The modern sanitary
uncertainty associated with the Yucca Mountain nuclear landfill is a complex structure designed to reduce
repository (see page 372), the United States is without water, air, and soil contamination. Decomposer
a permanent disposal site for high-level nuclear wastes bacteria in landfills produce landfill gas, which
generated by civilian power plants. is approximately half methane and half carbon
While the United States continues its search for dioxide and is increasingly used as an energy
alternatives to Yucca Mountain, Finland and Sweden are resource. As with municipal solid waste, reducing
going forward with the development of deep geological the amount of hazardous waste produced is
disposal in bedrock. Disposal at a site on an island generally given highest management priority
in southwest Finland is planned to begin in 2020. A because it reduces the threat to the environment
different type of geology is being developed for nuclear and the expense of hazardous waste treatment,
waste disposal in France, a deep clay formation east transport, and disposal.
of Paris, which geologists estimate has been stable for The Resource Conservation and Recovery
millions of years. The French repository is planned for Act (RCRA) requires industries that produce
opening in 2025. However, the incident at Fukushima in hazardous wastes to track, treat, and eventually
Japan (see Chapter 9, page 283) reminds us that much dispose of these wastes. The goal of the Basel
can happen to influence such plans. Convention treaty is to limit the export of
In the aftermath of that accident, Germany decided hazardous waste from developed to developing
to eliminate plans for developing nuclear power and to countries and to encourage the safe treatment
phase out its existing reactors. While such phase-outs, and disposal of hazardous wastes within the
if they occur, will not eliminate the need for nuclear countries where they were generated. Nuclear
waste disposal, they will reduce the long-term need reactors around the world continue producing
for disposal space. In the meantime, as geologists, high-level nuclear waste, yet the problem of
politicians, lawyers, judges, and environmental activists permanent waste disposal remains unresolved.
debate and study the issue, the amount of radioactive

Central Question: How can we reduce the environmental impact of solid waste
and dispose of hazardous waste safely?
12.1–12.2 Science 12.3–12.6 Issues

• How does “waste” generated by economic • What problems arise in managing municipal
systems compare to waste in natural solid waste?
ecosystems?
• How is hazardous waste generated?
• What are the sources and properties of waste?
• What are some new forms of hazardous
waste?
• What are the issues surrounding the disposal

of nuclear waste?
Waste Management and You ! Recycle.
While many environmental issues can seem only indirectly related to your Consider donating to charity any functional household appliances,
everyday life, the problem of waste is definitely not. We all make decisions electronics, books, or clothing that you no longer need or cannot
that affect the waste stream in our local community and beyond, and can use instead of disposing of them. Contribute to recycling in your
therefore make choices that reduce the amount of material entering the community by saving and recycling glass, paper, cardboard, and
waste stream. recyclable plastics. Most communities have recycling centers or, in
many larger communities, programs for collecting recyclable materials
! Stay informed. at residences. Purchase products made from recycled materials,
There is a wealth of information available from local, state, and which helps sustain recycling by making it profitable. Collect hard-to-
federal environmental agencies to help individuals reduce, recycle, recycle items like water filters and print cartridges from friends and
and compost waste. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, for family and check earth911.com to make a mass dropoff at a nearby
example, provides detailed information on how to make constructive organization that will accept those items.
contributions to solving waste management issues, along with reasons
for making such contributions.
! Safely dispose of hazardous wastes.
Take particular care to recycle certain items like electronic equipment

! Use less. and batteries to avoid adding to the hazardous waste stream. Because
Use the products you own (e.g., appliances, clothing, vehicles) for as they contain valuable materials like copper, silver, and gold, many
long as they continue to function properly. Purchase reusable, rather manufacturers and retail business will accept electronic devices for
than disposable, products like reusable shopping bags and glass food recycling.
storage containers. Consider buying used products in good condition.
Experiment for a week by carrying with you all the trash you create in
one day—try to decrease your trash each successive day.

383

• What is the focus of modern waste
management?
• How can we reduce and repurpose food waste

and other biodegradable trash?
• What are critical steps to reducing waste?
• How do we manage hazardous waste?
• How do we handle nuclear waste?
Chapter 12 5. Plastic waste in the Pacific Ocean

threatens marine life. How does it potentially
c. Access to recycling bins
d. All of the above
impact humans?
Review Questions a. It doesn’t because ocean shipping is unaffected. 10. What is the main difference between
b. The accumulated plastics are already catching fire. landfills for municipal solid waste and
1. How is the law of conservation of matter
c. The toxic chemicals leaching from the plastics have hazardous waste landfills?
related to waste management?
contaminated seafood. a. Hazardous waste landfills must have double liners; a
a. The two are unrelated; one is a law of theoretical
d. The plastic waste has caused a loss of profits to single liner is required for municipal landfills.
physics, while the other is a practical problem.
the cruise ship business. b. In contrast to municipal landfills, leachate from
b. This law of physics tells us how to permanently
dispose of waste. hazardous waste landfills must be collected.
6. Which was not an impediment to c. To provide convenient access to stored materials,
c. This law of physics reminds us that waste matter developing the nuclear waste repository
may change form but does not go away. hazardous waste landfills cannot be capped.
at Yucca Mountain? d. Municipal landfills are required to have a leak
d. This law of physics provides a guide for a. Local political resistance
transforming one type of chemical element into detection system.
b. Concerns about safety of nuclear waste transport
another. c. The possibility of groundwater contamination
2.Which of the following is “organic” waste, d. International pressures Critical Analysis
according to the World Bank? 1. Discuss how the Great Pacific Garbage Patch
7. What was the main purpose of the Resource
a. Garden waste represents a Tragedy of the Commons (Chapter 2,
Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)?
b. Cardboard page 49)?
a. To set rules for endangered species conservation
c. Plastic water bottles
b. To conserve forests in the United States 2. What would be the advantages and disadvantages
d. Newspaper
c. To set standards for solid waste landfills of an economic system in which all products are
3. Which is the largest source of hazardous d. To begin cleanup of the Great Pacific Garbage recyclable?
waste in the United States? Patch
a. Pesticide manufacturing 3. What models related to waste might lower-income
8. How does landfill gas differ from the countries offer to high-income countries?
b. Petroleum product manufacturing
natural gas extracted from deep wells in gas
c. Metal processing
and oil fields? 4. Outline a management plan for brownfields that
d. Basic chemical manufacturing
a. Landfill gas is composed of entirely different would turn them into economic and environmental
4. Even though growth in global per capita gases. assets to communities where they occur.
waste production is slowing, why has growth b. Unrefined landfill gas has lower energy content.
in total waste production not slowed? 5. How would engineers and others ensure that a
c. Landfill gas cannot be burned without refining.
a. A few countries continue to produce waste at a nuclear waste repository is safe from not only physical
d. There is no market for landfill gas.
high rate. disturbance but also human intrusion for the next
b. The global population is growing. 9. What mechanisms have been used to million years?
c. Development is discouraging recycling. increase recycling rates? Find additional resources and links online at www.
d. Increases in global per capita waste production a. Deposits on beverage containers macmillanhighered.com/launchpad/molles1e.
are actually accelerating. b. Laws requiring recycling
we control and reduce
environmental pollution? Explain the sources of pollution
and how they move around the biosphere.
(Geoff Liesik/The Deseret News via AP) SCIENCE

C H A P T ER 13
Air, Water,
and Soil Pollution
Describe how air, water, and soil pollution impact Analyze the effectiveness of pollution regulation
biodiversity, ecosystems, and human health. and other tactics to treat polluted environments.
386 C HAPTER 13 AIR, WATER , A ND S OIL POLLUTION
(designbydx/Shutterstock)
Severe air pollution, which frequently reduces visibility in Beijing and threatens the health of residents, has prompted the Chinese government to take
steps to improve air quality in the city.
A Pollution Problem
China’s rapid economic rise has been accompanied by exceptional levels of pollution.
I n July 2008 the U.S. embassy in Beijing established a

new account on the social media site Twitter. Every hour,
@BeijingAir reported two measurements made from air-
pollution-caused acid rain, which erodes ancient Buddhas
and harms natural ecosystems. And unlike in the United
States, where the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
quality sensors installed on the embassy’s roof. One sensor began monitoring air quality in the 1970s and releases the
reported the PM 2.5, a measurement of the fine particles data to the public, the Chinese government has kept a tight
emitted from vehicle tailpipes, coal-burning power plants, and lid on the data it collects. Naturally, Beijing’s residents were
other sources, which have been linked to asthma, lung cancer, curious about the air they were breathing and skeptical of
heart disease, and early death. The second sensor recorded their own government’s rosy proclamations.
ground-level ozone gas, which is also created from burning Most of the @BeijingAir tweets summarized the
fossil fuels and can cause a variety of health problems. pollution numbers using the EPA’s Air Quality Index, which
China’s rapid growth and lax emission standards have ranges from “Good” to “Hazardous.” On November 19, 2010,
turned its air into a cough-inducing cloud. To the dismay of however, the ozone sensor maxed out at 500, while the PM
embassy staffers, a gloomy yellowish-brown smog usually 2.5 sensor was off the charts with a reading of 562. “Crazy
hangs over the Beijing skyline. The country also suffers from Bad,” the Embassy tweeted. Chinese officials were incensed by
H O W CAN W E CO N TRO L AND R EDUC E ENVI R ONMENTA L POLLUTI ON?

387
By that time, however, awareness of the problem was

“The great question of the seventies is, so widespread that the Chinese government was forced
shall we surrender to our surroundings, to address it. In 2013 the government established its own
network of monitoring stations and set aside funds to meet
or shall we make our peace with nature ambitious pollution-reduction targets. In Beijing, officials
and begin to make reparations for the ordered older vehicles off the road and promoted greater use
of clean energy. It closed down small, inefficient, and poorly
damage we have done to our air, to our regulated coal-fired power plants while installing scrubber
land, and to our water.” systems that reduce emissions of sulfur dioxide in larger
power plants, one of the culprits behind acid rain. China still
President Richard M. Nixon, in his first State of the Union address, 1970
has a long way to go to clean up its air—not to mention its
water and soils—but we know from other parts of the world
these tweets, declaring the readings illegal and unscientific. They that this is an attainable goal, which brings us to the central
later blocked the data from being republished on local websites. question of this chapter.
Central Question
How can we control and reduce
environmental pollution?

(Geoff Liesik/The Deseret News via AP)

13.1–13.3 Science
P ollution is defined as contamination or physical
alteration of the environment at levels harmful
to living organisms. The factors causing pollution,
and other residents of 18th-century Philadelphia tried
to reduce water pollution by tanneries (see page 15).
However, the sources of environmental pollution have
pollutants, include chemical substances, such as oil grown far beyond what occurred in centuries past. While
?
or pesticides, or altered physical conditions, such as each form of pollution has some unique characteristics
excessive noise or light (Figure 13.1). Natural events, and impacts human health or the environment,
such as wildfires or volcanic eruptions, can cause pollutants can be categorized according to a few
Is there a connection pollution, but at this point in the history of Earth, overlapping features, such as how they are released into
pollution mainly results from human activity. the environment.
between population
growth and pollution?
Explain. 13.1 Industry releases Point Versus Nonpoint Sources of Pollution
pollutants Pollutants are released into the environment through one
Concerns about environmental contamination began of two avenues: from point sources or from nonpoint
long ago. As we saw in Chapter 1, Benjamin Franklin sources (Figure 13.2). The smokestack of a factory or a
PHYSICAL SOURCES OF POLLUTION
pollution Contamination of
the environment, generally
of air, water, or soil, by
substances or conditions (e.g.,
(Vicent de los Angeles/Getty Images)
noise, light) at levels harmful

to living organisms; generally
(pbombaert/Shutterstock)
a result of human activity

but may result from natural
processes (e.g., wildfires,
volcanic eruptions).
pollutant A substance (e.g., Lights along Gandia Beach, Costa Brava, Spain Jet airliner flying low over city
oil, pesticides) or physical
condition (e.g., excessive FIGURE 13.1 Artificial light can be a source of environmental pollution, that is, “light pollution,” in certain contexts. For example,
noise) harmful to living lights near the nesting beaches of sea turtles can stimulate newly emerged hatchling sea turtles to move inland, to their deaths,
organisms that contaminates rather than toward the reflection of the sea. Similarly, disturbing sounds may be a source of “noise pollution” that can cause stress in
air, water, or soil. humans and interfere with wildlife, from birds to whales.

389
POINT AND NONPOINT SOURCES OF POLLUTION
?
Why might secondary
pollutants present
greater challenges to
management than
primary pollutants?
(Keith Getter/Getty Images)

(Brent Lewis/Getty Images)
Polluted water from the Gold King Mine, Colorado Genesee River, New York, contaminated by melting snow
FIGURE 13.2 The acidic and heavy metal–laden water from the breached Gold King Mine of southern Colorado (see chapter-
opening photo) gushing from this culvert (left) poured millions of gallons of contaminated water into the Animas River. This is a clear
example of a point source of pollution. In contrast, the Genesee River near Rochester, New York (right), has been polluted by runoff
during spring snowmelt in an urban landscape. Consequently, this contamination cannot be traced to a particular point in the landscape.
point sources of pollution
Clear-cut, generally stationary,
sewer pipe discharging pollutants into the environment some primary air pollutants react chemically to form sources of pollution (e.g.,
power plants, factories, or
from a clearly definable place is called a point source secondary pollutants. For example, ozone (O3) is formed
sewage outfalls of cities) that
of pollution. Nonpoint sources of pollution introduce through the reaction of oxides of nitrogen (NOx) are easier to identify, monitor,
pollutants from scattered locations or may move around with volatile organic compounds, or VOCs—such as and regulate.
in the environment. Examples of nonpoint sources those in the fumes from gasoline, paints, and other
include automobile exhaust or polluted water draining substances rich in organic chemicals. Note that while nonpoint sources of
pollution Diffuse, and
from city streets or pesticide-laden farmland. In general, ozone in the upper atmosphere acts as a protective shield
sometimes mobile, sources
it is much easier to identify and manage pollution from for the biosphere, ozone in the lower atmosphere is a of pollution (e.g., runoff from
point sources than from nonpoint sources. serious pollutant that can damage both animal and an industrial, municipal, or
plant tissues. agricultural landscape or the
Pollutant Persistence Another notable example of the formation of a exhaust from automobiles).
secondary pollutant occurs when SO2 and NOx undergo
Some pollutants break down rapidly when released into primary pollutant A
reactions in the atmosphere that produce strong acids: substance that is harmful
the environment, whereas others persist for months,
SO2 reacts to form sulfuric acid and NOx reacts to form when released into the
years, centuries, or millennia. Bacteria and fungi will
nitric acid (Figure 13.3). An acid is a substance that environment (e.g., carbon
quickly metabolize simple organic compounds, such monoxide, crude oil).
releases hydrogen ions (H$) upon dissociation when
as sugars and amino acids. More complex organic
dissolved in water, resulting in reduced pH, an indicator
compounds, such as the cellulose component of wood, secondary pollutant A
of relative hydrogen ion concentration, of the solution. pollutant formed from the
though biodegradable (see Chapter 12, page 366), will
A pH of 7 indicates a neutral solution, while a pH of less chemical reactions between
decompose much more slowly. Decomposition of such
than 7 is acidic (elevated hydrogen ion concentration), other pollutants (e.g., ozone in
compounds will occur over a period of months or years, the lower atmosphere).
and a pH greater than 7 is alkaline (reduced hydrogen
depending on environmental conditions, such as oxygen
ion concentration). An important feature of the pH scale
concentration or temperature. In contrast, atmospheric acid A substance that
is that the units are base-10 logarithms, which means releases hydrogen ions upon
scientists estimate that some fraction of the carbon
that a pH difference of 1, for example, pH ! 6 versus dissociation when dissolved in
dioxide released by fossil fuel combustion will remain
pH ! 7, indicates a 10-fold difference in hydrogen water, resulting in reduced pH
in the atmosphere for thousands of years before being of the solution; acids neutralize
taken up by natural processes, such as photosynthesis. ion concentration. One of the major environmental
bases.
Meanwhile, heavy metal pollutants do not break down; consequences of the formation of these secondary
they simply persist. pollutants is acid rain, which can have major impacts on pH An indicator of the relative
soils and aquatic ecosystems (discussed later). hydrogen ion concentration of
a solution. A pH of 7 indicates
Primary and Secondary Pollutants a neutral solution; a pH of
Substances that are harmful when released into the
environment are called primary pollutants. Primary
! Think About It less than 7 is acidic (elevated
hydrogen ion concentration);
a pH greater than 7 is basic
pollutants in air include carbon monoxide, lead, nitrogen 1. How might degree of persistence affect (reduced hydrogen ion
oxides, particulate matter, and sulfur dioxide. Meanwhile, management of different pollutants? concentration).

EXAMPLES OF ATMOSPHERIC
13.2 Humans produce a wide
TRANSFORMATIONS OF PRIMARY POLLUTANTS variety of pollutants
TO SECONDARY POLLUTANTS
Pollution comes in many forms, some of which we’ve
discussed already. In Chapters 7 and 8, we introduced
PRIMARY SECONDARY issues associated with adding excessive organic matter,
POLLUTANTS POLLUTANTS
plant nutrients, and sediments to aquatic environments,
and Chapter 9 covered oil spills and nuclear accidents.
O O
In addition, Chapter 11 examined pollutants of soil
S S
O O
H H and water within the context of environmental health,
O O
including endocrine disruptors, heavy metals, pathogens,
Sulfur dioxide
ATMOSPHERIC
Sulfuric acid pesticides, and pharmaceuticals. Here, we expand those
SO2 H2SO 4
TRANSFORMATIONS earlier discussions for some of the more problematic
pollutants of water and soil (Table 13.1).
O
N O
N N H
O O Criteria Air Pollutants
O O
Nitrogen oxides Nitric acid Although there are many substances that can
NO X HNO 3 contaminate air, some pollutants have been singled out
for careful regulation. The U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) has established air-quality standards for
O
VOCs six major air pollutants, which are generally referred to
O O
as criteria pollutants and include ozone and particulate
Volatile organic Ozone matter (Table 13.2). These particular pollutants were
compounds O3
chosen for regulation because they are very common
sources of air pollution and, as indicated in Table 13.2,
FIGURE 13.3 The primary pollutants—sulfur dioxide (SO2 ), they are hazardous to human health and to the health
nitrogen oxides (NOx ), and volatile organic compounds of the environment. For example, exposure to sulfur
(VOCs)—undergo chemical reactions in the atmosphere,
resulting in the secondary pollutants, sulfuric acid (H2SO4 ),
dioxide can aggravate asthma symptoms and damage
nitric acid (HNO3 ), and ozone (O3 ). plant tissues.
Sulfur and Acid Rain

2. Why is a reduction in the pH of lake water by The element sulfur, as a component of proteins, many
just 2 units, from pH = 7 to pH = 5, a significant vitamins, and antioxidants, is essential to life. Like
change in the environment? other elements, sulfur moves through the biosphere in a
TABLE 13.1
MAJOR SOIL AND WATER POLLUTANTS
This list of major environmental pollutants of soil and water includes some that also contaminate air, notably heavy metals and pesticides.
Pollutants and Examples Main Sources Persistence and Transformations Health and Environmental Impacts
Heavy metals; lead, Coal burning, Persistent; biomagnify in Interfere with central nervous system
mercury, arsenic, metal smelting, oil, food chains function and development; toxic
cadmium, chromium, sewage
copper, nickel
Nutrients promoting Runoff from Incorporated into biomass Algal blooms in water followed by
growth of plants agricultural lands, through algal and plant growth oxygen depletion as biomass
and algae; mainly urban areas; decomposes; in soils, leads to reduced
phosphorus and treated sewage, plant and fungal diversity
nitrogen aquaculture
Organic matter Sewage, Gradually decomposes Reduces oxygen concentrations,
agricultural wastes, leading to mortality among organisms
criteria pollutants Very aquaculture requiring higher oxygen levels; can shift
common sources of air composition of aquatic community to
pollution-tolerant species
pollution (e.g., sulfur dioxide)
chosen by the EPA to be Persistent organic Manufacturing, Many highly persistent in Developmental and reproductive
regulated because they are pollutants; dioxin, agriculture environment; biomagnify in abnormalities, reduced immunity; some
PCBs, DDT food chain cause birth defects and cancer
hazardous to human health
and the environment. Data from multiple sources.

391
TABLE 13.2
EPA CRITERIA POLLUTANTS AND VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
The first six pollutants listed are common air pollutants, deemed hazardous to human health and the environment, which the U.S. EPA
is required to monitor. VOCs are also included in the list because they are involved in the formation of ozone in the lower atmosphere,
one of the criteria pollutants.
Pollutants and Examples Main Sources Persistence and Transformations Health and Environmental Impacts
Carbon monoxide Incomplete combustion of Residency time in atmosphere Binds irreversibly to hemoglobin,
(CO) fossil fuels or biomass averages approximately 2 reducing blood’s capacity to
months carry oxygen; induces dizziness
and nausea at low concentrations;
causes death at high concentrations
Lead Coal burning, metal Persistent; biomagnifies in Interferes with central nervous
smelting, oil, sewage food chains system function and development;
exposure in children can result in
lowered IQ and learning difficulties
Nitrogen oxides Burning of coal, oil, Converts to nitric acid (HNO3 ) Irritates eyes, nasal passages, and
(NOx, NO2) gasoline, and biomass; soil via a series of reactions in the lungs; increases susceptibility to
bacteria atmosphere lung infections; reduces plant
growth; can kill plants; creates
brownish haze, reducing visibility
Ozone (O3) Forms in lower atmosphere Residence time in lower Irritates respiratory passages;
(troposphere) via a series of atmosphere averages a few damages lungs and causes
reactions, in the presence months respiratory difficulties; damages
of sunlight, between plant foliage and reduces plant
oxygen, water, NOx, carbon growth; degrades plastics and
monoxide, and volatile rubber
organic carbon compounds
Particulate matter Fossil fuel and biomass Removal of suspended Causes respiratory difficulties;
burning; wind and water particulates from either air reduces visibility; deposition inhibits
erosion associated with or water related to size, with respiration and photosynthesis in
agricultural and construction smallest particulates having the terrestrial plants; can alter soil pH
activity longest residence time in the and damage aquatic habitat by
medium sedimentation
Sulfur dioxide (SO2 ) Burning of coal, oil, and Converts to sulfuric acid Creates breathing difficulties,
gasoline; metal smelting; (H2SO4 ) via a series of reactions particularly among asthma sufferers;
volcanic eruptions in the atmosphere causes lesions and yellowing of plant
leaves; can cause atmospheric haze
and reduce visibility
VOCs, acetone, Evaporation of solvents, Reacts with NOx to produce Eye, nose, throat irritation; liver,
benzene, paints, gasoline, and other ozone kidney, central nervous system
formaldehyde, fuels; leaking underground damage; many are carcinogens,
toluene storage tanks; improper toxic to a variety of aquatic and soil
disposal of household organisms
products; degassing of
particle board
Data from multiple sources.
global biogeochemical cycle (Figure 13.4). Most sulfur In complete darkness, these bacteria provide the primary
on Earth is tied up in rocks and is released into the production supporting a rich ocean floor ecosystem
?
biosphere as these geologic materials are exposed by the (see Figure 4.4, page 100). Human economic activity has
rock cycle and weathered (see Appendix B). Seawater also become a major contributor to the cycling of sulfur,
holds another major portion of Earth’s store of sulfur, through our mining and use of fossil fuels, smelting of
which is actively exchanged with the atmosphere both as metal ores, and, to a lesser extent, mining of elemental Should any
sea salt blown from the ocean’s surface and as a variety sulfur. In fact, for decades, burning of fossil fuels has been measureable amount
of gaseous, sulfur-containing compounds produced a much larger emitter of SO2 than volcanic eruptions and, of sulfur dioxide in
mainly by marine algae and bacteria. Sulfur also becomes as we will see, is a major source of pollution. the atmosphere be
incorporated into ocean sediments through physical and The chemist Robert Angus Smith appears to have considered a pollutant?
biological processes. Volcanic eruptions, both on land been the first person to recognize and systematically
and in the oceans, emit a significant amount of sulfur as study the phenomenon of acid rain. In 1852 he noticed
well, mainly as sulfur dioxide, SO2. that the acidity of rain increased as you moved from the
The ocean floor is also a site of significant release of countryside to cities throughout the British Isles, and
sulfur into the biosphere at hydrothermal vents, where understood that it had the potential to affect ecosystems.
hot water rich in hydrogen sulfide (H2S) emerges and is Acid rain forms when sulfur dioxide, SO2, undergoes acid rain Acidified rainfall.
quickly transformed to SO2 by sulfur-oxidizing bacteria. chemical reactions in the atmosphere, forming sulfuric See acid deposition.

THE GLOBAL SULFUR CYCLE
KEY PROCESSES
1 WEATHERING
Weathering of exposed minerals
releases sulfur for active exchange Atmospheric sulfur
in the biosphere.
2 VULCANISM and
HYDROTHERMAL RELEASE
Volcanic eruptions both on land and in
the oceans emit large amounts of sulfur
dioxide. Hydrothermal vents on the 2
ocean floor also contribute significantly 4
to the marine pool of sulfur.
6
Volcanic
3 OCEANIC RELEASE eruptions
Sulfur is released, in sea salt and as
1 Fossil fuel
gaseous compounds, at the ocean’s
burning
surface by a variety of physical and Food chain
biological processes.
Hydrothermal
Exposed vents 5
4 FOSSIL FUEL COMBUSTION
minerals Decomposition
Burning of fossils emits massive
amounts of sulfur dioxide and now 3
exceeds vulcanism as a source of
sulfur to the atmosphere. Wet and dry
deposition
5 DEPOSITION
Sea salt
Wet and dry deposition of sulfur
containing salts and sulfuric acid
returns sulfur to terrestrial and
aquatic ecosystems.
6 UPTAKE BY PRIMARY PRODUCERS

Land plants and marine algae absorb Terrestrial sulfur
sulfur, an essential nutrient, and
incorporate the element into biomass,
which is then passed to consumers in
the food chain until being released by
decomposers. Aquatic sulfur
?
FIGURE 13.4 The global sulfur cycle involves active terrestrial, oceanic, and atmospheric exchanges of sulfur-containing
compounds. Sulfur dioxide is a major component of the atmospheric pool of sulfur, to which burning of fossil fuels is a major
contributor. (After Schlesinger, 1991)
How might the fact

that the pH scale is acid, H2SO4, a major source of acid rain, along with a narrow range of environmental circumstance, POPs
logarithmic affect nitric acid, HNO3 (see Figure 13.3, page 390). Although can be transported over long distances, as air or water
public perception of the we commonly use the term “acid rain” to refer to this pollutants, across international and regional boundaries.
significance associated phenomenon, it is more precise to call it acid deposition These pollutants ultimately find their way to all corners
with a pH shift of half because it can occur as dry deposition, which happens of the planet, where they accumulate in the fatty tissues of
when gases or tiny particles suspended in air are deposited consumers, including those of humans. Some of the POPs
a pH unit, for example,
directly onto a surface such as a plant leaf or lake surface, considered by the EPA to be particularly problematic are
from 5.6 to 5.1?
as well as in the form of snow and sleet. Even without listed in Table 13.3.
pollution, rainfall is slightly acidic with a pH of around 5.6 Most of the chemicals listed in the table are
acid deposition An inclusive (recall that a pH of 7.0 is neutral). Generally, rainfall with a manufactured and most are pesticides, although not all.
term that includes both wet pH of less than 5.3 is considered to be acid rain. For example, dioxins and furans are not manufactured
and dry deposition of acids.
but are produced unintentionally as a by-product of
persistent organic waste burning. Also, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)
Persistent Organic Pollutants
pollutants (POPs) Organic are not pesticides but are manufactured for a wide
chemicals (e.g., PCBs) that Persistent organic pollutants, or POPs, are chemicals variety of uses in industry. While all of these chemicals
remain in the environment that remain in the environment indefinitely, can are now banned from being produced, imported, or
indefinitely; can biomagnify
through the food web and
biomagnify through the food web, and pose a threat to exported from the United States or are heavily regulated
pose a threat to human health human health as well as to the environment. Because as hazardous toxins or pollutants, some are still used
and the environment. they break down only very slowly and generally under elsewhere, particularly in developing countries.

393
TABLE 13.3
PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLLUTANTS
The U.S. EPA refers to the 12 persistent organic pollutants listed here as the “Dirty Dozen.” Because they are all hazardous and persistent,
their production, import, or export have been banned in the United States, or they are regulated as hazardous toxins or pollutants.
Industrial Chemical Source Historical Uses

PCBs (polychlorinated Manufactured; unintentional Used in electrical transformers and capacitors, as heat
biphenyls) production during burning exchange fluids, as paint additives, in carbonless copy
paper, and in plastics
Biocides
Aldrin Manufactured Insect control on crops (e.g., corn, cotton) and for termite control
Chlordane Manufactured Insect control on crops, including vegetables, small grains,
potatoes, sugarcane, sugar beets, fruits, nuts, citrus, and cotton;
also used on home lawn and for garden pest and termite control
DDT Manufactured Used primarily to control insects on cotton; also used to control
insects that carry diseases (e.g., malaria, typhus)
Dieldrin Manufactured Insect control on crops (e.g., corn, cotton) and for termite control
Heptachlor Manufactured Used to control soil insects, termites, some crop pests, and
malarial mosquitoes
Hexachlorobenzene Manufactured; also produced Fungicide used to treat seeds (e.g., wheat seeds) to reduce
unintentionally during burning fungal infections
and the manufacture of certain
chemicals; an impurity in certain
pesticides
Mirex Manufactured Used to control fire ants and yellowjacket wasps; also as an
additive to fire retardants
Toxaphene Manufactured Used to control insects on crops (e.g., cotton, pineapple,

bananas); also to control insect pests of livestock and poultry
Unintentional POP
Dioxins Produced unintentionally during Waste product, no commercial uses
(polychlorinated most forms of combustion,
dibenzo-p-dioxins) including burning of municipal
and medical wastes, backyard
Furans burning of trash, and industrial
(polychlorinated processes; also found as
dibenzofurans) trace contaminants in certain
herbicides, wood preservatives,
and in PCB mixtures
Information from the U.S. EPA, 2015b.
However, there are many POPs (e.g., flame retardants) metals is the burning of coal. Because coal represents
still being manufactured and in widespread use, which
may merit future regulation.
the fossil remains of living organisms, it contains all of
the elements in living systems in a concentrated form,
including a wide array of heavy metals.
?
Does all natural water
Heavy Metals
have some BOD?
Organic Pollution
Heavy metals are metallic chemical elements with
high atomic weights. Although there are many heavy Excessive organic matter can stress aquatic ecosystems in
metals, those of environmental concern are toxic to particular. Organic pollution has several potential sources,
humans, animals, and plants (Table 13.4, page 395). including domestic sewage, aquaculture, and agriculture,
Humans, plants, and animals require low doses of some especially concentrated animal feeding operations, or biochemical oxygen
heavy metals, such as copper and zinc, but at high CAFOs. All three are potential sources of massive inputs of demand (BOD) An indicator
concentrations the metals become toxic. Other metals, organic matter into aquatic ecosystems—generally rivers, of the amount of organic
including mercury and lead, are toxic even at low estuaries, or coastal waters (Figure 13.5). The discharge matter in water, measured
concentrations. Arsenic and selenium are not technically of organic matter into an aquatic ecosystem increases as the quantity of oxygen
consumed by microorganisms
metals but are generally included in lists of heavy metals biochemical oxygen demand, or BOD, an indicator of the as they break down the
because of their similar toxic effects and behavior in the amount of organic matter in water. Biochemical oxygen organic matter in a sample
environment. One of the most common sources of heavy demand is measured as the quantity of oxygen consumed of water.

394 CHAPTER 13 AIR, WATER , A ND S OIL POLLUTION
FIGURE 13.5 (a) Untreated or

incompletely treated domestic POTENTIAL SOURCES OF ORGANIC POLLUTION OF AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS
waste can be a significant source
of organic pollution. Here, a broken
sewer line releases 6 tons of
raw sewage per second into the
ocean off Ipanema Beach in Rio de
(David R. Frazier/Science Source)

Janeiro, Brazil. (b) Discharge from
(AP Photo/Douglas Engle)

land-based aquaculture facilities
(© photomadnz/Alamy)
or waste feed from water-based
systems often contains substantial
amounts of organic matter.
(c) Meanwhile, concentrated
animal feeding operations, Raw sewage pouring from Feeding time at Crowded cattle on CAFO
including cattle feedlots, pig farms, broken line aquaculture facility
and poultry farms, are a well-known
source of organic pollution.
eutrophication A natural ORGANIC POLLUTION

process by which nutrients, OF AQUATIC
especially those that limit ECOSYSTEMS
primary production, build up in
an ecosystem.
by microorganisms as they break down the organic matter

ORGANIC POLLUTION OF A RIVER AND DOWNSTREAM RECOVERY in a sample of water.
Where additions of organic matter are large and,
consequently, BOD is high, respiration by the bacteria
and fungi consuming the added organic matter can
DISSOLVED OXYGEN ORGANISMS PRESENT
deplete dissolved oxygen to levels low enough that all
organisms are eliminated except bacteria capable of living
Organic
pollution
in the absence of oxygen (Figure 13.6). Downstream
source
Bacteria
from this “anaerobic” zone, where some dissolved oxygen
is present, you can commonly find dense growths of
fungi feeding on the abundant organic matter, along
with aquatic invertebrate animals, such as tubifex worms
and midge larvae, which are tolerant of low oxygen
conditions. Farther downstream, where oxygen levels are
Fungi Tubifex Midge
still low but somewhat higher, the fish community will
worms larvae be limited to species such as carp and catfish, which are
tolerant of lower oxygen concentrations.
Cultural Eutrophication
In natural ecosystems, nutrients gradually build up
through a process called eutrophication. Most frequently
Carp Catfish
studied in lakes, eutrophication includes increases in
nutrient availability and sediments, decreases in lake
depth, shifts in the makeup of the biological community,
and increases in primary production (Figure 13.7). It
can also occur on land and involve the accumulation of
organic matter and inorganic nutrients in soils. Humans
Trout Bass
The presence of selected species in these FIGURE 13.6 Organic pollution of a river or stream from
orders of aquatic insects can be used as a point source commonly creates a series of predictable
indicators of relatively unpolluted waters.
physical and chemical environments downstream, which are
Stonefly Mayfly Caddisfly in turn associated with predictable changes in the biological
larvae larvae larvae
community.

395
TABLE 13.4
HEAVY METALS OF CONCERN FOR SOIL POLLUTION
Heavy Metal Symbol Sources Health Effects

Arsenic As Erosion of natural deposits; agricultural and Thickening and discoloration of the skin; stomach
industrial practices; coal burning pain, nausea, vomiting; diarrhea; numbness in
hands and feet; partial paralysis; blindness; linked
to cancer of the bladder, lungs, skin, kidney, nasal
passages, liver, and prostate
Cadmium Cd Coal and municipal waste burning; Animal studies indicate potential damage to
emissions from metal kidney, liver, lung, bone, immune system, blood,
and nervous systems; interferes with neurological
development; probable carcinogen
Chromium Cr Refining of metal ores and several Irritation of the lungs; shortness of breath;
industrial processes; coal burning decreased lung function; lung cancer
Copper Cu Occurs in natural ores with other metals; Irritation of nose, mouth, and eyes; stomach
emissions from metal smelters and distress, vomiting; kidney and liver damage
refineries; coal burning
Lead Pb Paints in older buildings and furniture; Developmental disorders, especially of the central
plumbing; metal smelters; coal burning nervous system; hearing problems; headaches;
slowed growth in children; reproductive problems;
high blood pressure; nerve disorders; joint and
muscle pain in adults
Mercury Hg Coal burning; industrial processes; Impaired neural development in developing infants
consumption of contaminated fish and and children; impairment of speech, hearing, walking;
shellfish muscle weakness in people of all ages; kidney
damage, respiratory failure, and death at higher
exposure
Molybdenum Mo Coal burning; metal smelters and refineries; Weakness; fatigue; headaches; liver damage; mental
mines; dust from contaminated soils; disorientation; swollen and painful joints
sewage sludge; contaminated food
Nickel Ni Oil and coal burning; metal smelters; nickel Itching of fingers, hands, and forearms; stomach
metal refining; sewage sludge incineration; distress; lung and kidney damage; increased risk of
industrial processes; contaminated food nasal and lung cancers
Selenium Se Erosion of natural deposits; discharge Irritation of the mucous membranes; bronchitis,
from oil and metal refineries; coal burning; bronchial pneumonia; loss of hair and nails; tooth
contaminated food and water decay; circulatory problems; reduced mental alertness
Zinc Zn Coal and waste burning; sewage sludge; Stomach discomfort; skin irritations; anemia; damage
metal smelters; mining, dust from to pancreas
contaminated soils; contaminated food and
water; galvanized pipes
Information from U.S. Natural Resource Conservation Service 2000; additional data from multiple sources.
LAKE EUTROPHICATION
INCREASED
• Nutrients
• Sediment
• Aquatic plant
growth
EUTROPHICATION
DECREASED
• Oxygen
• Lake depth
• Species
diversity
FIGURE 13.7 The natural process of lake eutrophication, which transforms the ecosystems from low to high productivity, takes
place, generally, over long periods of time as the result of inputs of nutrients and sediments.

3. Oxygen is important to the health of both aquatic

A CONSEQUENCE OF CULTURAL EUTROPHICATION and soil ecosystems. Why, then, is adding large
amounts of organic matter considered a form of
pollution in aquatic ecosystems, but not generally
in soils?
13.3 Atmospheric and

aquatic transport eventually
move pollutants around the
planet
While the concentrations of pollutants in local areas can
build up to very high levels (see introduction, page 386),
those pollutants won’t necessarily stay in place. Wind and
water transport pollutants around the biosphere, crossing
geographical and political borders—a phenomenon
called transboundary pollution. For instance, heavy
metals and pesticides released in Europe and North
America have been found in both terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystems far to the north in the Arctic.
Atmospheric Circulation
The atmosphere and the oceans are circulating
constantly and redistributing material, including
pollutants, throughout the biosphere (see Figure 8.2,
page 232). The 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the
(Jim W. Grace/Science Source)
Philippines, for example, provided an unprecedented

opportunity to study the dispersal of materials by
atmospheric circulation. There had been much larger
volcanic eruptions within historic times, but never
before had there been satellites in place equipped with
FIGURE 13.8 Accelerating eutrophication by excessive nutrient additions to sensors that could document the spread of materials
lakes can lead to such high levels of primary production that decomposition by
injected into the atmosphere by the eruption. Mount
decaying biomass may reduce oxygen concentrations to levels below the lethal
limits of many species of fish. Pinatubo injected approximately 20 million metric
tons of SO2 into the stratosphere, which were gradually
converted chemically into 30 million metric tons of
sulfuric acid and water aerosols.
cultural eutrophication An
accelerated process of can accelerate eutrophication through the excessive An aerosol consists of tiny particles of solid material
eutrophication resulting from addition of nutrients, such as sewage and fertilizer, or tiny liquid droplets suspended in air or other gas.
human activities (e.g., sewage either directly to a body of water or indirectly through In the case of the stratospheric aerosols resulting from
disposal, agriculture) that the Pinatubo eruption, the droplets were made up of a
runoff from the surrounding landscape. This condition is
increase the rate of nutrient
generally referred to as cultural eutrophication. Cultural mixture of sulfuric acid and water. These aerosols were
addition to ecosystems;
generally results in excessive eutrophication leads to excessive algae and plant growth, initially confined to a tropical band encircling Earth, but
algal or plant production, the depletion of dissolved oxygen in aquatic ecosystems, they spread through the stratosphere over a period of two
depletion of dissolved oxygen and the loss of biodiversity (Figure 13.8). years (Figure 13.9). Gradually, atmospheric circulation
in aquatic ecosystems, and and gravity removed these acidic aerosols from the
loss of biodiversity.
! Think About It stratosphere into the troposphere (the lower atmosphere)
and to the surface of Earth.
transboundary pollution
The transport of pollutants by 1. What are the major differences between the Pollutants emitted into the lower atmosphere are also
wind and water around the sulfur cycle (see Figure 13.4) and the phosphorus widely dispersed across Earth. During his voyage on the
biosphere, across geographical H.M.S. Beagle, Charles Darwin noted the fallout of sand
cycle (see Figure 8.6, page 235)?
and political borders.
and dust on the ship far out in the North Atlantic Ocean
2. Of the vast number of potential pollutants, what off North Africa. Despite the ship’s great distance from
aerosol Tiny particles of solid
or liquid material suspended in properties would lead the U.S. EPA to choose just Africa, he inferred that the material was being blown
air or other gas. six as criteria pollutants? by prevailing winds from the Sahara Desert. We know

397
OBSERVATION OF GLOBAL-SCALE DUST FROM THE SAHARA DESERT

CIRCULATION FOLLOWING THE ERUPTION OF
MOUNT PINATUBO, PHILIPPINES
(Arlan Naeg/AFP/Getty Images)
FIGURE 13.9 Mount Pinatubo erupted on June 15, 1991, and within two
years the products of that eruption had spread throughout the globe. (After
McCormick et al., 1995)
1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Philippines (Image courtesy Norman Kuring, SeaWiFS Project)
JUNE 15 TO JULY 29, 1991
FIGURE 13.10 Some of this dust, which in high enough concentration is a particulate pollutant,
originating in the Sahara Desert will be transported by winds all the way across the Atlantic Ocean
and deposited in the Amazon River Basin.
Oceanic Transport
AUGUST 15 TO SEPTEMBER 24, 1993

The 2011 nuclear accident at Fukushima, Japan, provided
dramatic evidence of oceanic transport. The tsunami
that disabled the Fukushima nuclear power plant caused
?
How have satellites
immense destruction of property and much of the debris
changed the contributions
created by the tsunami was dragged out to sea with the
of imagination versus
receding water. The massive collection of debris, which
contained whole ships and largely intact houses, was
measurement in studies of
transported with oceanic currents across the Pacific large-scale environmental
Ocean to the coasts of Canada and the United States processes?
(Figure 13.11).
SAGE II 1-µm OPTICAL DEPTH
<10 -3 10 -2 >10 -1
Pollutants can also be transported across the oceans
with the help of organisms. For example, radioactive
isotopes leaked during the nuclear accident at Fukushima
?
Given what we now
were found in juvenile bluefin tuna caught off the
FIGURE 13.9 Mount Pinatubo erupted on June 15, 1991, California coast approximately 1 year later (Figure know about atmospheric
and within two years the products of that eruption had spread 13.12). These young tuna had taken up radioactive and oceanic transport,
throughout the globe. (After McCormick et al., 1995)
cesium-134 while swimming in the waters off Japan are the concepts of local,
and then swam across the Pacific Ocean to their feeding regional, and global
grounds off the West Coast of North America. The levels pollution still useful?
of cesium-134 in the tuna did not present a health hazard,
now that Darwin was correct and that, in fact, dust is but it demonstrates how a contaminant can be quickly
transported from the Sahara Desert all the way across transported halfway around the planet. watershed (catchment,
the Atlantic to the Amazon River Basin (Figure 13.10). drainage basin) The land
The atmosphere can also transport other pollutants long area from which an aquifer or
Watersheds river system acquires its water;
distances. For example, ozone and mercury produced by also defined as the dividing
the burning of coal in China are deposited across North Surface water and groundwater carry pollutants. A line between catchments or
America. watershed, also known as a drainage basin or catchment, drainage basins.

DEBRIS WASHED OUT TO SEA BY FUKUSHIMA TSUNAMI
(U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist 3rd Class
(U.S. Navy photo by Mass Communication Specialist 3rd Class

Alexander Tidd)
Dylan McCord)
Floating debris from March 13, 2011, earthquake and tsunami Japanese home adrift in the Pacific Ocean following the 2011 tsunami
off northern Japan
FIGURE 13.11 The tsunami that disabled the Fukushima nuclear power plant in March 2011 washed millions of tons of floating
debris out into the Pacific Ocean, much of which was transported across the North Pacific by oceanic currents. The transported
materials included entire houses.
is the land area drained by a water system, such as the precipitation, which soaks into the ground, becomes
Chesapeake Bay watershed (Figure 13.13). Precipitation in groundwater (see Chapter 6, page 159). Flows of surface
a watershed has several potential fates. Some precipitation water and groundwater determine where the pollutants
immediately evaporates and returns to the atmosphere will move and, as shown by the map of the Chesapeake Bay
as water vapor. A portion runs off the land as surface watershed, these flows often cross political boundaries.
flow, eventually entering waterways, ranging from small
streams to rivers. Some precipitation infiltrates into the
Airsheds
soil, where it may be taken up by terrestrial plants and
stored as tissue moisture or transpired as water vapor The concept of an airshed is similar to a watershed
back into the atmosphere. Yet another fraction of the but related to movements of air rather than water. We
PACIFIC BLUEFIN TUNA, THUNNUS ORIENTALIS THE CHESAPEAKE BAY WATERSHED
NEW YORK
PENNSYLVANIA
NEW JERSEY
WEST
VIRGINIA
DELAWARE
MARYLAND
(© Mark Conlin/Alamy)
VIRGINIA
Chesapeake Bay
watershed
FIGURE 13.12 Pacific bluefin tuna spawn in the western Pacific Ocean off the coast of Asia
and then migrate to the eastern Pacific Ocean to feed in the highly productive coastal waters
100 km
off North America. The juvenile bluefin tuna developing in the waters off Japan, following the
Fukushima nuclear accident, absorbed radioactive material leaked during the disaster and brought FIGURE 13.13 Water draining into the Chesapeake Bay from
it with them in their transpacific migration. its watershed originates in several states.

399
the upwind states are part of an airshed that crosses

AIRSHED FOR DEPOSITION OF NITROGEN many state boundaries.
OXIDES IN CHESAPEAKE BAY
! Think About It
1. How are atmospheric and oceanic transport
linked physically?
2. How are watersheds and airsheds similar? In
what ways do they differ?
3. In the United States, does it make more sense,
environmentally, to regulate pollution at the state
level or at the scale of watersheds and airsheds?
Explain.
13.1–13.3 Science:
Chesapeake Bay
Summary
watershed
Principal oxidized
Pollution is contamination of the environment by
nitrogen airshed for substances or physical conditions, such as noise
Chesapeake Bay
200 km
or light, at levels harmful to living organisms.
Sources of pollution are generally divided into
FIGURE 13.14 The airshed for Chesapeake Bay is much
larger than its watershed. (Paerl et al., 2002)
point and nonpoint sources. Some pollutants,
called primary pollutants, are harmful in
the form in which they are released into the
define an airshed as a part of the atmosphere that has environment, while other substances, called
a consistent airflow, primarily due to the location of secondary pollutants, are harmful following
mountains and prevailing wind patterns. Since the air chemical reactions in the environment. The EPA
mass within an airshed typically behaves in a united and has singled out a few significant air pollutants,
orderly way, a focus on airsheds can be used to track and called criteria pollutants, for monitoring
manage air pollution. Figure 13.14 shows the airshed for and management. Heavy metals can be a
the deposition of nitrogen oxides in the Chesapeake Bay, significant source of soil and water pollution.
along with its watershed. Because it is less confined, the Excessive additions of organic matter to aquatic
airshed is generally much larger than the watershed. ecosystems will increase biochemical oxygen
The large area of airsheds has significant consequences demand. Additions of excessive nutrients lead
for managing pollution. For example, in December 2013, to eutrophication. Movements of air, water, and airshed A concept
eight Mid-Atlantic and Northeast states filed a petition organisms move pollutants around the biosphere. equivalent to a watershed or
with the EPA to require nine Midwest and Appalachian Surface and groundwater flows are avenues for drainage basin but related to
the dispersal of pollutants within watersheds. movements of air rather than
states, which were upwind of them, to reduce air
water; typically behaves in
pollution within their borders. The states issuing the Airsheds can be used to track and manage an orderly way, thus can be
petition claimed that prevailing winds were transporting regional air pollution. used to track and manage air
pollutants to them from outside their borders and that pollution.

13.4–13.7 Issues
T he problem of pollution is not a new one for humanity.
Traces of heavy metals, for instance, still linger in the
soils around Roman smelters dating back more than 2,000
HOUSEHOLD SOURCES OF INDOOR AIR
POLLUTION
years. But the scope and diversity of pollutants increased

with the Industrial Revolution and the growing human POLLUTANT: VOCs
population. SOURCES: Cleansers, disinfectants,
insecticides, moth repellents
One of the most infamous examples of pollution comes
from the small town of Sudbury, Ontario. In the early 20th
century, the nickel and copper mining industry there was
POLLUTANT: VOCs
booming. Metals were extracted from their ores through a
SOURCES: Particle board, furniture,
process called open bed roasting, in which ore was heaped wood preservative, paint, paint thinner
on a pile of burning logs that would smolder for months,
releasing gaseous fumes containing sulfur dioxide, which
in turn caused acid deposition. When a reporter visited
POLLUTANT: Lead
in 1908, he called Sudbury “one of the most unattractive SOURCES: Removing or sanding old
places under the sun, for the sulphur fumes . . . have lead-based paint, soldering, stained
glass production
destroyed vegetation in the whole locality, leaving the
rocky hills bare of trees and the streets and lawns innocent
of a blade of grass.” By the 1970s, the land was left so POLLUTANT: Asbestos
desolate and devoid of life that NASA used it as a place to SOURCES: Roofing shingles, heat-
practice landing on the moon. Today, in the middle of the resistant fabrics, steam pipe covers
Anthropocene era, it is almost impossible to find a place

on Earth that our pollution has not touched.
POLLUTANT: Secondhand tobacco smoke
(toxins and carcinogens)
13.4 Air pollution exacts SOURCES: Indoor smoking or smoking
major health-related and near air intakes
economic tolls
POLLUTANT: Fine respirable particles
Pollution damages ecosystems and human infrastructure, SOURCES: Heaters, fireplaces, indoor
both of which result in significant economic costs. It also smoking
seriously impacts human health. According to the World
Health Organization (WHO), air pollution kills over
7 million people each year—more than malaria and POLLUTANT: Carbon monoxide
HIV combined. Of those, less than half of the fatalities SOURCES: Unvented space heaters,
automobile exhaust, back-drafting
result from outdoor pollution, primarily in cities, and fireplace or wood stove, tobacco smoke
the remainder result from indoor air pollution due to,
for example, the fumes of wood and coal burned for heat
indoor air pollution A
and cooking. Many people are exposed to both sources of POLLUTANT: Radon
serious threat to human health SOURCES: Radioactive decay of radium
resulting from the buildup pollution.
in rocks and soil under dwelling
of pollutants in the indoor
environment. The Toll of Indoor Air Pollution
Pollution is not something that only happens outside. FIGURE 13.15 The many potential sources of indoor air
sick building syndrome A
pollution can easily reduce indoor air quality to unhealthy levels.
circumstance in which many Less air exchange indoors allows a variety of pollutants to
building occupants experience build up inside buildings, potentially rising to unhealthy
symptoms of illness (e.g., concentrations. The indoor pollutants of concern include experience symptoms of illness, such as headaches,
headaches, respiratory and
VOCs, carbon monoxide (CO), radon, asbestos, and respiratory and eye irritation, and nausea, for which
eye irritation, nausea) for
which no specific cause has tobacco smoke (Figure 13.15). Sick building syndrome no specific cause has been identified. Sick building
been identified. is a circumstance in which many building occupants syndrome has been frequently observed in new buildings

401
agricultural or forest productivity, loss of valuable

PROPORTION OF DEATHS RESULTING FROM commercial or recreational fisheries, and so forth. Other
INDOOR POLLUTION BY WORLD HEALTH costs are related to the impacts of pollution on human
ORGANIZATION REGIONS
health and longevity. For example, the loss of work time
due to chronic illness or premature death reduces worker
GLOBAL DEATHS FROM INDOOR POLLUTION
productivity and generates costs related to health care.
These and many other types of damages, referred to as
externalities in Chapter 2 (see page 49), are estimated
Low and middle income to significantly reduce gross domestic product (GDP),
High income the economic bottom line for nations. These costs have
not been reliably estimated for all pollutants or for every
?
economy. However, a substantial amount of work has
been done to estimate the costs for some of the major
sources of pollution in the United States and China, the
two largest national economies. In today’s increasingly
interconnected world,
Costs of Air Pollution in the United States what environmental
Nicholas Muller and Robert Mendelsohn of the Yale damages are external to
DEATHS IN LOW- AND MIDDLE-INCOME COUNTRIES School of Forestry and Environmental Studies estimated the global economy?
the costs of damages created by six common air
pollutants: ammonia, fine and coarse particulates, sulfur
Southeast Asia
dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, and VOCs. Making such an
Western Pacific estimate for the lower 48 United States was no small
Africa task. First, Muller and Mendelsohn had to calculate the
Eastern Mediterranean
Europe
concentrations of pollutants across the country and then,
Americas using population information, estimate the number and
level of exposures of people to the pollutants. Next, they
converted exposure levels to likely effects on human
mortality, disease rates (morbidity), agriculture, timber
production, visibility, structural materials, and recreation.
The final step in the analysis was to estimate the
FIGURE 13.16 More than 4 million deaths each year from
economic value of these physical damages. They repeated
respiratory infections, chronic diseases, and cancers are
attributed to exposure to indoor pollution primarily within low- this analysis for each of the six pollutants at 10,000
and middle-income countries. (WHO, 2014) locations across the country.
Muller and Mendelsohn’s calculations resulted in an
estimate of annual damages by the six pollutants, which
in which many of the recently constructed components they called gross annual damages, or GAD. Summing
are still releasing significant amounts of VOCs from their estimates for the six common pollutants, Muller and
adhesives, plastics, and other materials. Mendelsohn estimated the GAD for the United States in
Indoor air pollution is especially severe in developing 2002—the year on which their analysis was focused—at
countries. Nearly 3 billion people in developing countries $75 billion to $280 billion. Their estimate covered a broad
rely on open fires or inefficient stoves, where they burn range of costs because there are numerous uncertainties
biomass, animal dung, or coal indoors. The resulting for the many calculations that went into their estimate.
indoor air pollution takes a tremendous health toll. The A major uncertainty was the value to place on human
WHO estimates that in 2012 alone, over 4 million people mortality risk and how that value changes with age.
exposed to indoor air pollution, primarily in low- and Another critical uncertainty concerns how exposure to
middle-income countries, died prematurely as a result of pollutants affects mortality rates. However, regardless of
various ailments, including lung cancer, pneumonia, and where the actual costs of pollution fall within this range,
stroke (Figure 13.16). they are substantial. Muller and Mendelsohn’s estimates
placed those costs at 0.7 to 2.8% of U.S. GDP in 2002. The
Economic Costs of Air Pollution estimated costs of pollution in China are also significant.
The damage caused by air pollution, including ill health

Costs of Air Pollution in China
and shortened lives, comes with real economic costs.
These costs can be estimated in terms of deterioration China’s economic growth can be described as nothing
of infrastructure, such as buildings and bridges, reduced less than explosive. However, with this growth has come a

2. What are the potential negative consequences of

ACID RAIN AND FOREST DESTRUCTION
quantifying pollution’s impact in terms of GDP?
3. What factors may contribute to a higher impact
of pollution on China’s contemporary economy
compared with that of the United States?
13.5 Acid rain is a major

source of damage to aquatic
and terrestrial ecosystems
From the beginning, almost everyone knew who was to
blame for the acid rain in Sudbury, Ontario. In 1918 a
group of farmers there sued and later won a lawsuit against
the Canadian Copper Company for damage done to their
(Richard Packwood/Getty Images)
crops by fumes from the company’s smelting operations.

Nevertheless, broader recognition of the problem of acid
rain would take another century as scientists started
documenting highly acid rains far from population centers
and because of its conspicuous damage to forests.
FIGURE 13.17 Dieback of forest trees, such as these spruce trees, has been an all too How Acid Rain Harms Ecosystems
common response to acid rain around the world.
Beginning in the mid-1950s, published observations of
acid rain in isolated locations came from Scandinavia. A
decade later, scientists speculated on the potential for acid
massive increase in pollution (see introduction, page 386). rain to cause damage to ecosystems far from the source of
Concerned about rising pollution levels, China approached air pollutants. And soon there were reports of reduced tree
the World Bank in 2003 about studying the cost of growth and dying forests in Northern Europe, the United
pollution to the country in terms of impacts on health States, and Canada (Figure 13.17). In 1960 Eville Gorham
and nonhealth sectors of the economy. In its study, the and Alan Gordon demonstrated that the farther plant
World Bank team worked closely with China’s ministries communities were from a smelter near Sudbury, Ontario,
of agriculture, health and water resources and that nation’s the greater the plant diversity, leveling off at a distance of
own State Environmental Protection Administration. 25 kilometers or more from the smelter (Figure 13.18).
One of the key findings of the 2007 study was that
rising air pollution accounts for increases in lung disease,
including cancer, leading to increased rates of absenteeism
SMELTER IMPACT ON TERRESTRIAL VEGETATION
in schools and the workplace. Increasing levels of water
pollution correlate with higher levels of diarrhea, especially 35
in children under 5, and cancers. The report concludes that
PLANT SPECIES PER QUADRAT
30
by degrading water quality, pollution is worsening China’s
chronically short water supplies. According to the World 25
Bank study, the combined costs of air and water pollution
20
in 2003 amounted to approximately $100 billion, or about
5.8% of China’s GDP that year. The estimated costs were 15
4.3% of GDP for health-related issues and 1.5% for non– 10

health-related aspects of the economy. However you divide
these costs, they are major and will likely continue to soar 5
unless China’s rising economic fortunes can be decoupled 0

from increasing pollution.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
DISTANCE FROM SMELTER (km)
! Think About It FIGURE 13.18 The number of plant species in randomly
located 2-by-20-meter quadrats increased rapidly with distance
1. How might construction companies increase their
from the Falconbridge smelter near Sudbury, Ontario, reaching a
business share by promoting the use of low-VOC plateau after a distance of about 25 kilometers from the smelter.
materials in their buildings? (Data from Gorham & Gordon, 1960)

403
FIGURE 13.19 Sulfate deposition from

GLOBAL HOTSPOTS FOR SULFATE (SO4 ) DEPOSITION industrial sources, which is indicative of
acid rain, was highest in northeastern
North America, Europe, and Eastern Asia.
As shown in the figure, sulfate deposition
in China far exceeds that of other regions.
(After Dentener et al., 2006)
SULFATE (SO4) DEPOSITION
Lowest Highest
?
Today, most acid rain occurs in northeastern North aluminum content is high—conditions that are toxic to
America, Europe, and Eastern Asia (Figure 13.19), largely many organisms, including fish and a wide variety of
because these are the world’s largest consumers of fossil invertebrate species. According to the EPA, freshwater
fuels (see Figure 9.19, page 275). clams and snails are eliminated at a pH of 5.5. At a pH Who should
Regions such as the northeastern United States, much of 5.0, bass, crayfish, and mayflies do not survive, and compensate for damage
of Canada, and Scandinavia are particularly vulnerable at a pH of 4.5, trout and salamanders die out. At a pH to ecosystems by acid
because their soils have a low capacity for buffering the of 4.0, of the vertebrate animals normally found in the
rains?
effects of acids as a result of their low base content. A community, only frogs survive. In general, the early life
base is a substance that has the capacity to neutralize stages of aquatic organisms, such as eggs and larvae, are
acids. In general, buffering capacity is a measure of the more vulnerable to acidification of their environments
ability to neutralize acid. Buffering capacity is higher
for soils, or waters, with higher base concentrations
because they can absorb more acid without changing
than are adults.
You might be wondering whether acid rain impacted
the many lakes around Sudbury, Ontario. Gorham
?
What criteria would
pH. Soils in other regions, such as the U.S. Midwest and and Gordon also surveyed the aquatic plants living in
Southwest, generally have higher base content and thus a study lakes near Sudbury. They found that the sulfate you use to choose
greater capacity to neutralize acids; they are therefore less concentrations in the lakes decreased with distance organisms as indicators
threatened by acid rain. from metal smelters and that the number of aquatic of the impacts of acid
Acid rain harms trees by depleting soil nutrients, plant species increased with distance from smelters. By rain on aquatic or
which are dissolved and washed away in acidic soil water. plotting sulfate concentration against number of aquatic terrestrial ecosystems?
Furthermore, acid rain releases aluminum from soils, plant species in these lakes, they determined that aquatic
which is toxic to plants in high enough concentrations. plant species numbers decline as sulfate concentration
Consequently, with long exposure to acid rain, forest increases (Figure 13.20). The concentrations of sulfate
soils are slowly stripped of essential plant nutrients and in these lakes, however, didn’t seem high enough to
can become increasingly toxic. Exposure to acidic clouds kill the plants, so Gorham and Gordon wondered
and fogs can also cause damage to the leaves and needles whether another pollutant was responsible. Indeed,
of trees. Plants stressed by such conditions become they found that copper, a metal toxic to plants at higher
vulnerable to a number of other potential sources of concentrations, was highest in snow near the smelters
mortality, including insects, disease, drought, and cold. and declined with distance (Figure 13.21). base A substance that has
the capacity to neutralize
acids; bases release hydroxide
Impacts on Aquatic Ecosystems
Acid rain also impacts organisms that live in water. When
! Think About It ions (OH–) and react with
acids to form a salt and water.
acidic water seeps into soils and infiltrates the shallow 1. How would you explain the fact that the earliest
buffering capacity A
groundwater, it releases aluminum. When this runoff discoveries of acid deposition impacts were in measure of the ability of a
water flows into streams and lakes, its pH is low and its terrestrial ecosystems, whereas the phenomenon solution to neutralize acid.

FIGURE 13.20 (a) The

sulfate concentrations in SMELTER IMPACT ON LAKE VEGETATION COPPER CONCENTRATIONS IN ACIDIC SNOW
lakes near Sudbury, Ontario,
decreased with distance
3.0 2,500
from metal smelters. (b) In
an opposite pattern, the
LAKE SULFATE CONCENTRATION

2.5
number of aquatic plant
(MICROGRAMS PER LITER)

COPPER CONCENTRATION
2,000
species in the same lakes
increased with distance from 2.0
smelters. (c) Combining 1,500
the patterns in parts (a) 1.5

and (b) reveals a negative 1,000
relationship between sulfate 1.0
concentrations in these lakes
and number of aquatic plant 500
0.5
species. (Data from Gorham
& Gordon, 1963)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
a. DISTANCE FROM SMELTER (km) DISTANCE FROM SMELTER (km)
FIGURE 13.21 The concentration of copper in snow

25 collected at increasing distances from the smelter at
NUMBER OF AQUATIC PLANT SPECIES
Falconbridge, Ontario, decreased from more than 2,000

micrograms per liter to less than 5 micrograms per liter.
20 (Gorham & Gordon, 1963)
15
13.6 Persistent pollutants

10
enter the human food chain
5 Persistent pollutants can cause environmental problems
years or even decades down the line. Even after we have
0
recognized the threat of certain chemicals and begin to
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 control their use, we are still dealing with their fallout.
b. DISTANCE FROM SMELTER (km)
PCBs and Hudson River Fish
25
Polychlorinated biphenyls, or PCBs, are a persistent
NUMBER OF AQUATIC PLANT SPECIES
pollutant that has been linked to various cancers,

20 lower sperm counts, and learning disabilities. Before
being banned in 1979, approximately 675 million
15 kilograms (1.5 billion pounds) of PCBs were used in the
manufacture of a variety of products from microscope
10
oils to refrigerators. They were dispersed from urban
settings to the high Arctic, and the most notorious case of
PCB contamination comes from New York State.
5
Over the three decades from 1947 to 1977, a General
Electric manufacturing plant released 585,000 kilograms
0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
(1.3 million pounds) of PCBs into the Hudson River at
c. LAKE SULFATE CONCENTRATION Hudson Falls, approximately 320 kilometers (200 miles)
upstream of New York City. By the 1970s, fish in the
river were so toxic they were deemed unsafe for human
of cultural eutrophication was first documented in
consumption. In 1976 New York’s Department of Health
aquatic ecosystems?
advised women of child-bearing age and children under
2. What processes connect the impacts of acid rain age 15 not to eat any fish from the Hudson River below
in terrestrial ecosystems to impacts on aquatic the GE plant at Hudson Falls and that no one eat fish
ecosystems? between Hudson Falls and the Federal Dam at Troy, New
York, 80 kilometers (50 miles) downriver (Figure 13.22).
3. What are the mechanisms by which acid rain Following their ban in 1979, General Electric stopped
impacts ecosystems? discharging PCBs into the Hudson River and levels of

405
PCB concentration began to decline in the river’s fish.

CONTAMINATION OF A RIVER SYSTEM AND However, concentrations remained above safe levels as
FISH POPULATION BY PCBs
PCBs continued to ooze from the riverbed sediments
?
into the food web. Then in 1983 the EPA declared the
320 kilometers of the Hudson River above New York
Hudson Harbor a Superfund site. In 1985 the coastal areas off
Falls western Long Island and New York Harbor were closed
General Electric plant How might the
VERMONT to commercial fishing for striped bass, Morone saxatilis
precautionary
(see Figure 13.22), a commercially important fish in the
principle play a role in
region. In the face of legal challenges by GE, it was more
Federal Dam
than two decades before steps to clean up the sediments preventing the release
Albany
Troy in the Hudson River began in earnest in 2009. The full of hazardous POPs into
human and economic costs of this single episode of the environment?
pollution are still being calculated.
Hudson
MASSACHUSETTS
River Heavy Metals and Agriculture
NEW YORK Mining, metal working, and especially combustion of coal
all transfer heavy metals from deep geologic formations
to the surface biosphere, where they can cause long-term
contamination. Heavy metals can also be introduced into
CONNECTICUT soils at mining sites and with metal smelting. From there,
these potent toxins and carcinogens can enter the human
food chain. For instance, a survey of lead contamination
of vegetable farms in Fujian, China, showed that the
concentration of lead in Chinese white cabbage, Brassica
chinensis, increased with increasing lead concentration
NEW JERSEY
in soils (Figure 13.23). The problem of heavy metal
contamination of food crops is widespread in China,
Newark especially near centers of metal mining and processing.
New York City
Similar studies done elsewhere in the world, from the
United States to India, have shown that vegetables grown
UPTAKE OF HEAVY METALS BY A CROP PLANT
1.8
CHINESE WHITE CABBAGE LEAD
1.6
1.4
CONTENT (mg/kg)
1.2
1.0
(Barrett & MacKay/Getty Images)
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Striped Bass, Morone saxatilis 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260
SOIL LEAD CONTENT (mg/kg)
FIGURE 13.22 Although the most contaminated river
sediments were found within 80 kilometers below Hudson Falls, FIGURE 13.23 A survey of vegetable-growing areas in Fujian,
some of the million-plus pounds of PCBs discharged there China, revealed that the edible parts of Chinese white cabbage
eventually found their way down the entire lower portion of the (Brassica chinensis), growing on soils with higher lead content,
river system. Striped bass, Morone saxatilis, one of the most contained elevated concentrations of lead. The average
prized commercial and sport fishes along the Atlantic Coast, concentrations of lead in cabbage in four of the fields exceeded
cannot be fished commercially in areas near the Hudson River the maximum permissible lead content in food, 0.2 mg/kg,
due to the possibility of PCB contamination. allowed in China. (Data from Huang et al., 2012)

In Sudbury, Ontario, researchers have studied how

VARIATION IN LEAD CONCENTRATION IN THE heavy metals harm the native flora and fauna. Heavy
EDIBLE TISSUES OF CROP PLANTS metals are highest in soils at 3 kilometers from the
nearest smelter in the vicinity of Sudbury, with a
50 progressive decline in concentrations at distances of
LEAD IN EDIBLE TISSUES (μg PER g)

14 to 40 kilometers (Figure 13.25). The researchers
40 wondered how organisms would fare when raised in
these areas. They found that northern wheatgrass,
Elymus lanceolatus, developed nearly 10 times less
30
mass when grown near the smelter than when grown
40 kilometers away (Figure 13.26). In addition, red
20
earthworms, Eisenia andrei, which aerate and mix the
soil, survived when they grew near the smelter, but they
10 failed to reproduce.
0
Potato Spinach Cabbage Tomato Eggplant
! Think About It
CROP PLANTS
1. What factors make soil contamination by heavy
FIGURE 13.24 Crops grown on contaminated soil vary in the metals a serious concern?
extent to which they concentrate heavy metals in their edible
tissues. Root crops (e.g., potatoes) and leafy greens (e.g.,
spinach and cabbage) generally concentrate more heavy metals
in their edible tissues, compared with crops producing edible
ASSAYING THE IMPACT OF HEAVY METALS ON
fruits (e.g., tomatoes and eggplant). (Data from Singh et al.,
2012) TERRESTRIAL ORGANISMS
160
?
on contaminated soils will accumulate heavy metals in
140
their tissues. Leafy green vegetables, such as spinach Shoot dry mass
MILLIGRAMS DRY WEIGHT Root dry mass
and cabbage, and some root crops are particularly apt to 120
Why is the problem accumulate higher levels of heavy metals in the edible parts 100
of the plant, compared with the fruits of crops such as
of heavy metal 80
tomatoes, peppers, and eggplant (Figure 13.24). Over the
contamination one that 60
long term, heavy metals can build up in soils to the point
will not soon go away? that they are no longer safe for agricultural production. 40
20
0
3 40
HEAVY METAL CONCENTRATIONS IN SOILS a. DISTANCE FROM NEAREST SMELTER (km)
NEAR SUDBURY, ONTARIO
1,400 60
MILLIGRAMS PER KILOGRAM OF SOIL
EARTHWORM REPRODUCTION
1,200 Zinc 50 Number of

hatched cocoons
Lead
Number of
Nickel
1,000 40 juveniles
Copper
Cadium
800 30
Arsenic
600 20
400 10
200 0
3 40
b. DISTANCE FROM NEAREST SMELTER (km)
0
3 14 40
DISTANCE FROM NEAREST SMELTER (km) FIGURE 13.26 (a) Growth of northern wheatgrass, Elymus
lanceolatus, was reduced when grown on soils collected near
FIGURE 13.25 Concentrations of heavy metals decrease a smelter in the vicinity Sudbury, Ontario, with high levels of
significantly with distance from metal smelters, the major source heavy metals. (b) In addition, earthworms, Eisenia andrei, did
of heavy metal contamination of soils in the region. (Data from not reproduce when living in those same soils. (Data from
Feisthauer et al., 2006) Feisthauer et al., 2006)

407
2. What can be done to pursue economic

NITROGEN DEPOSITION IN THE SAN
development without impairing the capacity of soils
BERNARDINO MOUNTAINS
to produce healthy food?
3. How might the release of heavy metals into the 80
(KILOGRAMS PER HECTARE PER YEAR)

environment be factored into the costs of using coal 70
as an energy source?
NITROGEN DEPOSITION
60
50
13.7 Organic matter and 40
nutrient pollution can 30
disrupt local and distant 20
ecosystems 10
When too much organic matter and nutrients pollute 0

1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
ecosystems, they can alter their function and harm YEAR
biodiversity. Around the world, nutrient pollution has
FIGURE 13.27 Nitrogen deposition at Camp Paivika east of
been blamed for harmful algal blooms and dead zones in
Los Angeles, California, increased steadily from 1930 through
oceans and lakes. the 1970s, then began to level off after 1980. (Data from Fenn
et al., 2008)
Organic Pollution of Aquatic Ecosystems
Concentrated animal feeding operations, or CAFOs, are dissolved in water or spewed into the atmosphere as
pens or buildings where livestock, including chickens, nitrogen oxides and subsequently deposited on soil with
cattle, and pigs, are housed and fed to support industrial-
scale meat production. Although CAFOs can increase
the efficiency of meat and milk production, they have
rain or snowfall or through dry deposition as a salt or gas.
For instance, atmospheric nitrogen deposition in the San
Bernardino Mountains east of Los Angeles has increased
?
In what ways could a
become a significant point source of air and water 14 times over the last 75 years (Figure 13.27).
pollution. Three causes for concern are the large size of Nitrogen enrichment of terrestrial ecosystems has substantial reduction
some CAFOs, the huge amount of waste they produce, shifted the composition and function of ecosystems. Some in the amount of meat
and the rapid increase in the number of large CAFOs organisms, such as lichens and mycorrhizal fungi, are in the U.S. diet—for
in the United States. A report by the U.S. Government particularly sensitive and die off with increased nitrogen example, a 50%
Accountability Office reported that CAFOs in the United deposition (Figure 13.28). For example, between 1958 decrease—help the
States are feeding up to 2 million chickens and as many as and 1987, the number of species of mycorrhizal fungi in environment?
800,000 hogs at one time. soil samples collected in the San Dimas Experimental
The amount of waste produced by such operations Forest in the Los Angeles Basin decreased from 29 to 7,
can be staggering. For instance, the 800,000 hogs in the a loss of 76% of the species in the community. Changes
cited example produce more than 1.6 million tons of
manure annually, 1.5 times the amount of sanitary waste
produced by the 1.5 million people living in Philadelphia,
in species composition can also result in negative effects
on ecosystem function. For instance, in some arid
ecosystems in California, nitrogen deposition has fostered
?
How are the effects
Pennsylvania. Between 1982 and 2002, the number the increased biomass of nutrient-loving invasive plant
of animals raised in large CAFOs in the United States species. Because of their high biomass, wildfire risk is now of excess addition
increased by more than 240%, from 257 million to nearly significant where it was once infrequent. of nutrients to an
900 million. Where the organic wastes from CAFOs are ecosystem analogous
not managed properly, they can severely impact aquatic Dead Zones in Coastal Areas to the dose–response
ecosystems (see Figure 13.5, page 394). Even where relationship discussed
The excess nutrients deposited on terrestrial ecosystems
organic wastes from CAFOs are well managed, however, in Chapter 11 (see page
often find their way to coastal waters, with disastrous
they are commonly a significant source of nutrient 346)?
consequences. Much of the phosphorus, nitrogen,
additions to groundwater and aquatic ecosystems and can
and other nutrients that humans have added to the
be a source of eutrophication.
biosphere eventually end up in the rivers and streams
that drain the continents. Consequently, these nutrients
Nutrient Enrichment and Eutrophication
contribute to the cultural eutrophication of coastal
The industrial production of fertilizers and the burning ecosystems, where they stimulate high levels of primary
of fossil fuels have more than doubled the inputs to the production. As in eutrophic lakes, high levels of
global nitrogen cycle since the late 20th century, causing decomposition follow high levels of biomass production
cultural eutrophication. The extra nitrogen is either in coastal ecosystems, which depletes dissolved oxygen

FIGURE 13.28 Many lichen species, such as this Alectoria

ORGANISMS SENSITIVE TO NITROGEN sarmentosa, are very sensitive to nitrogen levels. Thus, the
DEPOSITION composition and diversity of lichens can be radically altered by
excessive nitrogen deposition. Consequently, they can be used
as indicators of nitrogen pollution.
levels—a condition called hypoxia. The result is the

creation of extensive “dead zones” in coastal areas around
the world, including a huge one where the Mississippi
River, which drains the extensive agricultural areas of the
?
Midwest and Great Plains, flows into the Gulf of Mexico
(Figure 13.29). Intensive agriculture has spread cultural
eutrophication to coastal areas where the process is
killing rich communities of marine organisms, including
Are coastal “dead
commercially valuable fish and shellfish populations.
zones” actually dead,
that is, entirely devoid
of life, or is the term ! Think About It
misleading? 1. How is the problem of ecosystem eutrophication
an example of a Tragedy of the Commons (see
Chapter 2)?
2. Compare cultural eutrophication of lakes with
the formation of “dead zones” in coastal regions (see
Figure 13.8, page 396).
(© Arco Images GmbH/Alamy)
3. How does the fact that much of the

eutrophication of both aquatic and terrestrial
ecosystems results from nonpoint sources of
pollution complicate developing a solution to the
problem?
DEAD ZONE IN THE GULF OF MEXICO
MISSISSIPPI RIVER
SUBBASINS
Missouri
Arkansas red-white
FIGURE 13.29 Eutrophication of coastal Upper Mississippi
waters resulting mainly from nutrient additions Lower Mississippi
with runoff from the Mississippi River Basin has Ohio
produced an extensive area of bottom water Tennessee
that is largely devoid of dissolved oxygen, a
condition called hypoxia. The process excludes Hypoxic zone
or kills all fish and shellfish in the area, a
situation that is ecologically and economically Gulf of Mexico
devastating to the region.

409
13.4–13.7 Issues:
of increasing concern. PCBs in the Hudson
Summary River are an especially well-studied example of
The World Health Organization estimates ecosystem contamination by a persistent organic
that more than 7 million people die of air pollutant. Releasing large amounts of organic
pollution each year. Other damages caused by matter and nutrients from domestic sewage,
pollution come with real economic costs related aquaculture, and agriculture can have negative
to deterioration of infrastructure, reduced impacts on the structure and functioning of
agricultural or forest productivity, loss of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.
valuable fisheries, and impaired human health Concentrated animal feeding operations, or
and longevity. CAFOs, have become a particular source of
The impacts of acid rain have grown with pollution concerns in the United States. Adding
increased burning of fossil fuels, particularly in excessive nutrients to ecosystems leads to
highly industrialized regions. Damage to terrestrial cultural eutrophication, which generally results
vegetation, especially to forests in North America in excessive algal or plant production, depletion
and Europe, was one of the first recognized of dissolved oxygen, and loss of biodiversity in
impacts of acid rain, followed by devastated stream aquatic ecosystems. Eutrophication of terrestrial
and lake ecosystems across vast areas. ecosystems can change the species composition
The accumulation of persistent organic and reduce the biodiversity of those ecosystems.
pollutants, such as DDT and PCBs, and heavy Excessive nutrient inputs to coastal ecosystems
metals in soils and sediments—which, in have produced coastal “dead zones” around the
turn, make it into the human food chain—is world.
S udbury stands as a lesson of what can occur when
industry operates without checks and balances. Today,
Sudbury is no longer the moonscape it once was. In recent
first and foremost, environmental regulations, which will
ultimately spur new technologies and practices.
decades, emissions of contaminants have dropped by 90%,

soils have been improved, and more than 12 million trees
13.8 Environmental
have been planted. In the process, the people of Sudbury regulation and international
have built a much more diversified economy, which treaties have played
includes financial and business services, tourism, health important roles in reducing
care and research, education, and government. Sudbury
has also become a regional center for the arts and culture.
pollution in North America
The reversal of fortunes by the people of Sudbury shows By the early 18th century, waterways in and around cities
that it is possible to solve the immense problems posed by in North America became choked with pollution ranging
pollution. from tannery chemicals to untreated sewage. It was
Think about Earth’s air and water as one of the planet’s not until 1948 that the Federal Water Pollution Control
shared community resources. As we saw in Chapter 2, Act was passed to protect interstate waters, such as the
Garrett Hardin proposed that unregulated use of such Mississippi River and the Great Lakes, which supported
resources would lead eventually to environmental fisheries and drinking water needs. Because there was
damage, which he called a Tragedy of the Commons no central environmental authority, the Surgeon General
(see page 49). This is exactly what we have seen on of the U.S. Public Health Service was put in charge of
the ground in Sudbury and in the air above Beijing. developing programs to improve the quality of surface
Preventing harm to these community resources requires, waters and groundwaters.

1987 to include nonpoint sources as well. In addition,

TABLE 13.5
the EPA has shifted from a case-by-case and pollutant-
MISSION OF THE U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION AGENCY, ESTABLISHED BY by-pollutant approach to an integrated watershed
PRESIDENT RICHARD M. NIXON IN 1970 perspective on pollution regulation.
• Establish and enforce standards of environmental The Clean Air Act

protection consistent with national environmental
goals. The Air Pollution Control Act, the first U.S. federal law
• Conduct research on pollution and on pollution to address air quality, was passed in 1955. The role of the
control, and monitor pollution to strengthen federal government in controlling air pollution expanded
environmental protection programs and to
recommend policy changes.
with the Clean Air Act of 1963, and the Air Quality
Act of 1967 established air-monitoring studies and
• Assist others, through grants, technical assistance,
and other means, to control environmental pollution.
point source inspections. The biggest step in pollution
control came with the Clean Air Act (CAA) of 1970.
• Assist the Council on Environmental Quality
and the president in developing new policies for This law authorized federal and state governments to
environmental protection. regulate both stationary (e.g., electrical power plants) and
mobile sources (mainly motor vehicles) of air pollution.
According to the U.S. EPA, the 1970 CAA and 1990
amendments gave the EPA broad authority to regulate air
More than 20 years later, the United States created pollution in the United States (Table 13.6).
its first federal agency dedicated to the environment.
?
Richard Nixon was running for president in 1968 and, United States–Canadian Cooperation on Acid Rain
recognizing growing popular concerns about pollution,
made environmental issues part of his presidential Recognizing their common need to address the issue of
The long-term goal campaign. After Nixon won the election, Congress acid rain, Canada and the United States signed the U.S.–
of the CWA has been passed the National Environmental Policy Act, generally Canada Air Quality Agreement in 1991. The agreement
known as NEPA; but Nixon went further, creating the is organized around three parts, called annexes. In Annex
described as striving to
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, or EPA, through 1, the United States and Canada committed to limits on
make the waters of the emissions and timetables for reducing emissions that
a 1970 executive order (Table 13.5). New federal laws to
nation “fishable and cause acid rain. The two countries also agreed to notify
strengthen pollution controls soon followed.
swimmable.” How well and consult with each other regarding sources of acid
might these qualities The Clean Water Act deposition within 100 kilometers (62 miles) of the border.
indicate the overall Annex 2 focuses on scientific, technical, and economic
health of aquatic In 1972 the Federal Water Pollution Control Act, activities and research to improve understanding of acid
commonly known as the Clean Water Act (CWA), was
ecosystems? rain. Although the agreement was stimulated by the
thoroughly revised to “restore and maintain the chemical, problems associated with acid rain common to the two
physical, and biological integrity of the Nation’s waters”
(EPA, 2012a). The act explicitly protects wetlands and
?
What would be the
estuaries from pollution and from dredging and filling.
In administering and enforcing the CWA, the EPA
works closely with state and tribal governments to develop
TABLE 13.6
AUTHORIZATIONS GRANTED TO THE EPA
BY THE CLEAN AIR ACT OF 1970 AS AMENDED
IN 1990
water quality standards, which play a pivotal role in
likely consequences judging how much of a pollutant may be discharged into
• Establish “National Ambient Air Quality Standards”
of environmental a water body and which waters are polluted. States must or NAAQS.
legislation without an survey their waters to determine which exceed the limits
• Require “State Implementation Plans” to achieve
overseeing agency such set by the standards and are categorized as “impaired.” NAAQS.
as the U.S. EPA? States are also responsible for restoring impaired streams
• Establish “New Source Performance Standards” for
by reducing concentrations of pollutants. new and modified stationary sources of pollution.
The CWA has other important mechanisms for limiting
• Establish “National Ambient Air Quality Standards”
pollution. For instance, if a paint manufacturer wants to for hazardous air pollutants.
discharge waste into U.S. waterways, it must apply for a • Require controls on emissions of pollutants by motor
permit. Permit applicants must demonstrate that the best vehicles.
available technology will be used to reduce the amount • Develop programs for acid rain control.
of pollutants discharged. The CWA also provides federal
• Control 189 toxic pollutants.
money for building or improving sewage treatment plants.
The CWA has continued to evolve. For example, the • Develop a program for phasing out the use of
chemicals that deplete the ozone layer.
1972 amendments to the CWA addressed only point
sources of pollution, but its scope was expanded in Information from EPA, 2013.

411
countries, the agreement provided a flexible framework Economic Benefits of Pollution Control
that could be used to address other cross-border problems
Regulations to control air pollution have been controversial
of air pollution. In 2000 it was expanded to address
due to the potential cost for industry. When controls on
transboundary ozone pollution in Annex 3. The keys to
acid rain were proposed, for instance, the Edison Electric
the success of this U.S.–Canada Air Quality Agreement
Institute, a lobbying group, predicted that the costs of
are recognition of common interest and, second, free and
controlling sulfur dioxide during just Phase I of the Acid
frequent communication and cooperation.
Rain program would be $4 to $5 billion annually. Industry
members projected that consumer utility bills would
Regulatory Mechanisms to Control Pollution
increase by 20% to 40%. In contrast, the EPA predicted
?
Most of the tools that the EPA uses to protect our air, annual costs would amount to $1 billion. In a review of the
water, and soil are command-and-control regulations (see program, Don Munton, professor of international studies
Chapter 2) that restrict the type and amount of pollution at the University of Northern British Columbia, found that
that can be released, the pollution-control technologies these costs were overestimates, as he explained in the 1998 How might estimates
that must be used, and the type of environmental article “Dispelling the Myths of the Acid Rain Story.” The of costs and benefits
monitoring that must be implemented. For instance, first years of the program cost only $836 million annually of environmental
since 1975, the EPA has set federal standards for the and utility bills actually increased an average of 2% to 4%. regulation be influenced
emissions of cars and trucks and generally required that Munton concluded his review by stating that the Acid Rain by the financial
they be outfitted with catalytic converters, which reduce Program was “a bargain.”
the emission of carbon monoxide, unburned fuel, and,
interests of those
Other evidence is mounting that pollution controls
sometimes, nitrogen oxides (NOx). Around the same can provide economic benefits that outweigh their
making the estimates?
time, the agency mandated reductions of lead in gasoline, costs. In a 2005 paper in the Journal of Environmental
banning the toxic metal, as a fuel additive, completely Management, Lauraine Chestnut and David Mills
in 1995. estimated that the total cost of Phase I and Phase II of
The EPA has also experimented with market-based the U.S. Acid Rain Program amounted to $3 billion
approaches (see Chapter 2), pioneering the approach with annually (Table 13.7). The benefits included economic
its Acid Rain Program in the 1990s, following passage of
the amendments to the Clean Air Act and U.S.–Canadian
Air Quality Agreement. At the time, the agency sought to
reduce emissions of SO2 by 10 million tons and emissions
TABLE 13.7
of NOx by 2 million tons below 1980 levels. The first
ALL COSTS AND BENEFITS OF THE U.S. ACID
phase of the Acid Rain Program, which began in 1995,
RAIN PROGRAM IN 2010
focused on SO2 reductions at 445 coal-fired power plants
in the eastern part of the country. The second phase of Costs Millions of U.S. (2000) dollars
the SO2 reduction program, which was initiated in 2000, Controls of SO2 $2 billion
included over 2,000 generators fueled mainly by coal but
Controls of NOx $1 billion
also by oil and gas.
The NOx reduction program also occurred in two Total costs $3,000,000,000
phases. The EPA allowed flexibility on how electric
utilities reduced their SO2 and NOx emissions. Benefits
Companies could achieve these reductions through Reduced mortality from fine
particulate pollutants, ≤2.5 µm
energy conservation, using more renewable energy (PM2.5), in the U.S. and Canada $107 billion
sources such as wind and solar, installing pollution
Reduced morbidity from fine
control technology, or switching to low-sulfur fuels. The particulate pollutants, ≤2.5 µm
program also permitted emission allowance trading, a (PM2.5), in the U.S. and Canada $8 billion
market-based system for reducing SO2 emissions. In this Reduced mortality from ozone
system, the EPA grants an electrical utility certain SO2 in eastern U.S. $4 billion
emissions allowances for each of its electrical generators. Reduced morbidity from ozone
If a particular generating unit emits less SO2 than it is in eastern U.S. $300 million
allowed, the utility may trade the unused allowances Improved visibility in parks $2 billion
with other units in its system of generators. Alternatively,
Improved recreational fishing in
a utility can sell allowances to other utilities or save New York State $65 million
the allowances to be used to cover emissions in the
Adirondack ecosystem
future. This market-based strategy for pollution control improvements $500 million
has become a model for solving other environmental
Total benefits $121,865,000,000
problems, such as fisheries (Chapter 8), water rights
(Chapter 2), and carbon emissions (Chapter 14). Data from Chestnut and Mills, 2005.

gains from reduced premature mortality and reduced

chronic disease (morbidity) in the United States and TEMPORAL TRENDS IN EMISSIONS OF
Canada, as a result of controlling fine particulate POLLUTANTS THAT CAUSE ACID RAIN
pollution and ozone.
20
To these benefits, the authors added the economic
18
gains resulting from improved visibility in U.S. parks, Sulfur dioxide
EMISSIONS (MILLIONS OF TONS)

Nitrogen oxides
improved recreational fishing in New York, and 16
ecosystem recovery in the Adirondacks. The sum of these 14

annual economic benefits totaled nearly $122 billion, 12
approximately 40 times the costs. 10
That’s the story for acid rain, but what about the
8
total economic benefits of the Clean Air Act? In 2011
the EPA estimated that by 2020 the costs of pollution 6
control would amount to $65 billion, but that those costs 4
would be dwarfed by the economic benefits, primarily 2

through a reduction of premature mortality, which 0
would have totaled nearly $2 trillion. In economic and 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
environmental terms, it appears that it pays to invest in YEAR
pollution control. FIGURE 13.30 Emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen
oxides (NOx ) from electrical power plants in the United States
decreased significantly following regulation by the Clean Air
! Think About It Act. (Data from the EPA, 2015a)
1. What aspects of the Clean Water Act imply

recognition of the ecological services rendered by
wetlands and estuaries? 13.9 Control measures
2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of have reduced emissions
federal and state governments sharing in the process of pollutants and acid rain
of setting pollution standards? When you consider the scale of the United States and
3. Could U.S.–Canada cooperation on pollution Canada, it might seem like an impossible task to rein in
damaging pollution across the continent. But the story
control be expanded into global-scale cooperation to
of acid rain shows that it’s sometimes possible to solve
address pollution issues? Explain your position.
such vast environmental challenges in a relatively short
4. How might conclusions reached regarding the timeframe.
economic viability of pollution control programs be
influenced by whether one takes a long-term (e.g., Reduced Emissions and Decreased Acid Rain
value to future generations) or short-term (e.g., Over the course of 20 years, the EPA’s Acid Rain Program
quarterly profits to a company) perspective? was a success. By 2010 sulfur dioxide emissions were
pH OF PRECIPITATION ACROSS THE UNITED STATES IN 1994 AND 2009
a. pH OF PRECIPITATION IN 1994 b. pH OF PRECIPITATION IN 2009

FIGURE 13.31 (a) In
1994 precipitation was highly LAB pH
acidified (pH <5.3) in the >5.3
eastern half of the country, 5.2–5.3
especially in the upper 5.1–5.2
Midwest and Northeast. 5.0–5.1
(b) By 2009, however, acid 4.9–5.0
rain control programs resulted 4.8–4.9
in substantial reductions in 4.7–4.8
4.6–4.7
the acidity of rain across the
4.5–4.6
country. (Maps from National
4.4–4.5
Atmospheric Deposition 4.4–4.3
Program, http://nadp.sws. <4.3
uiuc.edu/)

413
12 million tons lower than in 1980, and emissions of

nitrogen oxides were reduced by 4 million tons between RECOVERY OF HIGHLY ACIDIFIED LAKES IN THE
1995 and 2010 (Figure 13.30). One of the major ADIRONDACK REGION OF NEW YORK
contributors to these decreases was that electrical utilities
switched from using high-sulfur coal from Appalachia to Acidic Recovered
low-sulfur coal from the western United States, particularly 300

from Wyoming’s Powder River Basin (see Figure 9.31, page
287). As predicted, acid rain also decreased (Figure 13.31). 250
NUMBER OF LAKES
Precipitation in the eastern portion of the country became 200
less acidic between 1994 and 2009 and acid rain (pH <5.3)
150
?
was essentially eliminated from the central part of the
country to the Pacific Coast. 100
50
Recovery of Aquatic Ecosystems
What role do you think
0
With reduced acid rain, lakes and streams that had been 1991–1994 1997–1999 2006–2007 the flexibility allowed
acidified during the 1970s and 1980s began to recover. YEARS
to utility companies by
Consider an example from the Adirondack region of New FIGURE 13.32 At the beginning of the EPA’s Acid Rain
Program in 1995, 284 lakes in the Adirondack region were
the EPA played in the
York State. Prior to the start of the Acid Rain Program, successful reduction
highly acidified. By 2007, 132 of those lakes, or 46%, had
284 lakes out of nearly 2,000 being monitored there recovered in response to decreased acid rain over the region. of SO2 and NOx
were highly acidified. Within 2 to 3 years, that number (Data from Waller et al., 2012)
emissions? Explain.
dropped by 32% to 192 (Figure 13.32). By 2007, 132 of
the originally acidified lakes had recovered. Streams in
the Adirondack region are also recovering, although at a
slightly slower rate. Clearwater exceeded 6.0, a threshold allowing for full
Up near Sudbury, Clearwater Lake is also showing recovery of the ecosystem. The concentrations of heavy
remarkable recovery. Beginning in 1972, pollution metals, such as nickel and copper, have also decreased
controls decreased the SO2 emissions of the smelters following pollution control (Figure 13.34).
in the Sudbury areas by more than 90%. In response, However, recovery of the biological community has
the pH of Clearwater Lake, and of other lakes in the been uneven. The phytoplankton and zooplankton of
area, increased (Figure 13.33). After 1999 the pH in many lakes have bounced back, but neither invertebrates
TRENDS IN SO2 EMISSIONS AND LAKE pH
3,000 6.5
SULFUR DIOXIDE EMISSIONS (THOUSANDS OF TONS)
2,500 6.0
2,000 5.5
pH
1,500 5.0
1,000 SO 2 emissions 4.5

pH
500 4.0
0 3.5
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
YEAR
FIGURE 13.33 Total annual sulfur dioxide emissions from the smelters near Sudbury, Ontario, in thousands of metric tons and pH
in Clearwater Lake, located 13 kilometers from Sudbury. (Data from Keller, 2009)

has raised average soil pH to 6.3, compared with 4.3 at

TRENDS IN NICKEL AND COPPER unrestored sites. Some sites were limed and planted with
CONCENTRATIONS IN CLEARWATER LAKE NEAR
a single species of pine. Others were limed, fertilized, and
SUDBURY, ONTARIO
planted with three to five tree species.
350
As a result of active restoration, the number of
plant species at the restored sites averaged more than
CONCENTRATION (MICROGRAMS PER LITER)

300
Nickel
3 times greater, compared with unrestored sites in the
Copper
most disturbed zone (Figure 13.35). The number of
250 plant species at the most species-rich restoration site
was comparable to that at the low disturbance site,
200 approximately 36 kilometers from the decommissioned
smelter. However, approximately 30% of the plant
150 species at restored sites were invasive non-native species,
which have high dispersal rates and had colonized
100 the restoration sites on their own. Meanwhile, all
plant species at unrestored, control sites were native.
50 Researchers suggest that it may take decades or even
centuries for the plant communities at the restored
0
sites to return to a composition close to the original
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
YEAR community before disturbance.
FIGURE 13.34 Over the course of nearly three decades,
following reduced pollution from the metal smelters in the area,
the concentrations of both nickel and copper in Clearwater Lake
! Think About It
?
Why might non-
decreased significantly. (Data from Girard et al., 2006) 1. What do the successful reductions in acid rain
and recovery of some ecosystems indicate about the
scientific understanding of the causes and effects of
that live at the bottom of the lake nor fish are back to acid rain?
native species have an natural levels yet. Factors that may retard recovery
advantage over native in certain areas include competition with established 2. Why might the ecosystems impacted by acid
species in the face of a acid-tolerant species. Once a community of organisms is rain never return to their state prior to acid
disturbance, such as established, in this case of acid-tolerant species, they can
acid rain? persist in an ecosystem and compete with individuals of
less tolerant species when physical conditions change. RESULTS OF TERRESTRIAL RESTORATION AT
Predation by high numbers of invertebrate predators, SUDBURY, ONTARIO
which have been released from control by plankton-
feeding fish eliminated by acid rain, can also reduce the Differences in species richness among Differences among
restored sites mainly result from unrestored sites mainly
chance of successful colonization by small organisms. differences in time since restoration reflect differences in
and restoration techniques. disturbance intensity.
In addition, limited dispersal slows colonization by
some organisms. Another problem has been high heavy 50
metal concentrations and reduced concentrations of
calcium, Ca2+.
NUMBER OF PLANT SPECIES
40
Recovery of Terrestrial Ecosystems

30
Restoring the forests that once covered the Sudbury
landscape is a huge challenge—much greater than
20
restoring a forest following logging or fire. The main
reason for the difficulty is that the damage done to these Restored sites
10
ecosystems has seriously impaired the very foundation Unrestored sites
of terrestrial ecosystems: their soils. Succession in such

circumstances takes a very long time unless helped 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
along by active restoration methods. One of the main
DISTANCE TO SMELTER (km)
treatments used at restoration sites in the most disturbed
areas has been spreading crushed limestone on the soils. FIGURE 13.35 Decades of natural recovery and active
restoration near a decommissioned smelter have shown that
Limestone adds the critical Ca2+ ions stripped from active restoration speeds the development of species-rich plant
the soils by acid rain and can neutralize acidic soils, communities in the most disturbed sites. (Data from Rayfield
resulting in higher soil pH. Liming at the restoration sites et al., 2005)

415
rain impacts, especially in terms of their species

SOLAR ENERGY AS AN ALTERNATIVE TO
composition?
BIOMASS BURNING
3. What can working toward restoration of
damaged ecosystems teach us about the ecology of
these systems?
13.10 New technologies can

reduce indoor air pollution
Indoor air pollution remains as much or more of a threat
to human health as outdoor air pollution. According to
the World Health Organization (WHO), more people die
every year from indoor air pollution than from outdoor
air pollution. The good news, though, is that we have
the technological know-how to solve the problem, as
long as governments, companies, and humanitarian
organizations work toward that end.
Healthier Cooking Technologies

Living in a smoke-filled house isn’t pleasant, nor is it
healthy. One of the most beneficial improvements to
environmental health came with the invention of ways to
(© Joerg Boethling/Alamy)
ventilate homes. The first approach was likely a simple

hole in the ceiling of a hut or teepee. A further reduction
in indoor air pollution was achieved with the invention of
the chimney attached to a fireplace or stove.
In developing countries, such as India and Bangladesh,
where the problem of indoor air pollution is most severe, FIGURE 13.36 Solar cooking technology is being developed
the health of local populations could be greatly improved to help relieve the widespread problem of indoor air pollution in
with a few relatively low-tech solutions. One of the developing countries. Here, a woman in West Africa prepares
food using a solar cooker.
simplest ways to reduce exposure to smoke from cooking
and heating fires is to thoroughly dry fuels, such as wood
or animal dung, before use. Another simple solution is adequate ventilation rates by ensuring that the heating,
to provide improved stoves that use less fuel for cooking, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) system
reduce cooking time, and, in the process, reduce the meets industry standards (Figure 13.37). The HVAC
amount of smoke generated. Combining better stove system needs to be serviced routinely and air filters
design with effective chimneys or hoods for collecting and must be cleaned or replaced at prescribed intervals. A
venting smoke can reduce indoor pollution still further. proactive approach, increasingly used in so-called green
Other approaches involve switching from dung, wood, architecture, is to reduce the use of building materials
and coal to cleaner fuels, such as liquid petroleum gas, or furnishings that are a significant source of hazardous
biogas generated from dung, or electricity. Solar cookers pollutants. Any potential sources of pollutants should be
have also been developed that can be used in areas with stored away from work areas and vented to the outside.
abundant sunlight (Figure 13.36). Governments and Perhaps most importantly, building occupants and
nongovernmental organizations are working very hard managers need to communicate freely and be informed
to bring some of these solutions to bear in the regions of building operations and potential air-quality issues.
where health is most significantly impacted by indoor air
pollution. ! Think About It
Reducing Indoor Air Pollution in Modern Buildings
1. What is the major impediment to fixing the
indoor pollution problem in the most affected
Modern buildings have a different set of indoor populations?
pollutants, for example, volatile organic compounds
(VOCs). The most direct way to prevent the buildup 2. Why does indoor pollution take a larger toll on
of pollutants in the indoor environment is to maintain human health than outdoor pollution?

required additional legislation. As we saw in Chapter

MAINTAINING INDOOR AIR QUALITY IN LARGE 12, the U.S. Congress passed the Comprehensive
MODERN BUILDINGS Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability
Act (CERCLA), or Superfund Law, in 1980. The first
PRIMARY FUNCTIONS OF A MODERN HVAC SYSTEM goal of the Superfund program is to identify sites where
contamination of air, soil, and water by hazardous
TEMPERATURE CONTROL substances has been sufficient to threaten human health
Important for maintaining comfort and
productivity of occupants; cooling is or harm the environment. Sites sufficiently contaminated
especially important in large buildings. are placed on a “National Priorities List,” which in 2011
included more than 1,350 sites in the United States. Once
FRESH AIR CIRCULATION
Essential for maintaining air quality, including these sites are identified, the second objective of the
preventing a buildup of carbon dioxide, which program is to reduce threats to human health and the
has been connected to higher frequency of sick
leave in office buildings. environment, generally by cleaning the site of hazardous
substances. The third goal is to discover those responsible
AIR FILTRATION for the contamination and seek payment for site cleanup.
Reduces particulates in building air, including
dust, pollen, and mold spores, which are This groundbreaking piece of legislation gave the EPA
potential sources of respiratory illness. the authority to assign responsibility for a contaminated
site and demand financial assistance in its remediation.
This law was the beginning of efforts all over the country
PRIMARY COMPONENTS OF A MODERN HVAC SYSTEM
Air exhaust
Air handler AREA SLATED FOR DREDGING ON THE

HUDSON RIVER
Chiller unit
Fresh air intake
Thermostat DREDGING
AREAS Hudson Falls
Phase 1
Heating unit(s) Phase 2
General Electric plant
Duct work
Air filters
Air diffusers
Return ducts Hudson

River
FIGURE 13.37 Large modern buildings maintain the quality

of the indoor environment using complex mechanical heating,
ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems.
13.11 Soils and sediments

contaminated by hazardous
wastes can be cleaned using
a variety of techniques
Surprisingly, the cleanup of a severely polluted site, Federal Dam
such as Love Canal (see Chapter 12), fell outside any
Troy
existing legislative authority at the time, including the 5 km
Resources Conservation and Recovery Act, which is FIGURE 13.38 Most of the PCBs lodged in sediments in
focused on current and future management of hazardous the Hudson River occur along a 64-kilometer (40-mile) section
wastes. Authority to address historical contamination below Hudson Falls.

417
to clean up toxic waste sites. In the case of the Love The plan for dredging was divided into two phases.
Canal, Occidental Petroleum, which owned the Hooker Phase 1 would involve one season (May to November) of
Chemical company, agreed to pay $129 million in dredging followed by a year spent evaluating the results of
restitution. The most toxic area was dug up and reburied the dredging operations. The evaluations, peer-reviewed by
with a plastic liner and the neighborhood’s empty streets independent experts, would be used to determine whether
were enclosed by a chain link fence to prevent entry.
Persistent Pollutants in the Hudson River

dredging had removed PCBs. Reviewers would also
assess whether the dredging had mobilized unacceptable
amounts of PCBs into the river ecosystem, which was a
serious concern raised by the public and by environmental
?
Why was it critical that
The Superfund Act has also led to the cleanup of many scientists. Based on the findings, adjustments in techniques independent experts
other toxic sites around the country. In 2002 the EPA could be made to improve the cleanup process. If the review the dredging
and General Electric signed an agreement to begin results of Phase 1 were acceptable, the project would move process and results?
removing PCBs from a 64-kilometer (40-mile) section into Phase 2, which would involve dredging the remainder
of the upper Hudson River (Figure 13.38). The first of the site.
steps in the process involved sampling the length of the Phase 1, completed in 2009, resulted in the removal
river to identify the locations of the most contaminated of approximately 215,000 cubic meters (283,000
sediments, building the processing and transportation cubic yards) of PCB-contaminated sediments from a
facilities, and developing detailed plans for the massive 9.7-kilometer (6-mile) section of river near Fort Edward
project. During the early stages of the work, public on the upper Hudson. While the amount of material
concerns were identified and they influenced the way the removed from the river was enormous, the operation
project was carried out. For example, barges and trains was done with precision, with the location and depth
were used to transport dredged sediments out of the of dredging guided by a satellite navigation system.
Hudson River Valley to address concerns over increased The work employed over 500 people and dredging
traffic congestion on highways. Also, in response to went on 24 hours a day, 6 days a week, with up to 12
fears of future contamination, all parties agreed to store dredging crews working simultaneously (Figure 13.39).
toxic sediments outside of the Hudson River Valley in The dredged material, which filled 626 hopper barges
approved hazardous waste repositories. measuring 59.5 meters by 10.7 meters (195 feet by
DREDGING ON THE HUDSON RIVER: A COMPLEX PROCESS

(USEPA)
FIGURE 13.39 The removal of PCBs from the Hudson River is a massive undertaking involving heavy
equipment, long-distance transport, and long-term storage. The process also requires great care and
precision to avoid the release of dangerous levels of PCBs from contaminated sediments as they are
being removed.

35 feet), was transported by rail to a disposal site in contrast, using plants to extract the same amount of lead
Texas. To reduce the possibility of releasing any residual from the soil would require safely disposing of just
PCBs, the dredged areas were later covered, or “capped,” 455 metric tons of plant biomass, or 1/40th the amount
with 150,000 tons of clean fill material. During dredging of soil that would otherwise have been removed. In
operations, the river was continuously monitored to addition, the monetary costs would be a small fraction of
assure that PCB concentrations did not exceed the 500 what it would cost to excavate, transport, and store more
parts per trillion safe limit specified by the U.S. Safe than 18,000 metric tons of contaminated soils.
Drinking Water Act. In places where groundwater has been contaminated
Based on independent expert review of the process with solvents, gasoline, and other organic compounds,
and results of Phase 1 in 2010, along with comments bioremediation has been used to decontaminate aquifers.
from the public, the EPA went forward with plans for Many organic chemicals that were once believed to be
Phase 2. Planners project that Phase 2 will remove an resistant to breakdown by microbes can be metabolized
additional 1.8 million cubic meters (2.4 million cubic by some component of a microbial community.
yards) of contaminated sediments. Phase 2, scheduled Sometimes they need to be coaxed to multiply and do
for completion in the fall of 2015 at an estimated cost of their work by adding nutrients, reducing or increasing
approximately $750 million, will be followed by another oxygen availability, or adding particular energy sources
phase involving habitat restoration along the shoreline (e.g., sugar) to the aquifer (Figure 13.41). Using such
and in dredged areas, as well as data collection to evaluate techniques, environmental scientists have successfully
the success of the project. decontaminated polluted aquifers in situations previously
considered physically or economically impossible.
Bioremediation
Rather than cleaning up a polluted site by moving
massive amounts of contaminated soil or sediment to ! Think About It
?
a hazardous waste facility, environmental scientists 1. How might proximity to New York City have
can use organisms to decontaminate soils, sediments, influenced the effort—funds allocated—to clean up
and groundwater aquifers. This approach to pollution the Hudson River?
What, besides lead, cleanup, called bioremediation, can save physical work
is taken away if and money. 2. How can the many thousands of square
excavation and removal When the bioremediation process involves plants, it is kilometers of soils that have been contaminated by
are used to treat a called phytoremediation (Figure 13.40). Scientists have heavy metals as a result of metal smelting and coal
contaminated soil? identified hundreds of hyperaccumulator plants that burning be effectively treated?
accumulate heavy metals in their tissue. Consider that
excavating 30 centimeters (1 foot) of soil contaminated 3. How do phytoremediation of soils and
with lead from 4 hectares (10 acres) would require bioremediation of aquifers depend on Earth’s
removing 18,200 metric tons (20,000 tons) of soil. By biodiversity?
PHYTOREMEDIATION OF SOILS CONTAMINATED WITH HEAVY METALS
bioremediation An
approach to pollution cleanup
that employs organisms,
generally microbes or plants,
WARNING
to decontaminate soils, HAZARDOUS
sediments, and groundwater WASTE
aquifers in place.
phytoremediation
Bioremediation using plants
to clean up contaminated 1 Planting hyperaccumulator 2 Growth and uptake of heavy 3 Harvest and hauling of plant 4 Composting and disposal of
plants on site contaminated metals by plants. biomass heavily laden with heavy metal-contaminated
sediments or soils. See
with heavy metals. heavy metals. compost at hazardous
bioremediation. waste site.
hyperaccumulators FIGURE 13.40 During the process of phytoremediation, plants that accumulate large amounts of heavy metals are planted on
Plants that accumulate contaminated soils. Eventually, the plant biomass containing the heavy metals that they have taken up is harvested and composted or
heavy metals in their tissue. burned, and the heavy metals are then collected and disposed of or recycled.

419
monitor and regulate sewage treatment facilities.

BIOREMEDIATION OF GROUNDWATER The EPA, for instance, requires all publicly owned
CONTAMINATED WITH ORGANIC CHEMICALS sewage treatment facilities to provide a minimum of
BY STIMULATING MICROBIAL BREAKDOWN
secondary treatment to wastewater, which removes
some organic matter and nutrients from the water
(Chapter 6). Members of the European Union and
other developed countries have wastewater treatment
1 Characterize site to verify
contamination, determine standards that are similar to or higher than those of
types of organic pollutants, the United States. For example, most wastewater in
and measure spatial extent
of contamination. Scandinavia receives tertiary treatment, which further
reduces nutrient content and pathogens. In contrast,
Contaminated Organic pollutant most wastewater in developing countries still receives
groundwater
little or no treatment before it gets discharged into the
environment.
Septic Systems in Rural Areas

2 Inject water containing
dissolved oxygen and limiting Rural residents across the United States and elsewhere
nutrients (e.g., nitrogen, rely on septic systems for treatment of domestic
phosphorus) into contaminated
groundwater to stimulate wastewater. Fortunately, a properly maintained septic
microbial activity. system can effectively treat wastewater and prevent
Microbes
pollution of surface and groundwater. The most
commonly used system in the United States directs all
wastewater from a residence into a septic tank, which
is watertight and generally buried (Figure 13.42). The
appropriate volume of a septic tank depends on the
3 Monitor treated groundwater size of the home it serves, but typical volumes range
to verify microbial activity and from 3,790 to 5,685 liters (1,000 to 1,500 gallons). As
measure oxygen, nutrient, and
contaminant levels. Continue wastewater enters the septic tank, solids settle out,
until contamination is reduced forming sludge, while grease and oils float to the surface.
to acceptable levels.
Naturally occurring bacteria will decompose most of
the organic material in the septic tank, whereas any that
resists decomposition will settle to the bottom of the tank
FIGURE 13.41 Groundwater contaminated with various
as sludge. Sludge will gradually build up over time in
organic chemicals (e.g., gasoline) has been successfully septic tanks, so the tanks need to be pumped periodically
cleaned by creating environmental conditions (e.g., adding an to keep the septic system functioning properly. The
energy source such as sugar) favorable to microbes capable of
breaking down the specific pollutant.
TREATING SEWAGE WITH A SEPTIC SYSTEM
13.12 There are many

effective ways to reduce
organic and nutrient Septic tank Drain field
pollution
Treating waste that contains large concentrations of
organic matter and nutrients draws on both engineering
principles and biological science. The methodology Sludge
applied depends on whether the environment is Filtered

urban or rural and whether it is found in a developed wastewater
or developing country. The largest volumes of waste
requiring treatment are produced in urban settings. Groundwater
Sewage Treatment in Cities FIGURE 13.42 In a septic system, the septic tank serves as
a site for settling of solids and bacterial breakdown of organic
Since city sewers are a major point source of organic matter. Liquids from the system are dispersed and further
and nutrient pollution, governments around the world processed and purified in the drain field.

FOUNDATIONS OF CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS
(Paul R. Sterry/© Nature Photographers Ltd/Alamy)

(Max-Planck-Institut fuer Evolutionsbiologie)
Käthe Seidel Common bulrush,

Schoenoplectus lacustris
FIGURE 13.43 Käthe Seidel, a researcher at the Max Plank Hydrobiological Institute—shown here explaining aspects of her work
to colleagues—pioneered the use of constructed wetlands to treat a wide range of wastes. She was inspired by her doctoral studies
of the common bulrush Schoenoplectus lacustris, which she observed growing in conditions that, prior to her research, were thought
to be impossible for aquatic plants.
frequency of pumping depends on the size of the tank with lower permeability will require larger drain fields to
?
and the volume of the waste it receives. ensure that wastewater can percolate through it without
Water from a septic tank flows out into a drain field backing up and waterlogging the soil.
and percolates downward through the soil, where
Why would a physical and biological processes purify it. For example,
Constructed Wetlands to Treat Diverse Sources
completely waterlogged soil can act as a physical filter, removing bacteria and
of Pollution
viruses from wastewater. Also, soil bacteria consume
soil preclude the use
dissolved organic material carried by the wastewater and Agricultural land represents a major nonpoint source of
of a septic system for
take up nutrients, including phosphorus and nitrogen. organic and nutrient pollution. In addition to regulations
sewage treatment? To be effective, the soils into which conventional septic aimed at reducing runoff from farms, we have long
systems discharge should be deep and well drained. Soils known that natural wetlands have the capacity to remove
THE TWO MAJOR TYPES OF CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS
SURFACE-FLOW WETLAND SUBSURFACE-FLOW WETLAND
Wetland Wetland
plants plants
Inlet Treated Outlet Inlet Treated Impermeable Sand or Gravel Outlet

pipe wastewater pipe pipe wastewater liner soil pipe
FIGURE 13.44 Surface-flow wetlands include areas of open water, providing habitat for a diversity of aquatic organisms,
while subsurface flow constructed wetlands provide habitat for wetland plants but exclude problem aquatic organisms, such as
mosquito larvae.

421
nutrients and other pollutants from water. In the early

1950s, scientists began to systematically experiment INTEGRATED CONSTRUCTED WETLAND STUDY
with artificially constructed wetlands to mimic those AREA
water purification qualities. The pioneer in this work was
Käthe Seidel of the Max Plank Hydrobiological Institute,
who had done her Ph.D. research on the common
10
bulrush, Schoenoplectus lacustris (Figure 13.43). Despite
conventional wisdom to the contrary, she documented
bulrushes growing in highly acidic water, where it appeared
to her that their presence improved the environment. 9 12
From this observation Seidel, nicknamed “Bulrush 11
Kate,” proposed that aquatic plants have the capacity to 8 13
reduce water pollution—a hypothesis that she studied 4 6
systematically until her retirement and beyond. Some of 7
her key discoveries were that some wetland plants, such
5 Dunhill-
as bulrushes, could live in the difficult environmental Annestown
conditions present in wastewater, that the roots of such Stream
plants make effective physical filters, and that they are 2

effective at removing nutrients from wastewater.
Since Seidel’s pioneering work, constructed wetlands 3
have become an effective, low-cost approach to treating 1
?
wastewater that combines simple technology with the
complex ecology of wetlands. There are two basic designs
for constructed wetlands: surface-flow wetlands, which
Integrated constructed
have open water, and subsurface-flow wetlands, without wetland (ICW) sites Why might addressing
areas of open water (Figure 13.44). Today, there are Surface water the aesthetics of
monitoring site
thousands of constructed wetlands used around the Catchment boundary constructed wetlands be
world to treat wastewater not only from agriculture, but 1 km
critical to their long-
also from towns, mines, and a diversity of industries. term success as a waste
We discussed one in Chapter 8 that had been used to
treatment option?
effectively treat Jade Spring Pond in Hanzhou, China (see
Figure 8.37, page 256).
Integrated Constructed Wetlands

Ireland has conducted some of the most comprehensive
studies of constructed wetlands, where a concept called
“integrated constructed wetlands” is applied to entire
watersheds. Promoted by the Irish National Parks
and Wildlife Service, integrated constructed wetlands
(Dunhill Ecopark)
improve aesthetics and increase habitat diversity while

controlling nutrient pollution. The approach is most
appropriate for use in small communities in rural or Integrated constructed wetlands treat waste
suburban settings. from Dunhill Ecopark (background)
In the 1990s, the waters around the town of Dunhill FIGURE 13.45 The Dunhill–Annestown Stream watershed
in southeastern Ireland were classified by the Irish (catchment) in southeastern Ireland has provided an ideal
Environmental Protection Agency as heavily polluted, outdoor laboratory for the study of the integrated constructed
due primarily to agricultural runoff. The watershed wetland concept, aimed at improving water quality and
enhancing biodiversity and landscape aesthetics. The
around Dunhill encompasses 25 square kilometers constructed wetlands in the foreground of this photo are used
within which are 19 working farms, the village of to treat the wastes from the Dunhill Ecopark in the background
Dunhill, and Annestown, located at the lower end of the and the Dunhill Gaelic Athletic Association.
watershed. To counter the problem, the county installed
13 integrated constructed wetlands (Figure 13.45). One
wetland located below a 77-cow dairy reduced ammonia water quality in Annestown Stream improved from
in wastewater by an average of 99% and reduced seriously polluted in 1999 to slightly polluted 2 years
phosphorus by 88% (Figure 13.46). As a consequence, later. Sea run brown trout, Salmo trutta, have returned

after being absent for several decades, common newts

NUTRIENT REMOVAL FROM DAIRY WASTE have colonized all of the constructed wetlands, and
BY A CONSTRUCTED WETLAND IN COUNTY
aquatic invertebrates have increased in diversity within
WATERFORD, IRELAND
the watershed.
60
While constructed wetlands can be harnessed to
treat point sources of pollution, they are less useful for
Input
addressing the very diffuse nonpoint nutrient enrichment
AMMONIA (mg PER LITER)

50
Output
and organic pollution produced by many forms of
40
agriculture. An effective way to reduce pollution from
30 these nonpoint sources is to maintain riparian borders
between fields and watercourses. Nor are constructed
20 wetlands very efficient, in terms of land use, at the other
end of the spectrum of agricultural production intensity,
10
such as preventing pollution from large CAFOs. To
0 effectively treat the waste stream from such operations,
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
YEAR industrial-scale treatment facilities are needed. Of course,
dispersing grazing livestock over extensive areas largely
16
eliminates the need to treat wastes, which will be recycled
within the landscape (Figure 13.47).
PHOSPHORUS (mg PER LITER)
14
Input
! Think About It
12 Output
10
8
1. How do soil characteristics influence the
effectiveness of septic systems for sewage treatment?
6
4 2. Why are constructed wetlands generally

2 inappropriate for treating wastes from large
0
CAFOs?
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
YEAR
FIGURE 13.46 Removal of ammonia from the dairy waste
averaged approximately 99% over the period of record from
2001 to 2007. During the same period of study, phosphorus
removal efficiency by the constructed wetland averaged 88%.
ALTERNATIVE WAYS TO REDUCE ORGANIC AND NUTRIENT POLLUTION

(Photo by Lynn Betts, USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service)
(Matias Vanotti, USDA-ARS, Florence, South Carolina)
(Modfos/Shutterstock)
Riparian vegetation along Highly engineered system (left) for treating waste Low-intensity beef production
Bear Creek, Iowa from 5,200 head swine CAFO (right)
FIGURE 13.47 Riparian forest buffers between agricultural fields and streams and rivers can significantly reduce nutrient pollution. Wastes from CAFOs can be
controlled with an advanced treatment system such as this one, which can almost entirely eliminate organic and nutrient pollution by turning phosphorus wastes into
commercial fertilizer, eliminating nitrogen wastes through denitrification, and eliminating almost all bacterial contamination. Or, reduced consumption of animal protein
could allow a transition from CAFOs to lower-intensity livestock production, such as grass-fed beef production.

423
13.8–13.12 Solutions: environmental contamination, the U.S. Congress

passed the CERCLA, or Superfund Law. Soils
Summary and sediments contaminated with heavy metals
Extreme pollution events in the mid-20th and persistent organic pollutants are difficult to
century encouraged passage of environmental clean up.
regulations, which have helped reduce The solution to reducing PCB release from
environmental pollution around the world. A contaminated sediments in the Hudson River
key development in pollution control regulation was to dredge and remove them. Heavy metals
in the United States was the establishment of the can be removed from soils economically,
Environmental Protection Agency. The passage using plants that accumulate them in their
of the Clean Water Act and the Clean Air tissue. Organic pollutants can also be removed
Act gave the EPA broad authority to regulate from contaminated soils and groundwater
pollution in the United States. The U.S.–Canada using microbial bioremediation. Centralized
Air Quality Agreement has become a model for wastewater treatment facilities providing
international cooperation on environmental secondary or tertiary treatment can serve
pollution. the needs of most people around the world.
Pollution control is achieved through both However, most rural residents across the
command-and-control and market-based United States and elsewhere, where treatment
mechanisms and comes with great health and is required, rely on septic systems for treatment
economic benefits. Detailed analyses of the U.S. of domestic wastewater. Constructed wetlands
EPA’s Acid Rain Program have shown that, as can be an effective, low-cost approach to treating
of 2010, it has resulted in economic benefits wastewater from agriculture and other sources.
far exceeding its costs. With reduced acid rain, The integrated constructed wetland approach
lakes and streams that had been acidified during combines pollution containment and control
the 1970s and 1980s have shown considerable with aesthetic placement of constructed wetlands
recovery. In response to Love Canal in upstate and increased habitat diversity in rural and
New York and other dramatic examples of semirural areas.

Central Question: How can we control and reduce environmental pollution?
13.1–13.3 Science 13.4–13.7 Issues

• What are the main sources of pollutants? • What are the impacts of air pollution on health
and economies?
• What types of pollutants do humans produce?
• How does acid rain damage aquatic and
• How do pollutants move around the planet? terrestrial ecosystems?
• How do persistent pollutants enter the human

food chain?
• In what ways do organic matter and nutrient

pollution disrupt ecosystems?
Pollution and You ! Keep smoking out.
While pollution issues may seem huge in scope and beyond an individual’s Because cigarette smoke contains thousands of harmful chemicals,
reach, there are, in fact, many things that each of us can do to help address it represents one of the most significant threats to the indoor
pollution issues. environment. As a result, one of the critical steps you can take to
protect the air quality in your home is to make it a no-smoking area.
! Stay informed, act informed. Some of the well-documented dangers of exposure to secondhand
Keep up to date on local, regional, national, and global pollution issues. smoke include increased risk of respiratory infections, asthma, and
Many cities post air-quality indexes online or monitor local water health. cancer. Exposure to secondhand smoke is especially dangerous to
Go to http://airnow.gov to find local air-quality scores. When air quality the health of children and infants.
is bad, opt to carpool or take public transportation with others to
reduce emissions. Decrease your use of chemicals like fertilizers and
! Test for radon.
harsh household cleaners that can end up in the water supply. As an The U.S. EPA estimates that radon, a radioactive gas produced during
informed citizen, you can vote on pollution-related issues and urge your the natural decay of uranium, causes more than 20,000 deaths from
community to improve public transportation and water quality. lung cancer in the United States each year. While it occurs in nearly
all geologic formations, radon is more abundant in some settings than
! Use healthy home practices. others. Radon generally enters the home from the ground and can
Small, dust-sized particles in the home can include a variety of build up to unhealthy concentration in homes of any age. Testing for
pollutants including lead, pollen, and dust mites. Clean all surfaces that radon, which is easy using inexpensive, widely available kits, can give
collect dust, including floors, walls, and upholstered furniture, with a you the information you need to determine whether corrective action
vacuum with a HEPA filter. Follow vacuum cleaning with mopping with is needed.
plain water, which will clean dust missed by the vacuum. Dispose of
pet waste properly; in high quantities, it can reduce the oxygen load of
water and spread disease.

425

• What impact have environmental regulation and
international treaties had on reducing pollution
in North America?
• What factors have reduced emissions of

pollutants and acid rain?
• How can technology reduce indoor air pollution?
• How can soils and sediments contaminated by

hazardous wastes be cleaned?
• What are some ways to reduce organic and

nutrient pollution?
Chapter 13 a. Natural eutrophication is a more gradual

process.
a. Mercury is a potent neurotoxin.
b. Mercury contamination of soils is difficult to clean
b. Natural eutrophication does not increase the up.
Review Questions nutrients in lakes. c. Fish and food crops accumulate mercury in their
c. Natural eutrophication does not affect lake depth. tissues.
1. What is pollution?
d. Natural eutrophication does not increase lake d. All of the above
a. Any environmental change caused by humans
primary production.
b. Environmental damage caused by industrial activity
c. Release of chemicals into water, air, or soil 10. Where are constructed wetlands likely to
6. What are some of the costs of air pollution?
d. Alteration of the environment that harms living be most useful for treating wastewater?
a. Millions of premature deaths
organisms a. For treating wastes from large urban centers
b. Deteriorating infrastructure b. For treating farm wastes in sparsely populated rural
2. Which of the following could be considered c. Reduced ecosystem production areas
a point source of pollution? d. All of the above c. For treating wastes from large CAFOs
a. Nutrient-rich runoff from suburban lawns d. For treating diffuse sources of nonpoint sources of
7. Which type of crop plant is least likely
b. Discharge of a city sewage treatment plant into pollution
to accumulate high concentrations of heavy
a river
metals?
c. Smoke emitted by several forest fires
d. Increased particulates in air as a result of regional
a. Root crops such as potatoes Critical Analysis
b. Leafy vegetable crops such as lettuce
drought 1. Is massive pollution an inevitable consequence of
c. Crops producing an edible fruit, such as
3. A decrease in pH from 7 to 6 results in tomatoes economic development? Explain.
which of the following? d. All crops accumulate heavy metals to the same
2. What are the relative advantages and disadvantages
a. A 50% decrease in hydrogen ion concentration extent
of command-and-control versus market-based
b. A doubling of hydrogen ion concentration approaches to controlling pollution?
8. What is the outcome of efforts to control
c. A 10-fold increase in hydrogen ion concentration
acid rain in the United States?
d. A 10-fold decrease in hydrogen ion concentration 3. How do cooperative agreements between Canada
a. There has been no measureable change in acid
and the United States to control air pollution relate to
4. What was the rationale for choosing the rain.
the concept of airsheds?
so-called criteria pollutants? b. The acidity of rain has actually increased across
a. They were chosen randomly from a long list of the United States. 4. Evaluate the evidence that smelting activity near
pollutants. c. Acid rain has decreased in the eastern United Sudbury, Canada, impacted terrestrial and aquatic
b. They are common pollutants that are hazardous to States but not in western states. ecosystems.
human health. d. Acid rain has decreased across the entire United
c. They are among the most toxic substances known. States. 5. Discuss the various ways in which nutrient
d. They were chosen as a result of a poll of enrichment has impacted terrestrial and aquatic
concerned citizens. 9. Which of the following likely motivates ecosystems.
current efforts by the EPA to reduce mercury
Find additional resources and links online at www.
5. What is the main difference between pollution by coal-fired power plants in the
macmillanhighered.com/launchpad/molles1e.
natural and cultural eutrophication of lakes? United States?
we mitigate and adapt to the
environmental and social Explain the factors that control climate
impacts of climate change? and global temperatures.
(Jean-Louis Klein & Marie-Luce Hubert/Science Source) SCIENCE

C H A P T ER 14
Global Climate Change
Analyze the causes and impacts of Discuss the local and international tactics
a warming global climate. that could mitigate global climate change.
ISSUES S O LU T I O N S
428 C HAPTER 14 GL O BA L C LI MATE C HA NGE
SOME CONSEQUENCES OF A WARMER EARTH
(John McColgan, Bureau of Land Management, Alaska Fire Service)

(USDA photo by Bob Nichols)
(Scott Hortop/Getty Images)
Heat waves are setting temperature records and impacting larger and larger areas around the world. High
temperatures combined with drought have been conducive to large wildfires of unprecedented magnitude.
Drought has had severe impacts on agricultural production in regions such as the midwestern United States.
Tracking Wildfires in the West

Raging fires and extreme weather events could become
more common with a changing global climate
A t 7 .m. on June 23, 2012, a jogger was running along

the Waldo Canyon Trail in the mountains above
Colorado Springs, Colorado, when he smelled smoke. He
in Colorado’s history, resulting in insurance claims of more
than $450 million. Although the fire may have been started
by an arsonist, another suspect has been singled out for its
veered off the trail to investigate and found a smoldering rapid spread and devastating impact: climate change.
fire in the woods. After he reported the fire to the local That year, the wildfire season in the West came on the
sheriff’s department, high winds and drought conditions in heels of a period of unrelenting heat. During the 12 months
the forest caused the fire to spread over 600 acres in several from August 2011 to July 2012, land temperatures in the
hours’ time, leading to evacuations of several nearby 48 contiguous United States were the warmest in 117 years
communities. By the time firefighters finally contained of record-keeping. Across Colorado, wildfires blackened
the Waldo Canyon Fire, two and a half weeks later, it nearly 67,000 hectares (165,000 acres) and destroyed over
had burned 7,384 hectares (18,247 acres) and 346 homes, 600 homes. In Montana and New Mexico, they consumed
killing two people. It ranked as the most destructive fire another 529 homes. In Utah and Wyoming, they forced the
H O W CAN W E M ITIGATE AND A DA P T TO THE ENVI R ONMENTA L A ND S OC I A L I MPA C TS OF C LI MATE C H A NG E ?

429
shutdown of natural gas fields, interrupting the flow of of the environmental and economic consequences of climate
critical energy supplies. All told, wildfires in the United change. In fact, they have concluded that by mid-century,
States in 2012 burned more than 1.7 million hectares if present trends continue, the western United States would
(4.1 million acres). be subject to droughts worse than any occurring in the
Abnormally high temperatures in the United States previous 1,000 years. Human action has played a significant
had other impacts as well. For instance, cattle had so little role in changing Earth’s climate, particularly by increasing
healthy pasture that the USDA allowed ranchers to graze the concentrations of gases in the atmosphere that trap the
their cattle on conservation lands set aside for erosion Sun’s energy, leading to a temperature increase of almost 1°C
control and wildlife habitat. Approximately half of the since 1880. Climate scientists predict that climate change will
nation’s corn crop and one-third of the soybean crop include a higher frequency of heat waves, droughts, and other
had failed or were near failing—an episode that would weather extremes along with the loss of the polar ice caps and
play out in the global economy as an increase in food a rise in sea level.
prices. Reduced farm income would hurt a wide range of By the end of the 21st century, climate models suggest
businesses located in agricultural regions. that the temperature of Earth’s surface will rise another
2 to 3°C. “Warming of the climate system is unequivocal,
and since the 1950s, many of the observed changes are
“Preservation of our environment unprecedented over decades to millennia,” wrote the authors
of the fifth assessment of the Intergovernmental Panel for
is not a liberal or conservative Climate Change (IPCC), published in 2014. “It is extremely
challenge, it’s common sense.” likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of
the observed warming.”
President Ronald Reagan, State of the Union address,
January 1984) The good news is that once we recognize that we are
significant contributors to climate change, there are steps we
can take to reduce the problem. However, as we address this
Climate scientists modeling future climates believe issue, we will need to avoid causing other forms of disruption,
that the summer of 2012 may provide a preview of some both environmental and economic.
Central Question
How can we mitigate and adapt
to the environmental and social
impacts of climate change?

(Jean-Louis Klein & Marie-Luce Hubert/Science Source)

14.1–14.4 Science
climate The average weather

occurring across a region over
T he seasons occur so predictably that it’s natural
to assume that the climate—the average weather
occurring across a region over a long period, including
history. Some 20,000 years ago, Wisconsin and New
York state were covered by a massive glacier stretching
down from the north that melted during a rapid period
a long period, including aver-
average temperatures, precipitation, and so forth—has of warming, leaving behind the Great Lakes and other
age temperatures, precipita-
tion, and so forth. always been what it is today and will continue to be that geographic features. Similarly, about 10,000 years ago, parts
way. If, as child, you skied down a snow-covered slope in of the Sahara desert were covered in grass and trees.
weather Atmospheric December or took a dip in a cool stream on a July day, Today, we recognize that the climate is changing
conditions, temperature, you expect that the next generation will be able to do in new and sometimes unpredictable ways due to the
humidity, cloud cover, rainfall,
the same. Indeed, most of human history has occurred release of greenhouse gases and other human activities.
etc. at a particular place and
time (e.g., conditions during a during a period of relative stability, but Earth’s climate has Many ski slopes are no longer receiving the snowfall they
particular day or month). undergone spectacular changes over the course of geologic once did, and some freshwater streams are drying up in
PORTRAITS OF EARTH AND ITS PLANETARY NEIGHBORS
?
What is the difference
between climate and Neptune
weather? Uranus
Mars
Saturn
Earth
Venus Jupiter
Mercury
(NASA/JPL)
FIGURE 14.1 Mars, approximately 228 million kilometers (km) from the Sun, is the smallest of the three planets discussed here. Earth
is approximately 78 million km closer to the Sun and twice the diameter of Mars. Venus is approximately the same size as Earth, around
40 million km, or 30%, closer to the Sun. However, the average temperature of Venus is more than 30 times higher than Earth’s.

431
the summertime. But to really understand how Earth

DISTANCE FROM THE SUN AND AVERAGE TEMPERATURES OF EARTH
is changing and what makes Earth’s climate so unique
AND ITS NEIGHBORS
and fragile, we have to take a journey through the upper
atmosphere and to our neighbors in the solar system. 500
14.1 The atmosphere exerts 400
key controls on planetary 300
temperatures 200
Our solar system contains eight planets, but life is only
known from our own, Earth, which is the third planet 100
from the Sun. You might wonder why and how so much Mars
0
life ended up here instead of, say, on our two planetary Mercury Venus Earth
neighbors, Venus and Mars (Figure 14.1).
−100
In August 2012, NASA’s wheeled rover Curiosity 0 40 80 120 160 200 240
landed on Mars and sent back bleak images of a red, DISTANCE FROM SUN (MILLIONS OF km)
stone- and sand-strewn landscape stretching to the
FIGURE 14.3 The average temperatures of Mercury, Earth, and Mars show a fairly regular
horizon (Figure 14.2). Those stark, lifeless views were decrease with increased distance from the Sun. The very high temperature of Venus, appearing
hardly surprising because the average surface temperature as a dramatic exception to this pattern, suggests that distance from the nearest source of radiant
is about –65°C (–85°F), a place where even a polar bear energy is not the only factor influencing planetary temperatures.
would have trouble staying warm. It still might be possible
that there are microbes hidden in some icy crevice, but
they would have to be highly resistant to freezing. As for compare Earth to the bowl of porridge in the classic
Venus, life as we know it would be impossible, because it’s fairy tale of Goldilocks and the three bears. They write
about as hot as a traditional wood-fired pizza oven: The that our planet was neither too cold nor too hot but “just
surface temperature averages 464°C (867°F). right” for humanity. What do you think produces the
Sitting comfortably between the temperature extremes differences in temperature among these planets?
of Mars and Venus, we find Earth, with an average Distance from the Sun explains some of the differences.
global temperature of about 15°C (59°F), a climate to However, whereas Venus is closer than Earth to the Sun,
which its inhabitants are well attuned. In their 2012 book Venus is 2.8 times hotter than the planet Mercury, which
The Goldilocks Planet: The 4 Billion Year Story of Earth’s is the closest planet to the Sun (Figure 14.3). Clearly,
Climate, authors Jan Zalasiewicz and Mark Williams distance to the Sun is not all that accounts for how
climates differ.
Atmosphere and Planetary Temperature

IMAGE OF A MARTIAN LANDSCAPE Earth’s atmosphere is a layer of gases that stretches
from the surface of Earth to the edge of space, some
500 kilometers above the surface. Our atmosphere is
made up mainly of nitrogen and oxygen, which are
basically transparent to visible sunlight. On a clear day,
most of the Sun’s beams penetrate the atmosphere like a
glass window and hit Earth’s surface, where two things
happen. Some of that light is immediately reflected back
toward the sky, particularly when it has hit a bright
surface like fresh, white snow. Most of it warms Earth’s
surface like a parking lot on a summer day, and that
(NASA/JPL–Caltech//MSSS)
energy is slowly re-emitted not as visible light, but as

infrared radiation, one avenue for transmission of heat
energy. Consider that even after the Sun has set on a
particularly hot day and there is no more visible light,
you can still feel the heat radiating from the ground.
Infrared radiation has longer wavelengths than
FIGURE 14.2 The mobile robotic laboratory Curiosity sent
this panoramic photo of a landscape from its point of landing on visible light, which means it has different properties.
Mars within the Gale Crater. The rim of the crater is seen in the Most of it does not pass back through the atmosphere
distance. into outer space, but is rather absorbed by clouds
S CI EN CE ISSUES SOLUTIONS
THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT
Solar energy absorbed by

atmospheric gases & clouds
Sun Earth’s warm
Infrared light atmospheric envelope
radiated to space
Energy reradiated from

atmospheric gases &
clouds as infrared light
Sunlight reflected
by clouds and
Earth’s surface
Energy reradiated
from Earth’s surface
as infrared light
Solar energy
absorbed by
Earth’s surface Earth
FIGURE 14.4 Earth’s atmosphere is relatively transparent to incoming sunlight, absorbing mainly in
the infrared and ultraviolet ranges. Sunlight not reflected is absorbed by atmospheric gases, clouds,
and Earth’s surface. Solar energy absorbed by Earth’s surface, clouds, or atmospheric gases is
radiated as infrared light, heating Earth’s surface and atmosphere in the process.
and gases such as carbon dioxide and water vapor,

creating a warm blanket of air. This phenomenon
14.2 Scientists began
is known as the greenhouse effect and heats Earth building the basis for
approximately 33°C above what it would be without understanding the
an atmosphere, making life on the planet possible greenhouse effect more
(Figure 14.4).
Differences in the greenhouse effect account for
than 200 years ago
difference in the climates of Earth, Mars, and Venus. The fast-paced study of climate change today has its
Mars’s atmosphere is made up of over 95% carbon roots in some landmark scientific discoveries dating back
dioxide, but it is just 1% as dense as Earth’s, giving to the 19th century. After 35 years of playing the oboe,
its atmosphere very little heat-trapping capacity, hence violin, and harpsichord, the German-born composer
its frigid temperatures. At the other extreme, the Fredrick William Herschel began experimenting with a
atmosphere of Venus is also almost entirely carbon new instrument: the telescope. On February 11, 1800,
dioxide, but it is 92 times denser than Earth’s. Therefore, he was testing out colored filters to observe Sun spots
it traps massive amounts of heat, producing a huge and noticed that filters of different colors seemed to pass
greenhouse effect. different amounts of heat. Observing these differences,
he decided to measure how much heat was carried by
! Think About It various colors of light. To do so, Herschel used a prism
to break up the solar spectrum into its component
1. Which environments on Earth reflect most of the wavelengths and then compared the temperatures
Sun’s energy? recorded by thermometers exposed to each color of light
greenhouse effect The 2. What would physical conditions on Earth be like with the temperature recorded by two thermometers
absorbing and reradiating
if there was no carbon dioxide or water vapor in the outside the light beam (Figure 14.5). To his surprise, he
of infrared light by various found that the highest temperatures of all occurred just
components of Earth’s atmosphere?
beyond the red portion of the spectrum, where there
atmosphere, resulting in higher
surface and atmospheric
3. If you were trying to find another planet that was no visible light! Herschel found that these “calorific
temperatures. would support life, what would you look for? rays,” as he referred to them, were absorbed, reflected,

433
DISCOVERING INFRARED LIGHT
Sunlight
Prism
(Apic/Getty Images)
Fredrick William Herschel Visible light Infrared light
FIGURE 14.5 Using an ingenious device of his own design, Fredrick William Herschel
accidentally discovered the existence of invisible infrared light in 1800 while measuring the
heat content of light bands within the visible spectrum. In the part of his experiments shown
here, one of the thermometers is positioned just beyond the red portion of the spectrum, where
Herschel measured higher temperatures than in any of the visible parts of the solar spectrum.
and transmitted just like visible light. He had discovered variation in atmospheric carbon dioxide. For instance,
infrared radiation. volcanic eruptions introduced carbon dioxide into the
Not long afterward, the French mathematician Jean- atmosphere, whereas the formation of carbonate rocks
Baptiste Fourier recognized the significance of infrared and coal reduced it. By the early 20th century, Arrhenius
light to Earth’s climate. In 1827 Fourier proposed that
a planet gained energy primarily from the Sun and
continued to increase in temperature until its rate of TYNDALL’S INSTRUMENT FOR MEASURING ABSORPTION OF
INFRARED LIGHT BY TRACE GASES
energy gain was equaled by its rate of energy loss in the
form of infrared light. He also suggested that Earth’s
atmosphere was analogous to a pane of glass, which
readily transmits visible light but is much less transparent
to infrared light. Although Fourier made a number
(From Contributions to Molecular Physics in the Domain of Radiant Heat by John Tyndall,
of errors, he established the central concepts of the

greenhouse effect that are still in use today.
One thing missing from Fourier’s understanding of the
greenhouse effect was the significance of various gases in
the atmosphere. By passing infrared light through a gas-
filled tube, the British physicist John Tyndall was able to
estimate how much infrared light a particular gas absorbed
LL.D.F.R.S. D. Appleton and Company, 1873)
(Figure 14.6). He found that oxygen and nitrogen were

largely transparent to infrared light. However, trace gases
in the atmosphere—including water vapor, carbon dioxide,
and nitrous oxide—were strong absorbers of infrared light.
Without these trace gases, Tyndall asserted that Earth
would transform into a frozen world.
Indeed, geologic research at that time was starting
to point toward the existence of such a frozen world in
the past. During the last Ice Age, Northern Europe and FIGURE 14.6 In 1861 John Tyndall published the results of his studies
North America were covered by extensive glaciers. At demonstrating that a number of trace atmospheric gases absorb infrared light,
other times, the climate had been much warmer. What thereby identifying the mechanism for the warming of Earth’s atmosphere proposed
a quarter-century earlier. In his tests, Tyndall would fill a tube in the instrument with
was responsible for the wide variation in climate? The a particular atmospheric gas, such as carbon dioxide. Then, by passing infrared
Swedish chemist and Nobel Laureate Svante Arrhenius light through the tube and measuring the amount absorbed, he could determine the
proposed that it resulted from processes that produced potential contribution of that gas to the greenhouse effect. (From Tyndall, 1861)
pointed out, carbon dioxide emissions from the burning molecules in the ancient atmosphere. In other words,
of coal rivaled emissions from volcanoes, and increased there were between 170 and 300 ppm CO2. Today, Earth’s
burning of coal could lead to future global warming. atmosphere contains more than 400 ppm CO2.
He predicted that a further doubling of atmospheric Carbon dioxide has fluctuated over time. When
carbon dioxide would raise global temperatures 5° to temperatures were low, carbon dioxide levels were also
6°C, while a halving of those levels would decrease global low, and when temperatures were higher, carbon dioxide
temperatures by 4° to 5°C. Arrhenius was generally levels were elevated. One of the most notable features
correct about the impact of carbon dioxide and other of the record of glacial and interglacial periods is their
atmospheric gases on global temperatures. However, regular occurrence at approximately 100,000-year
he had no satisfactory explanation for how cycling of intervals. Over the last 800,000 years, there have been
the climate between ice ages and warmer periods is exactly nine ice ages. What accounts for these climate
produced. We now know that these climate cycles are cycles? It turns out they coincide with changes in various
triggered by variation in the tilt of Earth’s axis and the features of Earth’s orbit and rotation on its axis.
shape of its orbit around the Sun.
Role of Earth Orbital Cycles
! Think About It In the 1920s and 1930s, Milutin Milankovitch, a Serbian
astronomer, began studying the theory that ice ages
1. Imagine looking at the world with an infrared
were caused by periodic changes in Earth’s rotation on
camera. What objects would glow most brightly? its axis and orbit around the Sun. He hypothesized that
2. Can you find examples of volcanoes changing the the amount of Sun hitting Earth during the summer
climate in the past? is critical to the beginning or ending of an ice age
because it dictates whether snow accumulates year after
year. Milankovitch reasoned that when solar radiation
was weak and temperatures cooler during Northern
14.3 Global temperatures Hemisphere summers, snow would begin to accumulate,
and atmospheric CO2 initiating an ice age.
concentrations have varied Milankovitch identified three major aspects of Earth’s
cyclically orbital cycles that could influence solar inputs. The first
aspect is variation in the shape of Earth’s elliptical orbit
Over the course of Earth’s history, there have been
around the Sun, which lengthens and shortens on a
many ice ages, which have occurred with striking
100,000-year cycle. This variation in eccentricity affects
regularity. Although carbon dioxide concentrations in
solar inputs because it changes Earth’s distance from
the atmosphere play a key role in the changing climate,
the Sun. Presently, Earth’s low eccentricity produces an
scientists now understand that a number of factors
input of solar radiation that is about 6% lower on July 4,
interact to set the clock for these cycles.
when Earth is farthest from the Sun, than on January 3,
when the planet is closest to the Sun. At its highest
The Climate Record in Ice
eccentricity, this difference in solar inputs is 20% to 30%.
As snow accumulates in Earth’s cold places on high The second aspect is the cycle in the tilt of Earth’s
mountains and at high latitudes, it compresses axis of rotation, from a minimum of 21.5° to 24.5° every
lower layers and transforms snow into ice, trapping a 41,000 years. The tilt cycle produces variation in heating
sample of air from the distant past. It turns out that of the planet’s two hemispheres at high latitudes. A low
when temperatures are higher, water vapor in the axial tilt decreases the amount of insolation at high
atmosphere contains more deuterium, a heavy isotope of latitudes, producing cooler summers, allowing snow and
hydrogen. That means climate scientists can use these ice ice to build up, as well as warmer winters. During periods
samples to measure both the past concentrations of gases with a higher axial tilt, winter snow melts during the
in the atmosphere and to estimate historical temperatures. hotter summers at high latitudes. Currently, with an axial
eccentricity Variation in European teams recently drilled more than 3.2 kilo- tilt of 23.5°, Earth is midway between these two extremes.
the shape of Earth’s orbit
around the Sun.
meters (more than 2 miles) deep into the Antarctic The third aspect identified by Milankovitch is that
ice cap (Figure 14.7) using the ice core they retrieved Earth wobbles on its axis on a 26,000-year cycle. Earth’s
precession of the to reconstruct an 800,000-year record of the climate. axial wobble produces the precession of the equinoxes,
equinoxes Slow drift in Because atmospheric gases are present at extremely low which causes the equinoxes to occur at different points in
the position in Earth’s orbit concentrations in the atmosphere, scientists report their Earth’s orbit over time, repeating itself every 26,000 years.
at which the quinoxes
occur, a cycle repeating
measurements in units of parts per million (ppm). In Changing the positions of the equinoxes and solstices in
itself approximately every this study, the scientists found that there were between Earth’s orbit changes the amount of sunlight received in
26,000 years. 170 and 300 molecules of CO2 for every million gas the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. Precession of

435
800,000-YEAR CARBON DIOXIDE AND TEMPERATURE RECORD
8
TEMPERATURE VARIATION (°C)
−4
−8
−12
(CarstenPeter/National Geographic/Getty Images)

300
CO 2 (PARTS PER MILLION)
250
200
150
100
800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0
THOUSANDS OF YEARS BEFORE PRESENT
FIGURE 14.7 Cores of ice drilled from the Antarctic ice cap by several research teams (photo) provide insights into past climates
and concentrations of atmospheric carbon dioxide. The two graphs show that increases and decreases in air temperature (upper
panel) correspond to increases and decreases in levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide (lower panel) recorded in Antarctic ice over
the past 800,000 years. (Data from Lüthi et al., 2008)
the equinoxes can create more dramatic seasons (warmer These cycles are today referred to collectively as
summers, colder winters) or less dramatic seasons (cooler Milankovitch Cycles and seem to explain the occurrence
summers, warmer winters). At present, Earth is closest of ice ages over the last 800,000 years (Figure 14.8). It’s Milankovitch Cycles
Cyclic changes in the shape of
to the Sun during the winter solstice in the Northern important to understand how the Milankovitch Cycles
Earth’s orbit, tilt in its axis, and
Hemisphere and farthest from the Sun during the affect Earth’s climate, but planetary motions do not precession of the equinoxes
Northern Hemisphere’s summer solstice, which reduces explain the unprecedented rise in global temperatures that produce variation in
the seasonal contrast in the Northern Hemisphere. over the last century. Earth’s climate.
MILANKOVITCH CYCLES
ECCENTRICITY AXIAL TILT PRECESSION

Variation in the shape of Earth’s orbit from elliptical Change in axial tilt from 21.5° to 24.5°, which affects the Variation in the position in Earth’s orbit at which the
(high eccentricity) to nearly circular (low eccentricity) distribution of solar energy from the equator to the poles equinoxes occur
PERIODICITY: 100,000 years PERIODICITY: 41,000 years PERIODICITY: 26,000 years
Earth 21.5° 24.5° Winter Summer
Sun Summer
Winter
Summer Winter
Elliptical Circular
(high eccentricity) (low eccentricity)
FIGURE 14.8 Aspects of the Milankovitch Cycles affect the input of solar energy to Earth.
FIGURE 14.9 At the end of the last

glacial maximum, increased global CO2 RISE AND INCREASES IN GLOBAL VERSUS ANTARCTIC TEMPERATURES
temperatures (orange line) followed
Higher 300
rising atmospheric CO2 concentrations
(yellow line). Meanwhile, Antarctica
CO 2 (PARTS PER MILLION)

Global temperature
temperatures (blue line) either rose Antarctic temperature 260
before CO2 concentrations rose or CO 2 concentration
TEMPERATURE
coincided with rising atmospheric CO2.
(Data from Shakun et al., 2012) 220
180
Lower 140
22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8
THOUSANDS OF YEARS BEFORE PRESENT
Hemispherical Differences in Timing of Warming Shakun proposed that Milankovitch Cycles had
initiated the end of the last glacial period and set off
Although CO2 and temperature are tightly coupled
a complicated reaction. First, greater sunlight in the
in the Antarctic ice record, scientists discovered that
Northern Hemisphere led to the melting of glaciers
temperature increases there happen before carbon
about 19,000 years ago. The influx of freshwater into
dioxide levels increase. That fact may seem puzzling, but
the Atlantic Ocean weakened the Atlantic Meridional
as we shall now see, carbon dioxide is part of a global
Overturning Current (AMOC), an ocean current that
feedback loop, meaning it can be both a contributing
normally transports heat from the Southern Hemisphere
cause and a consequence of a warming climate. In order
to the north (Figure 14.10). This weakening trapped
to understand this concept, we need to zoom out of
heat in the Southern Hemisphere, including Antarctica.
Antarctica and take a look at other forces that shape
As the southern oceans warmed, the solubility of the
Earth’s climate as a whole.
CO2 they held decreased, resulting in a release of CO2
Carbon dioxide clearly plays a key role in shaping
to the atmosphere, much like CO2 is released from a
Earth’s climate over geologic time. Scientists have begun
carbonated beverage as it warms. This massive release of
to understand how it interacts with the Milankovitch
CO2 by the southern oceans amplified the warming of
Cycles and why we should be concerned about future
Earth via the greenhouse effect, speeding the end of the
carbon dioxide emissions. In 2012 Jeremy Shakun
last ice age.
of Harvard and Columbia’s Lamont–Doherty Earth
Thus, while the timing of ice ages and interglacial
Observatory decided to focus on the last ice age in greater
periods is set by Milankovitch Cycles, the speed of the
detail to understand how the greenhouse effect interacted
transition may be determined by carbon dioxide in the
with Milankovitch Cycles.
atmosphere. As we shall see in the next section, when
Rather than studying just an Antarctic ice core, he and
we think about Earth’s climate on a human timeline—
his research team reconstructed temperature records
hundreds or, perhaps, thousands of years—carbon
from both the Northern and Southern Hemisphere using
dioxide in the atmosphere remains our fundamental
a variety of approaches. For instance, the tiny shells of
concern for the future.
some marine plankton contain both magnesium and
calcium, but the ratios of these two elements are known
to correlate closely with temperature. Rather than taking ! Think About It
a core from the Antarctic ice, the researchers took cores
1. Because higher carbon dioxide concentrations
from the ocean bottom, which contains these shells
are correlated with higher temperatures in the
going back in time. On land, they could take cores from
lake bottoms, which are packed with pollen from plants,
800,000-year ice record, would it be accurate to
which reflect the type of ecosystem present at a specific conclude that carbon dioxide caused increases in
time. Examining these various cores, Shakun confirmed Earth's temperature?
the Antarctic results that in the Southern Hemisphere 2. Would a planet without Milankovitch Cycles have
warming occurred before CO2 increases. However, in
ice ages?
the Northern Hemisphere, and on Earth as a whole,
temperature began to rise five centuries after increases in 3. What other biological phenomena capture
CO2 (Figure 14.9). information on climates from the past?

437
FIGURE 14.10 The AMOC

ATLANTIC MERIDIONAL OVERTURNING CURRENT (AMOC) AND WARMING
(orange arrows) transports heat
OF THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE
from the Southern Hemisphere to
the Northern Hemisphere. Climate
scientists propose that large amounts
of freshwater runoff in the Northern
Hemisphere from melting glaciers about
19,000 years ago weakened this flow
of heat-conveying water to the Northern
Hemisphere, resulting in early warming
of the Southern Hemisphere.
Warm surface current

Cold subsurface current
14.4 Atmospheric CO2 summer than during a Colorado winter. Consequently,

as CO2 emissions notch up global temperatures, the
appears to be the thermostat amount of water vapor in the atmosphere also increases,
controlling global resulting in a positive feedback loop that amplifies the
temperatures greenhouse effect (see Chapter 2, page 48). For instance,
Because of the global scale of the questions posed if CO2 concentrations in the atmosphere increase and
by climate scientists today, the vast amounts of data global temperatures increase, the amount of water vapor
involved, and the inability to conduct conventional in the atmosphere will also increase, resulting in higher
experiments, computers and computer models are
essential to climate research. Climate models are built
on systems of mathematical equations, and scientists
use them to refine studies of a particular problem and RELATIVE INFLUENCES ON THE GREENHOUSE
test their hypotheses. In the early 2000s, scientists at EFFECT
the NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies in New
York City developed one such model, called ModelE PERCENT OF GREENHOUSE EFFECT
(GISS ModelE), to simulate the interaction between
Earth’s atmosphere and its oceans, land, and ice based on
GREENHOUSE
fundamental physics. AMPLIFIERS
Using the program, they could take a snapshot of the Water vapor
impact of different gases in the atmosphere on global Clouds
temperatures. They found that the most important gas NON-CONDENSING

in the atmosphere for absorbing infrared radiation and GASES
directing heat back to Earth’s surface is water vapor, Carbon dioxide

Other gases
which accounted for half of the greenhouse effect.
Next, clouds absorb one-quarter of this energy. Finally,
CO2 represents just one-fifth of the greenhouse effect,
followed by other greenhouse gases such as methane and
nitrous oxide (Figure 14.11). FIGURE 14.11 Water vapor and clouds jointly produce
You might conclude that carbon dioxide is a minor approximately 75% of the greenhouse effect, while carbon
player in global temperatures, but the story is a little dioxide and other gases, such as methane and nitrous oxide, are
more complicated. As Arrhenius noted more than a responsible for 20% and 5%, respectively. Unlike water vapor,
century earlier, water vapor is much more variable than carbon dioxide does not condense into liquid and precipitate
at temperatures found in Earth’s atmosphere. Therefore, like a
atmospheric CO2 in time and space. That’s because thermostat, carbon dioxide (along with some other trace gases)
warm air absorbs more water vapor than cold air, which sets the level of the greenhouse effect, while water vapor and
is why it can be so much more humid during a Florida clouds amplify their effects. (Data from Lacis et al., 2010)
rates of decomposition, which releases CO2 into the where we take CO2 out of the atmosphere in real life, but
atmosphere. This is only one of several positive feedbacks we can model it. In one simulation, the Goddard team
that can increase the greenhouse effect (Figure 14.12). eliminated CO2 and other greenhouse gases and watched
The reverse, a negative feedback, can also occur. A form the response over time. During the first year, global
of negative feedback is one in which an increase in some temperatures in the model dropped by nearly 5°C, and
factor in a system, such as a climate system, produces a after 50 years temperatures had dropped nearly 35°C to
decrease in that factor within the system. For example, –21°C, leaving only one-third of the world’s oceans free
negative feedback An increased atmospheric CO2, higher temperatures, and of ice (Figure 14.13).
increase in some factor increased moisture can stimulate plant growth, which Furthermore, as Arrhenius had predicted so long ago,
in a system, such as a
climate system, produces
will remove CO2 from the atmosphere. atmospheric water vapor dropped precipitously by 90%.
a decrease in that factor So how big of an impact does carbon dioxide have on So, even though CO2 is only the third largest contributor
within the system. Earth’s climate? It’s not possible to run an experiment to Earth’s greenhouse effect, the Goddard research team
POSITIVE FEEDBACKS IN RESPONSE TO CO2 FORCES GLOBAL WARMING

OR COOLING
POSITIVE FEEDBACK LEADING TO GLOBAL WARMING
ATMOSPHERIC CO2
Increased atmosperic CO2
traps more infrared light.
DECOMPOSITION TEMPERATURE
Higher temperatures More infrared light heats
lead to increased rates of the atmosphere and the
decomposition, which surface of the planet.
further increases
atmospheric CO2
concentrations.
TEMPERATURE ATMOSPHERIC WATER VAPOR

More water vapor in the Higher temperatures cause
atmosphere increases more water vapor to evaporate
greenhouse trapping of heat. into the atmosphere and
increase the capacity of air to
hold water vapor.
POSITIVE FEEDBACK LEADING TO GLOBAL COOLING
ATMOSPHERIC CO2
Decreased atmosperic CO2
traps less infrared light.
DECOMPOSITION TEMPERATURE
Lower temperatures Less infrared light cools
lead to decreased rates the atmosphere and the
of decomposition, which surface of the planet.
further decreases
atmospheric CO2
concentrations.
TEMPERATURE ATMOSPHERIC WATER VAPOR

Less water vapor in the Lower temperatures reduce
atmosphere decreases evaporation and lower the
greenhouse trapping of heat. capacity of the atmosphere
to hold water vapor.
FIGURE 14.12 Two examples of positive feedbacks in the Earth system that can contribute to
global climate change.

439
CONSEQUENCES OF POSITIVE FEEDBACK FOLLOWING REMOVAL OF NON-

CONDENSING GASES FROM EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE
20 100
Surface temperature (°C)
Water vapor in atmosphere
SURFACE TEMPERATURE (°C)
Energy loss at top of atmosphere
10 80
PERCENT CHANGE
0 60
−10 40
−20 20
−30 0
0 10 20 30 40 50
YEAR
FIGURE 14.13 The GISS ModelE shows that removing key greenhouse gases, including CO2,
methane (CH4 ), and nitrous oxide (N2O), from the atmosphere would lead to a rapid decline in water
vapor, increased loss of infrared heat radiation at the top of the atmosphere, and precipitous decline
in planetary temperature. (After Lacis et al., 2010)
concluded that it is the primary determinant of global

temperatures, with atmospheric water vapor levels 14.1–14.4 Science:
following along as temperatures increase or decrease.
Because we live on a Goldilocks planet, a temperature
Summary
change of just a few degrees can have startling The composition of planetary atmospheres
consequences for life on Earth, as we shall see in the accounts for much of the differences in
next section. temperatures among the planets in the solar
system.
! Think About It Based on two centuries of scientific research,
we know that trace gases in the atmosphere,
1. You might consider the increased burning of fossil including water vapor, carbon dioxide, and
fuels a massive experiment with Earth’s climate. nitrous oxide, absorb infrared light and heat the
What is missing in order to test the effect of this planet’s surface—the greenhouse effect.
treatment? (Hint: What are the key parts of a well- Ice cores and other lines of evidence show
designed experiment?) periods of global low temperatures coinciding
with low CO2 concentrations, and high
2. Besides water vapor and carbon dioxide, what temperatures with high CO2 concentrations.
might be some other potential sources of positive or Such cycling also coincides with cycles in Earth’s
negative feedback in the climate system? orbit around the Sun, wobble on its axis, and tilt
in its axis of rotation.
CO2 acts as a thermostat for global
temperatures: As CO2 levels rise, Earth’s
temperature slowly increases, which adds water
vapor to the atmosphere, causing temperatures to
increase even more in a positive feedback loop.
Even small changes in CO2 levels can result in
climate changes with serious impacts on Earth’s
biodiversity and on human, social, and economic
systems.
14.5–14.8 Issues
I n the early days of our species, it was inconceivable

that we could alter the climate system. Our numbers
were too few and our impacts immaterial. However, a
at 3,397 meters (11,138 feet) on Mauna Loa, a volcano on
the island of Hawaii (Figure 14.14).
growing body of scientific evidence demonstrates that Mauna Loa and the Keeling Curve
human activity is responsible for increasing the levels At the time Keeling began his measurements, there was
of greenhouse gases in Earth’s atmosphere. In response, widespread disagreement in the scientific community about
global temperatures are increasing, accompanied by the atmospheric effects of fossil fuel burning. The prevailing
other aspects of climate change. The changing climate has idea was that the vast oceans, which actively exchange CO2
already caused shifts in species’ geographic distributions with the overlying air, would be capable of rapidly absorbing
and damaged important natural ecosystems. Unchecked, excess atmospheric CO2. Scientists saw Keeling’s precise
climate change threatens further impacts, ranging from measurements as a way to settle the debate.
species’ extinctions and agricultural failures to the Keeling’s first two years at Mauna Loa produced a
displacement of human populations. sawtooth plot showing CO2 rising and falling with each
season. The reason for this sawtooth pattern is that the
14.5 Precise measurements concentration of CO2 reaches a maximum during each
reveal that fossil fuel
burning is the main cause of MAUNA LOA CO2 OBSERVATORY
increased atmospheric CO2
levels
On May 18, 1955, Charles David Keeling, a young
postdoctoral researcher, set up camp near a coastal river
in California’s Big Sur State Park.
Keeling was a young chemist and outdoor enthusiast
interested in learning how carbon dioxide moved
between water and air, as part of a geological study of
limestone. There in the sheltering redwoods, Keeling was
having such a good time, he took water and air samples
every few hours throughout the day and night, far more
than he needed. He went back to his university, the
(Jonathan Kingston/National Geographic Creative/Getty Images)
California Institute of Technology, with some surprising

findings—not just about limestone, but about Earth’s
atmosphere itself.
First, he found that the CO2 concentration in the forest
air changed on a daily cycle. It decreased during the day, as
plants took in CO2 to make sugar during photosynthesis,
and increased during the night due to respiration by plants
and other organisms. Second, he determined that CO2
concentrations in air were about the same everywhere
he made measurements in the afternoon: 310 parts per
million (ppm). No one had ever measured CO2 in the
atmosphere so consistently and so precisely before.
Word of Keeling’s groundbreaking work soon found its FIGURE 14.14 The CO2 observatory was located on Mauna
Loa because its location far from sources of air pollution would
way to Harry Wexler at the U.S. Weather Bureau. Wexler produce better-quality data. The concentrations of atmospheric
offered him a chance to measure atmospheric CO2 carbon dioxide have been monitored at the Mauna Loa
around the world, including at a new observatory located Observatory for over half a century.

441
MEASUREMENTS OF ATMOSPHERIC CARBON DIOXIDE FROM MAUNA LOA, HAWAII
An annual seesaw: CO 2 concentration is

highest during the Northern Hemisphere
winter, when ecosystem respiration
400 pumps CO 2 into the atmosphere. Then it
declines during the growing season as
photosynthesizing land plants in the
Northern Hemisphere absorb CO 2 from
CO2 (PARTS PER MILLION)
380 the surrounding air.
360
340
(UC San Diego Library)

320
300
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 Charles Keeling
YEAR
FIGURE 14.15 Charles David Keeling began making measurements of carbon dioxide on Mauna Loa in 1958, and those
measurements have continued to the present. The result was the Keeling Curve, showing for the first time that atmospheric carbon
dioxide concentrations were indeed increasing, as Svante Arrhenius in 1896 predicted they would. This longest continuous record
of atmospheric CO2 has provided innumerable insights into the global carbon cycle and how humans may be affecting Earth’s
atmosphere. (Data from the Earth System Research Laboratory of NOAA)
?
Northern Hemisphere winter as respiration by all the 25%. This striking graph is what we now call the Keeling
organisms that make up ecosystems pump CO2 into Curve (Figure 14.15).
the atmosphere. Then it declines during the Northern The dramatic modern increase in atmospheric CO2
Hemisphere growing season as plants come out of becomes especially apparent when we look back in time, Why was Keeling’s
dormancy and rates of photosynthesis increase across the again using the ice record. As shown in Figure 14.16, carbon dioxide detector
northern continental landmasses. As Keeling continued atmospheric CO2 oscillated around an average of about set in Hawaii of all
taking these measurements over the next 50 years, he saw 280 ppm for approximately 1,800 years and then began places?
the sawtooth curve gradually rising at Mauna Loa. By rising with increased fossil fuel use during the Industrial
2012 atmospheric CO2 had increased by approximately Revolution, which began in the late 18th century, just as
RECORD OF ATMOSPHERIC CARBON DIOXIDE FROM THE YEAR 1 TO 2011 CE
400
380
CO2 (PARTS PER MILLION)
360
340
320
300
280
260
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
YEAR
FIGURE 14.16 Following 18 centuries of oscillating around an average concentration of approximately 280 parts per million (ppm),
atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration increased rapidly after 1800, increasing over 100 ppm by the year 2011. (Data from
Etheridge et al., 1996; MacFarling Meure et al., 2006; Scripps CO2 Program, http://scrippsco2.ucsd.edu)

The relative concentrations of 13C and 12C can also be

DECLINE IN CONCENTRATIONOF 13C RELATIVE TO 12C IN
used to determine the source of increased atmospheric
ATMOSPHERIC CO2
CO2 over the past two centuries. Because fossil fuels
−6.0 formed over millions of years out of compressed plant
biomass, the carbon dioxide released when fossil fuels
C13
combust also contains relatively low concentrations of
RELATIVE CONCENTRATION OF
−6.5
the 13C isotope compared with that in the atmosphere.
In contrast, carbon dioxide in the oceans has the same
−7.0
ratio of 13C to 12C as the atmosphere. If atmospheric CO2
increases are the result of fossil fuel burning, which is
−7.5
relatively rich in 12C, the relative concentration of 13C
should begin to decline after the Industrial Revolution
−8.0 in 1800—and that is exactly what has happened
(Figure 14.17).
−8.5 Meanwhile, other greenhouse gases—specifically,
1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000 2050
methane, CH4, and nitrous oxide, N2O—have also
YEAR
increased since the Industrial Revolution (Figure 14.18).
FIGURE 14.17 As the concentration of atmospheric CO2 Some of these gases come from agricultural sources in
increased after 1800, the relative concentration of 13C in atmospheric
CO2 has declined, indicating that the buildup of atmospheric CO2
is largely the result of the burning of fossil fuels and biomass, which
contain less 13C relative to 12C. (Data from Friedli et al., 1986, and INCREASES IN GREENHOUSE GAS
Scripps CO2 Program) CONCENTRATIONS
380
Svante Arrhenius predicted it would—except it has risen 340
CO2 (ppm)
even faster than Arrhenius anticipated.
300
Carbon Isotopes and Fossil Fuels

260
Because fossil fuel emissions are not the only source
of carbon dioxide in Earth’s atmosphere, alternative
hypotheses are that the rise in CO2 concentrations
might be due to volcanic eruptions or might result from 1,800
emissions from the oceans. Volcanic eruptions can

be discounted as the source of increased atmospheric 1,400
CH4 (ppb)
carbon dioxide since fossil fuel burning releases over

100 times more CO2 to the atmosphere. How about the 1,000
oceans as the source? Scientists can answer this question
by looking at the ratio of two carbon isotopes in the
600
atmosphere, 13C to 12C, which Keeling had also measured
in Big Sur.
Because plants preferentially take in the lighter
12
C isotope from the air, plant biomass, and therefore 320
the CO2 emitted by plants during respiration, has a

higher relative concentration of 12C than occurs in 300
N2O (ppb)
the atmosphere. At Big Sur, Keeling could see that

the 13C isotope decreased in relative concentration at 280
night, when the plants respired and weren’t absorbing
carbon dioxide during photosynthesis, and increased
260
in relative concentration during the day when the 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000
plants photosynthesized, removing 12C-rich carbon YEAR
dioxide from the atmosphere. These carbon isotope
FIGURE 14.18 Carbon dioxide is not the only greenhouse gas
measurements proved to Keeling that respiration by that has increased during the past two centuries. The atmospheric
plants was primarily responsible for the buildup of CO2 concentrations of both methane (CH4 ) and nitrous oxide (N2O)
in Big Sur during the forest night. have also increased. (Data from MacFarling & Meure, 2006)

443
addition to fossil fuel burning. For instance, flooded rice other than greenhouse gases significantly affect global
paddies and livestock such as cattle and buffalo produce temperatures, at least in the short term. One of the main
significant quantities of climate-warming methane. sources of this discrepancy is the El Niño Southern
Oscillation (ENSO), which we reviewed in Chapter 6 (see
! Think About It page 161). For instance, the peak in global temperature
around 1942 was associated with a strong El Niño, and
1. Looking at the Keeling Curve, how many the subsequent declines that followed were associated
years did it take to be sure that carbon dioxide was with several La Niña episodes in the 1950s. Similarly,
rising? the exceptionally strong El Niño of 1998 brought about
a spike in global temperatures and was followed by a La
2. How do we know that the increase in carbon Niña episode, which reduced global temperature. Such
dioxide over the last 50 years has resulted from influences are not surprising, since ENSO events involve
fossil fuels? the massive transport of heat stored in the Pacific Ocean.
However, these short-term variations do not affect the
long-term trends of increasing global temperature that
14.6 As CO2 levels have have been documented.
risen in modern times, global The increase in global temperature becomes even
more apparent in a plot of temperatures averaged
temperatures have increased by decades (Figure 14.20). By removing the higher-
significantly frequency, year-to-year variation in temperatures, the
Because the burning of fossil fuels over the last plot becomes smooth. Figure 14.20 shows that record
200 years has increased carbon dioxide concentrations high temperatures were recorded from the 1980s through
in the atmosphere, Earth should be warming via the the 2000s, with each succeeding decade setting a new
greenhouse effect. Indeed, four climate research groups— record for high temperatures. Global temperatures for
one in Japan, one in the United Kingdom, and two in 2010 to 2014 continued to be well above average, despite
the United States—have shown that global temperatures a prolonged La Niña at the beginning of this new decade.
have increased significantly since 1880 by about 0.85°C In fact, the average global temperature in 2014 was the
(1.5°F) (Figure 14.19). warmest recorded since 1880.
The relatively smooth increase in atmospheric Consequently, the warming of the globe shows no signs
concentration of CO2 (see Figure 14.17) contrasts sharply of flagging. By the end of the 21st century, climate models
with the considerable variability in global temperatures suggest that the temperature of Earth’s surface is expected
shown in Figure 14.19. This contrast suggests that factors to rise between 2° and 3°C, according to the IPCC.
INDEPENDENT ESTIMATES OF GLOBAL TEMPERATURES BY FOUR CLIMATE RESEARCH GROUPS
NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies

0.6
Met Office Hadley Centre/Climatic Research Unit
NOAA National Climatic Data Center
0.4 Japanese Meteorological Agency
0.2
−0.2
−0.4
−0.6
1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020
YEAR
FIGURE 14.19 Estimates of global temperatures made independently all show the same basic pattern of temperature increases
since 1880, with the first decade of the 21st century being the warmest on record. (Data from NASA Earth Observatory, 2011)

GLOBAL TEMPERATURES AVERAGED BY DECADE
1.2 Record high temperatures were recorded from the

1980s through the 2000s, with each succeeding
CHANGE FROM 1901–2000 AVERAGE (°F)

1.0 decade setting a new record for high temperatures.
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
−0.2
−0.4
−0.6
−0.8
1880s 1890s 1900s 1910s 1920s 1930s 1940s 1950s 1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s
YEARS
FIGURE 14.20 Plotting global temperature changes since 1880 as decadal averages removes annual fluctuations in the record,
revealing clearly the record-breaking temperatures of the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s. (After 2009 State of the Climate Highlights,
www.ncdc.noaa.gov/bams-state-of-the-climate.)
Reanalysis and Confirmation of the Temperature the past 250 years and 0.9°C in the most recent 50 years.
Record “I was not expecting this, but as a scientist,” Muller
later told the newspaper The Telegraph when he
Although it may seem like a trivial matter to measure air
published his findings in 2012, “I feel it is my duty to
temperature in a single spot over time, several criticisms
let the evidence change my mind” (Figure 14.21). He
have been leveled at attempts to test whether Earth as a
whole is really warming.
Some critics have pointed out that weather stations are
mostly located in urban areas, which have become “urban INDEPENDENT CONFIRMATION OF LAND
heat islands” over time because asphalt and cement absorb TEMPERATURE RECORD
a lot of heat. In addition, the quality of the monitoring
process varies from station to station, which raises the NASA GISS
1.0
possibility that these records are inaccurate. Some critics Hadley / CRU
NOAA / NCDC
argue that only data from the best sites should be included Berkeley Earth
in global estimates. Others say the opposite: Climate 0.5 (light band indicates 95%
uncertainty interval)
researchers have been too selective in their choice of data
sources. If the records from more weather stations were 0
included, they argue, the warming pattern would disappear.
To settle the question, Richard A. Muller at the
−0.5
University of California at Berkeley organized the
Berkeley Earth Surface Temperature (BEST) study.
Muller, who was himself a skeptic of global temperature −1.0
estimates, compiled weather records from 36,000

land-based weather stations, approximately 5 times −1.5
the number of stations included in other temperature 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000
YEAR
analyses. These records included 1.6 billion temperature
measurements from around Earth, going back to 1753, FIGURE 14.21 The Berkeley Earth Surface Temperature
(BEST) research group independently confirmed global warming
which extended the analysis over 100 years farther back of temperatures over land using a much larger sample of
in time than the plot in Figure 14.20. In 2011 Muller meteorological stations and controlling for urban heat island
reported that temperatures on land have risen 1.5°C in effects. (Data from BEST, http://berkeleyearth.org/)

445
went on to say that the best statistical fit to the rise in

Earth temperatures was the human-caused increase in EXTENT OF ICE COVER IN THE ARCTIC OCEAN
atmospheric CO2.
! Think About It
1. Why is it important that four scientific groups
(NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center Scientific Visualization Studio)

analyzed the temperature data?
2. What are some reasons why scientists might be
skeptical of global warming?
3. What are some reasons why politicians might
claim to be skeptical of global warming?
14.7 Rising temperatures

have been accompanied by 2012
2007
diverse changes in the Earth 14
1979-2000 Average
(light band indicates
system ±2 standard deviations)
EXTENT OF ICE COVER (MILLIONS OF km2)
12
The increase in greenhouse gases and global
temperatures over the last century has set into motion a
10
variety of changes to Earth’s systems. Some of the most
striking consequences of climate change include the 8
melting of the ice caps, the warming of the oceans, the
shifting of species’ geographic ranges and seasonality, 6
and the die-off of coral reefs and forests.
4
Melting Ice
2
In mid-September 2012 sea ice around the North Pole
reached its lowest extent since satellite monitoring began 0
June July August September October
in 1979 (Figure 14.22). For the first time in history, cargo
ships could pass unimpeded through the long-sought MONTH
Northwest Passage through the northern islands of FIGURE 14.22 In September 2012 the extent of ice on the
Canada and the Northeast Passage along Scandinavia Arctic Ocean reached a record low of less than 4 million km2,
and Russia. far below the previous record low in 2007 and 45% lower than
the average minimum ice cover during the period from 1979
As reflective ice is replaced with open water, more
to 2000. (From National Snow and Ice Data Center, Boulder,
heat will be stored in the world’s oceans, which will Colorado, http://nsidc.org/)
pump more water vapor into the atmosphere. Both
changes will amplify global warming. Meanwhile,
polar bears and ring seals, for which sea ice is essential
habitat, are two potential victims of climate change. (46 mi2)—about twice the size of Manhattan Island
The opening of Arctic waters has also set in motion an (Figure 14.23). Warming of the oceans also contributes
economic race, between Russia, Canada, the United to sea level rise, since water expands as it heats up.
States, and other nations, to claim rights to mineral The human and economic impacts of sea level rise
wealth under the Arctic seafloor, particularly oil and will be substantial, since the human population is
natural gas deposits. concentrated in coastal areas with their ports and beaches.
On land, the ice sheets, glaciers, and ice caps are also Over the last century, the oceans have risen about
melting at a rapid rate, causing sea level to rise. In July 20 centimeters (8 inches), but scientists predict the rate of
2012 a ridge of warm air stalled over Greenland, melting rise will speed up significantly over the next century, along
the surface of its ice sheet over large areas. Four days with temperatures. Rising sea levels have already forced
later, the Petermann Glacier on Greenland split and shed the movement of communities from low-lying areas on
a gigantic ice island with a surface area of 120 km2 the tiny Pacific island nation of Tuvalu, and it threatens

ICE LOSS FROM GREENLAND’S ICE SHEET HEAT ABSORPTION BY COMPONENTS OF THE
EARTH SYSTEM
(NASA Earth Observatory image by Jesse Allen and Robert Simmon, using data from NASA/GSFC/
EARTH SYSTEM
COMPONENT
Oceans
Atmosphere
Continents
Glaciers & ice caps
METI/ERSDAC/JAROS, and U.S./Japan ASTER Science Team)
Arctic sea ice

Ice sheets
FIGURE 14.25 When climate scientists inventory the

absorption of heat as Earth warms, they find that the oceans
are overwhelmingly the major absorber of heat energy. This
is because the oceans cover a large area and encompass a
very large volume of water, which has a high capacity for heat
storage. (Data from State of the Climate Highlights, www.ncdc.
noaa.gov/bamsstate-of-the-climate)
FIGURE 14.23 A large ice island of approximately 120 km2 broke off from the Petermann
Glacier on Greenland on July 16, 2012.
that nation’s very existence (Figure 14.24). If present rapidly along the northeastern coast of the United States.
trends continue, sea level rise may force tens of millions Consequently, Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and
of people living in coastal areas to relocate. Baltimore may be among the first major urban and
The impacts of the melting ice will not be felt equally economic centers to suffer damages from coastal flooding.
around the globe. Recent research shows that, compared
with many other regions, sea level has been rising more Warming Oceans
The global ocean is the largest heat sink for the warming
Earth, dwarfing all other parts of the Earth system
SEA LEVEL RISE THREATENS ISLAND NATIONS (Figure 14.25). However, it’s not just that the global
ocean is the planet’s largest absorber of heat. One would
expect that of such a large mass of water. The significant
thing, from a climate change perspective, is that the
ocean’s heat content is increasing (Figure 14.26). One
result of a warmer ocean is the loss of photosynthesizing
plankton, which account for half of primary production
on Earth. This decline in production would lead to
declines in the fish populations that humans depend on.
How could ocean warming result in lower marine
primary production? As we saw in Chapter 8, primary
production in the oceans is controlled mainly by the
availability of inorganic nutrients, such as iron, which
are generally found in greatest supply where they can
be renewed by runoff from land; by upwelling; and by
mixing of deep, nutrient-rich water with surface water
(Alastair Grant/AP Photo)
(see page 232). But when the oceans heat up, distinct
thermal layers in the water column form, which prevent
mixing of surface water with nutrient-rich deeper and
cooler waters. Thus, critical nutrients do not reach
FIGURE 14.24 Funafuti atoll, the capital of the island nation of Tuvalu, which is situated marine life closer to the surface.
approximately halfway between Australia and Hawaii, would be made uninhabitable by even Scientists are already observing losses in the ocean’s
moderate sea level rise. phytoplankton biomass at a rate of about 1% per year. A

447
impacts. Many plants that once bloomed in May are

A WARMING OCEAN
now blooming in April, and hibernating mammals that
once emerged from their dens in March are emerging
15
in February. In the eastern North Pacific, gray whales
(Eschrichtius robustus) travel farther north in the Arctic
HEAT CONTENT CHANGE (10 23J)
10 Ocean during the summer, stay at their northern feeding

grounds later in the year, and sometimes overwinter in
5 northern waters.
This is an example of how geographic ranges of
species are shifting—some moving up mountain ranges
0
and into higher, cooler latitudes. For instance, butterfly
communities in the Sierra Guardarrama in central Spain
−5 shifted uphill 293 meters (961 feet) in the three decades
between 1973 and 2004. In Massachusetts, scientists have
−10 documented shifting ranges and population changes
1955 1965 1975 1985 1995 2005 in 100 species of butterflies. Between 1992 and 2010,
YEAR
populations of many butterfly species near their northern
FIGURE 14.26 The heat content of Earth’s oceans has limits increased in abundance with warmer temperatures,
increased approximately 10-fold in the past half-century. (After while northern species near the southern limits of their
2009 State of the Climate Highlights, www.ncdc.noaa.gov/ ranges decreased in abundance as temperatures grew too
bams-state-of-the-climate)
hot (Figure 14.28).
Movements northward and upward in elevation
have also been documented in plants, birds, mammals,
fish, and a wide range of insects, spiders, and other
2010 article in Nature reported declines in phytoplankton invertebrates. As some have debated the reality of global
biomass in 8 of 10 ocean regions since 1899. Another study warming, Earth’s inhabitants have been voting with their
found that the ocean’s least productive waters grew by feet, wings, and fins.
6.6 million km2 between 1998 and 2006 (Figure 14.27).
Dying Forests and Corals
Shifts in Species’ Ranges and Seasonality
While some groups of organisms are shifting distribu-
Owing to climate change, spring comes earlier every year tions in response to climate change, other, less mobile
and winter later, a phenomenon that has major biological organisms are dying off. This mortality is especially
CONTRAST IN OCEAN COLOR AND PRODUCTIVITY

(Tororo Reaction/Shutterstock)
(Peter Kunasz/Shutterstock)
Phytoplankton-rich temperate ocean Low-phytoplankton biomass tropical ocean
FIGURE 14.27 The chlorophyll of abundant phytoplankton is reflected in the greenish cast of this highly productive area of
temperate ocean. Meanwhile, the crystalline blue of these tropical waters signals the low biomass of phytoplankton and low primary
production. The ocean’s least productive waters, such as this example, are increasing in extent, while the area of the more productive
waters declines.

BUTTERFLY RESPONSES TO CLIMATE WARMING IN MASSACHUSETTS
(Barrett & MacKay/All Canada Photos/Getty Images)
(Jeffrey S. Pippen, www.jeffpippen.com)

Atlantis fritillary, Speyeria atlantis Frosted elfin, Callophrys irus
FIGURE 14.28 The atlantis fritillary, Speyeria atlantis, which is near the southern boundary of its geographic distribution has been
declining in abundance in Massachusetts. Meanwhile, the population of the frosted elfin, Callophrys irus, which is near the northern
edge of its distribution, has increased 10-fold since 1992. (Data from Breed et al., 2013)
noticeable where it involves foundation species (see

Chapter 4, page 104)—for example, reef-building corals ! Think About It
and forest trees (Figure 14.29). 1. We tend to think only of the negative
In June 2010 abnormally warm waters swept through
consequences of climate change, but are there any
the shallow water reefs of the Caribbean, causing a
economic benefits?
devastating coral bleaching event. Coral bleaching occurs
when reef-building corals that are under stress, for 2. How might coastal communities adapt to rising
example, from high temperatures, expel symbiotic algae sea levels?
living in their tissues, leaving behind a pale structure.
Under nonstressful conditions, these symbiotic algae 14.8 Climate change can
provide energy in the form of sugars to the corals in
exchange for nutrients and physical protection. Although
lead to a wide range of
newly bleached corals are not dead, their chance of dying societal costs
is significant, especially if the source of stress continues. Climate scientists have been predicting that a warmer
Because these reefs act as nurseries and habitats for fish, Earth will be one in which there are many more extreme
octopus, and other marine species, their disappearance weather events, including stronger winds, more frequent
?
Why have there been so
has a rippling impact on marine ecosystems. If global
temperatures increase 2°C, as anticipated, scientists
estimate that 70% of coral reefs will be seriously damaged.
torrential rains and floods, and higher temperatures
during heat waves.
Take, for instance, those scorching hot days of summer,
In addition to heat, more carbon dioxide in the ocean when it’s impossible to get anything done without the air
many major blizzards causes the water to become more acidic, making it more conditioning on full blast. Not only are these scorchers
and snowfalls in difficult for coral-building organisms to form their getting more common, they are affecting a wider
recent U.S. winters if calcium carbonate structures. geographic area. James Hansen of NASA’s Goddard
the overall climate is As we learned earlier, wildfires in the western United Institute for Space Studies compared the 30 years from
warming? Shouldn’t States during 2011 and 2012 were among the largest 1951 to 1980, which were used as a reference period, to
there be fewer? and most costly ever recorded. The stress induced by the most recent decade of 2001 to 2011. In the past, only
high temperatures and drought can kill standing trees, about one-third of summers had average temperatures
increasing dry tinder and, as a result, the intensity of that would be considered significantly hotter than typical.
wildfires. In times past, forests would reestablish on However, during the decade from 2001 to 2011, that
burned areas. However, forest ecologists predict that the number had increased to 75% of summers. Meanwhile,
high intensity of recent fires may cause these and other the area of the Earth experiencing super-hot summers,
forests around the world to be replaced with other, more with temperatures frequently reaching levels high enough
drought-tolerant woodlands or shrublands. for weather forecasters to warn of a dangerous heat wave,

449
in the depth and frequency of droughts, interrupted

IMPACT OF WARMING ON CORAL REEFS AND
by short bursts of torrential rains and floods. The first
FOREST TREES
decade of the 21st century was marked by a number of
such events, and their economic costs are considerable.
A 2010 study from the Pew Trust estimated that the
global cost of climate change will range from $5 trillion
to $90 trillion by 2100 (Figure 14.30).
Disruptions to Agriculture
Rising temperatures will harm our food system, which will
already be stretched thin by a growing human population.
According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations, global food demand will increase
by 70% by the year 2050. Meanwhile, the International
Food Policy Research Institute has predicted that climate
change will result in less food available per capita across
the globe than there was in the year 2000.
We are already seeing the impact of extreme heat
(Rainer von Brandis/E+/Getty Images)
events on agriculture today. In 2012 the drought in

the United States resulted in low levels of soil moisture
during the growing season (Figure 14.31 on page 451).
Low soil moisture, in turn, reduced areas of healthy
corn and soybean production by one-half and one-
third, respectively. Similarly, a 2010 heat wave in Russia
Bleaching coral reef decreased grain production by 30%, and a 2011 heat wave
in France decreased that nation’s grain harvest by 12%.
Droughts also affect livestock farmers. During the 2012
drought in the United States, over half of rangelands and
pastures across the country were in poor to very poor
condition, forcing many farmers to sell off cattle. High
feed prices led to other farmers selling off hogs. Unless
agriculture can adapt to a rapidly changing climate, such
shortfalls in production will only worsen.
(Ethan Miller/Getty Images)
Impacts on Human Health

Extreme heat can be deadly. The summer of 2003 was
Dying pine forest
the hottest one in Europe in the last 500 years. During
that heat wave, an estimated 70,000 of people died in
FIGURE 14.29 As the oceans warm, reef-building corals 16 countries. The elderly, the infirm, and the poor
are suffering elevated mortality, shown in this photograph
as bleached, whitish corals (top). Meanwhile, on land,
without adequate air-conditioning systems are typically
elevated temperatures and drought have combined to induce the victims of such heat events. In 2012 the U.S. Centers
physiological stress in these lodgepole pines, Pinus contorta, for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reported
in northern Colorado. Warmer winters have also reduced the that the number of heat-related deaths in the country
mortality of beetles that attack the trees. In a state of stress, the averaged approximately 700 annually, more than the
trees did not mount sufficient defense against a massive beetle
attack, which was the direct cause of death across this swath of
average total number of deaths in the United States
mountain landscape. from hurricanes, tornadoes, floods, and earthquakes.
With global warming, scientists at the CDC predict that
by 2050 annual heat-related deaths will rise to between
has increased from much less than 1% of Earth’s surface to 3,000 and 5,000.
over 10%, a greater than 10-fold increase. Climate change is also predicted to increase the
One of the most serious societal consequences of a prevalence of certain infectious diseases. For instance,
warming Earth comes not from the heat itself, but from insect-borne tropical diseases, such as malaria and
changes in the way water moves through our landscapes, dengue fever, will become more prevalent in temperate
farmland, and ecosystems. Scientists expect an increase environments. Dengue fever has recently been reported

MAPPING A SAMPLE OF EXTREME WEATHER
1 7 17 10
3 2
16
14 8
13
19 18
15
5 11
12
YEAR METEOROLOGICAL RECORD-BREAKING EVENT IMPACT / COSTS
2000 1 Wettest autumn on record since 1766 £1.3 billion
2002 2 Highest daily rainfall record in Germany since at least 1901 Flooding of Prague and Dresden, U.S. $15 billion
2003 3 Hottest summer in at least 500 years Death toll exceeding 70,000
2004 4 First hurricane in the South Atlantic since 1970 Three deaths, U.S. $425 million
2005 5 Record number of tropical storms, hurricanes, and 1,836 deaths, U.S. $110 billion
category 5 hurricanes since 1970 (Hurricane Katrina was the costliest U.S. natural disaster)
2007 6 Strongest tropical cyclone in the Arabian Sea since 1970 Biggest natural disaster in the history of Oman
7 May–July wettest since records began in 1766 Major flooding, £3 billion
8 Hottest summer on record in Greece since 1891 Devastating wildfires
2009 9 Heatwave breaking many station temperature records Worst brushfires on record, 173 deaths, 3,500 houses
(32–154 years of data) destroyed
2010 10 Hottest summer since 1500 500 wildfires around Moscow, grain-harvest losses of 30%
11 Rainfall records Worst flooding in Pakistan’s history, nearly 3,000 deaths,

20 million people affected
12 Highest December rainfall recorded since 1900 Flooding of Brisbane, 23 deaths, estimated U.S. $2.55 billion
2011 13 Most active tornado month on record (April) since 1950 Tornado hit Joplin causing 116 deaths
14 January–October wettest on record since 1880 Severe floods when Hurricane Irene hit
15 Most extreme July heat and drought since 1880 Wildfires burning 3 million acres (preliminary impact of U.S.
$6–8 billion)
16 Hottest and driest spring on record in France since 1880 French grain harvest down by 12%
17 Wettest summer on record (The Netherlands, Norway) (not yet documented)

since 1901
18 72-hour rainfall record (Nara Prefecture) 73 deaths, 20 missing, severe damage
19 Wettest summer on record since 1908 Flooding of Seoul, 49 deaths, 77 missing, 125,000 affected
FIGURE 14.30 The first decade of the 21st century brought a host of record-breaking weather events that climate scientists have
attributed to global warming. (Data from Coumou & Rahmstorf, 2012)
H OW CAN W E M ITIGATE AND A DA P T TO THE ENVI R ONMENTA L A ND S OC I A L I MPA C TS OF C LI MATE C H A NG E ?

451
SOIL MOISTURE CONTENT
EXTENT OF TOPSOIL
SHORT OR VERY
SHORT OF MOISTURE
(raw statewide %,
July 29, 2012)
0 50-59
1-9 60-69
10-19 70-79
20-29 80-101
30-39 No data
40-49
FIGURE 14.31 The U.S. Department of Agriculture reported on July 29, 2012, that soil moisture
was in short supply or very short supply in topsoil across a very large area of the contiguous United
States. (Data from NASS, July 30, 2012, www.nass.usda.gov)
in the United States in Florida and south Texas, and

in European countries, including France and Croatia. 14.5–14.8 Issues:
Higher temperatures can shorten the length of insect life
cycles, resulting in higher densities of disease vectors,
Summary
such as mosquitoes. High summer temperatures have Humans are changing the climate. Led by
also been associated with outbreaks of West Nile fever, the findings of Charles Keeling, climate
which were reported from Romania and Greece in 2010 researchers have recorded global increases of
and across the United States and Canada during 2012. CO2 and temperatures.
The torrential rains expected from global warming Rising global temperatures have set in
may also raise the risk of water contamination by a motion many changes to the Earth system,
variety of infectious diseases, such as Cryptosporidium including the loss of Arctic sea ice; melting
and toxin-producing Escherichia coli. ice sheets, glaciers, and ice caps; sea level rise;
shifting species’ ranges; and the degradation
! Think About It of vital foundation species, such as forest trees
and reef-building corals.
1. How might people respond to warmer Earth is experiencing more extreme weather
temperatures to make themselves more comfortable events, such as heat waves, droughts, and
in their apartments and offices? intense storms. Such changes have disrupted
agriculture, producing lower harvests.
2. Can you think of how humans might change their Meanwhile, heat waves and extreme weather
diets to cope with changes in agriculture? events have resulted in tens of thousands
of premature deaths and the movement of
tropical diseases into higher latitudes.

T he central question of this chapter asks how we might
mitigate and adapt to the environmental and social
impacts of climate change. The consensus among climate
Despite an initial wave of support for the Kyoto
Protocol, it never entered into force. The United States
initially signed it, but the U.S. Senate did not ratify it
scientists is that the best way to stem climate change is by due to the treaty’s focus on greenhouse gas reductions in
reducing fossil fuel use and increasing protection of forests developed countries and its potential to handicap the U.S.
and other ecosystems that serve as carbon sinks. The economy. Indeed, China and India, which represent one-
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was third of the world’s population, have some of the fastest
established in 1988 to bring together experts on climate growing economies, whose rising fossil fuel consumption
change from around the world to review the evidence remains unchecked. The most significant efforts to
and make policy recommendations. Two years later, the mitigate and adapt to the environmental and social
IPCC released its first report, calling for an international impacts of climate change are occurring at national, state,
treaty to address the prospect of climate change. In 1997, local, and individual levels.
the heads of state of 192 nations began to sign on to the
Kyoto Protocol, which required developed countries to
reduce their greenhouse gas emissions below 1990 levels.
14.9 Developing a road map
The reason the Protocol focused on developed countries is to reduce carbon emissions
that those countries have the highest levels of greenhouse In the two decades since the Kyoto Protocol mapped a
gas emissions per capita. The United States, which has less path to reducing greenhouse gas emissions, emissions
than 5% of the world’s population, accounts for one-fifth have, in fact, increased by approximately 50%. As
of greenhouse gas emissions. In 1997, the United States anticipated, most of this increase has been the result of
produced 19.7 metric tons of carbon dioxide per person, economic development in developing countries, such as
compared with Nicaragua, which produced less than a China and India, where emissions jumped nearly
single metric ton per person. 180% (Figure 14.32). These countries are following in
GLOBAL CARBON DIOXIDE EMISSIONS IN 1990, 2000, AND 2011
35
30 DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
China
India
BILLION METRIC TONS OF CO 2
25 “Asian Tigers”
Other developing countries
20 ECONOMIES IN TRANSITION
Russia
Other economies in transition
15
DEVELOPED COUNTRIES
United States
10 European Union
Japan
Other developed countries
5
0
1990 2000 2011
YEAR
FIGURE 14.32 While the CO2 emissions in developed countries increased slightly from 1990
to 2011, and those from the economies in transition decreased, CO2 emissions from developing
countries increased by nearly 180%. (Data from Olivier, Janssens-Maenhout, & Peters, 2012)

453
GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS BY ELECTRICITY GENERATION USING VARIOUS ENERGY SOURCES
1,200
MEDIAN g CO2 EQUIVALENT PER kWh
1,000
?
800
600
400
Is it fair to expect
developing countries
200 to agree to the same
carbon dioxide
0 emissions guidelines,
al
as
r a e er
al
l
s
r g ic
o
since they did not have
Oi
ea
as
dr
ea
ne lt a
y)
rm
Co
tio r s
ne ow w
lG
cl
Hy
om
Oc
n)
ge y p Po
r e vo
he
ra
Nu
the benefit of several
l a to
Bi
m r g ar
tu
ot
s o P ho
ea ne ol
Na
Ge
st e S
decades of unregulated
ar d
o l te
ct
(s n t r a
ir e
fossil fuel use?

e
(d
nc
Co
ELECTRICITY GENERATION TECHNOLOGY
FIGURE 14.33 Life cycle assessment reveals a wide range of greenhouse gas emissions, with the highest by far resulting
from fossil fuels. (Data from IPCC, 2011)
the footsteps of the United States, where about 40% carbon dioxide to the atmosphere. By contrast, burning
of our greenhouse gas emissions come from electricity enough natural gas to power that same light bulb releases
generation that powers corporate, industrial, and half as much carbon dioxide, making it a relatively
residential buildings, and another 30% from the cleaner source of energy.
transportation sector. Nevertheless, these simple calculations only tell us how
However, developing countries do not necessarily much carbon dioxide is produced during combustion
have to look to the United States as a model. Germany, at a power plant. To properly compare greenhouse gas
for instance, is a highly developed country with a strong emissions of different energy sources, including both
economy that produces about half the greenhouse gas fossil fuels and renewable energy supplies, we need to
emissions per capita as the United States. How did the include other factors in our calculations, such as mining
Germans do it? They have achieved this, in part, by the materials used for solar cells, laying natural gas lines,
conserving fossil fuels and replacing oil, natural gas, or dismantling a nuclear power plant at the end of its life.
and coal with renewable energy resources such as wind Incorporating all these factors into calculations is called a
life cycle assessment
and solar power. Such a transition requires not only life cycle assessment (LCA). The amount of greenhouse (LCA) An estimate of the
political incentives and advances in engineering, but also gases emitted in the process of generating electricity total environmental impact
a careful accounting of the environmental and economic varies widely among energy sources, including fossil fuels of a product or technology
costs and benefits of various energy sources in different (Figure 14.33). as a result of activities such
The result of a life cycle assessment of a technology as extraction of an energy
applications.
source (e.g., coal), transport,
used for electricity generation is the carbon footprint, processing of raw materials,
which is expressed as grams of CO2 equivalent per construction, maintenance,
Evaluating Carbon Footprints of Electrical
kilowatt hour. We need to think in terms of CO2 dismantling, removal, and
Generation
equivalents, since other powerful greenhouse gases (like recycling or disposal of
The first way we can reduce our emissions is by switching methane or nitrous oxide) can be emitted as by-products structures.
our energy sources to sources with lower CO2 emissions. when some technologies are deployed and operated. For carbon footprint The
In order to do this, we need accurate measurements of example, methane can be leaked into the atmosphere total amount of CO2 and
each source of energy: How much CO2 does each release during the extraction, distribution, and use of natural gas. other greenhouse gases
from start to finish? Using LCA for natural gas and coal, we see that natural produced over the course of
Consider the fact that it takes about 1 pound of coal to gas is still much better than coal in terms of emissions the life cycle of a particular
technology, individual, or
keep a 100-watt light bulb running for about 10 hours. As of CO2 equivalents. There is, however, considerable population—for example, the
the carbon in this 1 pound of coal combusts, it combines controversy over the benefits of natural gas. Some new carbon footprint of the United
with oxygen in the air to add about 2.86 pounds of estimates claim that gas leaks are sufficient to make the States.

REDUCTIONS IN U.S. CO2 EMISSIONS
FROM ENERGY DEMAND (MILLION METRIC TONS)
U.S. QUARTERLY CO2 EMISSIONS FROM COAL

2,000 800
U.S. FIRST QUARTER TOTAL CO2 EMISSIONS

CO 2 emissions from energy demand
CO 2 emissions from coal
1,750 700
(MILLION METRIC TONS)

1,500 600
1,250 500
1,000 400
750 300
500 200
250 100
0 0
1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012
YEAR
FIGURE 14.34 The emissions of CO2 during the first quarter of 2012 fell to the lowest levels since 1992. Carbon dioxide
emissions during this period fell to their lowest levels since 1986, which was largely the result of substituting natural gas for coal for
electrical generation. (From U.S. EIA, http://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/ detail.cfm?id$=7350#tabs_co2emissions-1)
carbon footprint of natural gas as large as or larger than $75 per watt to $0.75 per watt, thanks to advances in
that of coal. Regardless, as supplies of natural gas have technology, government subsidies, and competition from
increased and prices have decreased, many generating international manufacturers in China. Nevertheless, the
stations in the United States have switched from using cost of electricity from renewable energy is still greater
coal to natural gas. Consequently, current estimates than that produced by coal or natural gas. This means
of greenhouse gas emissions by the United States fell that a transition to renewable energy will likely require
significantly in 2012. In the first quarter of that year, assistance from policy makers, which we will discuss
energy-related CO2 emissions were the lowest since 1992 later.
(Figure 14.34).
Referring back to Figure 14.33, you will also notice
Increasing Transportation Efficiency
that nuclear power has a small carbon footprint. France,
for example, which generates 75% of its electricity from Developing more efficient transportation systems offers
nuclear energy, along with about 15% from hydropower, the second major opportunity for reducing greenhouse
has a very small carbon footprint. However, nuclear gas emissions. In the United States, the National Highway
power is accompanied by other issues, from potential Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) sets targets for fuel
security risks to environmental contamination to nuclear efficiency through the Corporate Average Fuel Economy
accidents to issues around the safe disposal of nuclear (CAFE) standards. Those standards are set in miles per
waste (see Chapter 9). gallon of fuel. In response to efforts by the NHTSA,
Building dams for hydroelectric power may seem engineering innovation, and increasing fuel prices, the
like a straightforward clean energy solution, but even fuel efficiency of the U.S. vehicle fleet has improved
they produce greenhouse gases. In Brazil, which considerably over the years (Figure 14.35a). And as
has experienced a boom in dam-building projects, the amount of gasoline or diesel required for traveling a
reservoirs fill with leaves and other organic matter, which particular distance decreases, the amount of CO2 emitted
release the potent greenhouse gas methane when they into the environment also declines (Figure 14.35b).
decompose—not to mention other major environmental By NHTSA estimates, if the 2025 fuel efficiency targets
impacts associated with dams. are met, the amount of CO2 emitted by passenger cars
Solar power, geothermal power, wind energy, and and light trucks new in 2025 will be 40% lower than those
tidal energy are all renewable sources of energy with meeting 2012 fuel standards. Consumers will realize
small carbon footprints, but they have suffered from savings from this greater fuel economy more than 3 times
limited availability and high costs. That seems to be the added vehicle costs for the technology necessary to
changing, though. In the last three decades, the cost of achieve the fuel economy. As a result of improved fuel
solar power in the United States has plummeted from efficiency standards, 4 billion fewer barrels of oil will be

455
AVERAGE FUEL ECONOMY OF PASSENGER CARS RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FUEL ECONOMY AND
IN THE UNITED STATES CO2 EMISSIONS
60 300 2012 average 2025 target
50 250
FUEL ECONOMY (MPG)
CO 2 EMISSIONS (g/mi)
40 200
30 150
20 100
10 50
0 0
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
YEAR FUEL ECONOMY (MPG)
FIGURE 14.35a The average fuel economy, that is, the FIGURE 14.35b The fuel economy of motor vehicles is clearly
number of miles of travel per gallon of fuel consumed, of related to their emissions of CO2. If achieved, the fuel efficiency
passenger cars in the United States doubled between 1955 targets set by the U.S. National Highway Transportation
and 2012 and is expected to increase significantly over the next Safety Administration for 2025 would lower CO2 emissions by
decade. (Data from NHTSA, http://www.nhtsa.gov/) passenger cars and light trucks in the country by approximately
40%, compared with average emissions in 2012. (Data from
NHTSA, http://www.nhtsa.gov/)
consumed over the lifetimes of vehicles manufactured whereas the cost of doing nothing could be as high as
between 2017 and 2025, which will in turn result in a 20%. Given those numbers, reducing greenhouse gas
reduction of CO2 emissions by approximately 1.8 billion emissions may seem like a no-brainer. But one of the
metric tons. reasons why inefficient vehicles remain on the road and
companies continue to use coal energy is that they have
Urban Design Can Reduce Fossil Fuel Use not been made to pay for the consequences of climate
change. Recently, economists and policy makers have
Beyond improving fuel efficiency, urban planning is
designed schemes for forcing emitters to pay the true
another way to decrease the impact of transportation
cost of their energy choices. None of these schemes has
systems in both the developed and developing world.
a chance to reach its full potential unless all countries
Reducing urban sprawl, living in more compact cities,
are operating on the kind of level playing field that the
and telecommuting can decrease our reliance on fossil
Kyoto Protocol or another international treaty could
fuels for transportation. It would also reduce the need
provide.
for new roads, which require cement production, a
Like alcohol and cigarettes, carbon emissions impose
significant contributor to carbon dioxide emissions.
a cost on society, and a tax is one way to recover those
In addition, public transportation, such as buses and
costs. Several countries, including Finland and Sweden,
trains, along with bicycles, produce lower per capita
have already enacted modest carbon taxes, and the
greenhouse gas emissions than private cars. However,
city of Boulder, Colorado, famously passed the first tax
people will only take the bus or bike to work if they know
on carbon emissions from electricity in 2007, charging
it is efficient, clean, and safe. In terms of long-distance
approximately $7 per ton of carbon. The $1 million the
travel, life cycle assessments suggest that planes and
city earns every year is used to fund Boulder’s climate
trains are running neck-and-neck in terms of greenhouse
action plan, which helps encourage solar and wind
gas emissions, but this depends on the source of airplane
power. In 2012 the Congressional Research Service
fuel and electric power.
pointed out that a tax rate of $20 per metric ton of
carbon dioxide could cut the nation’s $1 trillion annual
Legislating Carbon Emissions
deficit in half. However, many businesses and economists
According to the IPCC, the cost for stabilizing the strongly oppose a carbon tax, believing it would harm the carbon taxes Tax on
climate represents less than 2% of the global economy, country’s economic competitiveness and send business carbon emissions.

offshore. A second major criticism of the carbon tax is Mechanism suggest that the program will not be
that it would have the greatest impact on low-income effective at reducing greenhouse gas emissions and may
households, who spend a larger fraction of their income collapse.
on energy-related items, such as gasoline. Rather than penalizing emitters, energy subsidies,
An alternative to a tax, and one of the most popular which are government policies aimed at lowering
systems for regulating the emission of carbon dioxide the costs of energy production or the cost to energy
and other pollutants, is known as a cap-and-trade consumers, can also be used to spur the development
agreement. Under cap and trade, a government agency and adoption of cleaner technologies that we will
or voluntary organization sets a “cap” on total emissions describe in the next section. Currently, subsidies are
for the region. In the beginning, companies may be heavily weighted in support of fossil fuel development.
allocated a fraction of that total based on various factors, For example, in 2013, the International Energy Agency
such as their past history of emissions. But if they need estimated that government subsidies to fossil fuel
to exceed their quota, they must buy a carbon credit industries around the world amounted to $550 billion
from another company. On the other hand, companies annually, compared with $120 billion to renewable
that decrease emissions may make money by selling their energy development. The agency concluded that the
carbon credits. One of the advantages of a cap-and-trade disparity is slowing renewable energy development.
system over a carbon tax is that lawmakers only have The National Resources Defense Council (NRDC),
cap and trade Systems to set the policy goal—the market decides the price of an environmental group, has estimated that simply
for regulating the emission carbon. cutting fossil fuel subsidies could reduce global carbon
of carbon dioxide and other
pollutants.
Although cap-and-trade schemes are popular with emissions by 6% by 2020.
economists, they have faced a number of challenges
carbon credit A permit to in practice. When the European Union launched its
produce a certain amount
of carbon emissions, which
Emissions Trading Scheme in 2005, it set its cap so high ! Think About It
that the price of carbon credits collapsed. In addition,
can be traded or sold, if the 1. Does economic development require increasing
European companies were also allowed to obtain
full emissions allowance is
credits through the United Nation’s Clean Development
greenhouse gas emissions?
not used.
Mechanism by investing in clean energy projects in 2. Apart from greenhouse gas emissions, what other
energy subsidies the developing world. However, many of these
Government policies aimed
factors do we need to keep in mind when selecting
developing world projects have come under criticism energy sources?
at lowering the costs
of energy production or
for their lax oversight, and the influx of carbon credits
lowering the cost to energy has further deflated the trading scheme. The many 3. Why has there been so much opposition to cap
consumers. problems associated with the Clean Development and trade in the United States?
ELECTRIC VEHICLES
BATTERY ELECTRIC VEHICLE (BEV) PLUG-IN HYBRID ELECTRIC VEHICLE (PHEV)

A battery electric vehicle (BEV) is powered by a rechargeable A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) also has a rechargeable
battery pack, the output of which runs an electric motor. Current battery pack as well as a gasoline tank and internal combustion
from the battery pack is routed through a power controller, which engine, enabling the vehicle to operate like a regular hybrid
controls the flow of electricity from the battery pack to the motor. vehicle once the charge on the battery pack is nearly exhausted.
Rechargeable Power Electric Rechargeable Gasoline Power Electric Internal

battery pack controller motor battery pack tank controller motor combustion
engine
FIGURE 14.36 Electric vehicle technology has great potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from the transportation sector
of the economy, especially as electrical generation transitions away from fossil fuel energy sources.

457
14.10 Reducing greenhouse technologies for efficiently producing a gasoline

replacement from terrestrial crops or algae are in their
gas emissions provides new infancy (see Chapter 10).
economic opportunities
In order to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by Green Building Saves Money and Creates Jobs
implementing new technologies, for example, some One of the biggest incentives for companies to reduce
industries that depend heavily on fossil fuels will have to greenhouse gas emissions is that it can save them money.
spend more money to maintain their businesses at the When researchers at Architecture 2030—a nonprofit
same level as they have in the past. However, considering organization established in 2002 to mitigate the climate
only the new costs incurred by an existing company is but impacts of buildings—carefully analyzed how energy
one part of the equation. When a company is forced to was used in all sectors of the economy, they found
spend money, another company earns money by selling that in the United States, buildings account for nearly
goods and services. If we lose one job in the fossil fuel half of the nation’s energy use (Figure 14.37). Because
industry, we may gain a job in the green energy sector.
That’s exactly what has happened with solar energy in the
United States, which gained 14,000 jobs between 2010
and 2012, while fossil fuel lost 4,000 jobs. If you look ENERGY CONSUMPTION AND CO2 EMISSIONS
around, you’ll see that innovative new businesses are
already emerging to capitalize on solutions to the climate U.S. ENERGY CONSUMPTION BY SECTOR
change problem.
Repowering Transportation Buildings

Transportation
You may have seen pictures of the Tesla roadster, a high- Industry
performance electric sports car popular with Silicon

Valley executives, which sells for $109,000 a pop. The
company’s dashing founder, Elon Musk, has proven
to General Motors and other legacy automakers in
Detroit that there’s money to be made by switching from
gasoline and diesel to electricity. The company brought in
$3.2 billion in revenue in 2014, but Musk does not expect
to turn a profit until 2020, when the company is rolling
out 500,000 vehicles per year.
The two major types of electric vehicles on the road U.S. CO2 EMISSIONS BY SECTOR (HISTORIC / PROJECTED)
today include the battery electric vehicle, or BEV, and the
plug-in hybrid electric vehicle, or PHEV (Figure 14.36). 3,500 Buildings
Life cycle assessments (LCA) demonstrate that electric Transportation PROJECTED
vehicles generally produce lower greenhouse gas 3,000 Industry
CO 2 EMISSIONS (MMT CO 2e)
emissions, compared with similar vehicles using internal 2,500

combustion engines, particularly at lower driving
speeds and when carrying smaller loads typical of 2,000
urban commutes. However, driving at higher speeds

1,500
and carrying heavier loads reduce the greenhouse gas
savings realized by electric vehicles. In addition, it’s 1,000
important to remember that the greenhouse gas outputs
500
of electric vehicles are affected by the energy source used
to generate electricity in the first place. Naturally, they 0
are lower where renewable energy sources make a larger 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030
contribution to electrical generation. YEAR
Biofuels, including ethanol produced from corn FIGURE 14.37 In 2010 buildings, including commercial,
and plant matter or biodiesel produced from cooking residential, and industrial buildings, were responsible for
grease or algae, are also a promising strategy to reduce nearly half of all the energy consumption and CO2 emissions
the use of fossil fuels in transportation, and a variety in the United States. Unless significant improvements are
made in energy efficiency, CO2 emissions from buildings are
of companies have emerged to do just that. In theory,
also projected to increase more than that in either industry or
biofuel crops will reabsorb a fraction of the greenhouse transportation over the next 15 years. (Data from Architecture
gas emissions released from the previous year. However, 2030, http://architecture2030.org/)

Bloomberg commissioned a study that found some

BUILDING FOR ENERGY EFFICIENCY buildings used 3 to 5 times the amount of energy per
unit area, compared with other buildings with similar
SUSTAINABLE BUILDING SITE uses. As a result of such discoveries, efforts to improve
• Efficiently use existing buildings energy efficiency in the city could focus on those
• Minimize construction area and excavation
• Preserve or restore valuable wildlife habitat buildings where efforts will produce the greatest results.
One of the main targets is to install more efficient
lighting when it is lacking. Another is to “retro-
MATERIALS AND RESOURCES commission” buildings, meaning a process would exist
• Use recycled building materials to verify that all building systems, such as those used
• Reduce amount of building materials
for cooling and heating, are working efficiently. The
• Use wood products from certified forests
eventual costs of New York’s “Greener, Greater Buildings
Plan” are estimated at $5.2 billion, while the estimated
savings in energy costs for companies are $12.2 billion.
ENERGY AND ATMOSPHERE
• Generate renewable energy The city also estimates that the program will create more
• Use energy-efficient lighting than 10,000 jobs.
• Design for maximum solar gain in winter
and for minimal gain in summer
Cleaner Technologies Reduce Soot
WATER EFFICIENCY
The developing world has its own particular set of energy
• Landscape with drought-tolerant plants problems to deal with. The wood stoves and dirty coal
• Install water-efficient shower heads and toilets generators used in countries like India and China do
• Minimize impervious surfaces to reduce
stormwater runoff not completely burn their fuel, and they release soot in
addition to greenhouse gases. Soot is a dark, powdery
form of carbon that is particularly potent when it comes
INDOOR ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY
• Use materials and furnishing that do not to heating up the atmosphere because it directly absorbs
generate volatile organic compounds sunlight while it is floating in the air or after it lands
• Maximize natural ventilation
• Use biodegradable cleaning products
and darkens reflective surfaces such as snow. One recent
study in the Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres
concluded that soot was more important than methane
LOCATION AND TRANSPORTATION and was second only to carbon dioxide in contributing to
• Locate near public transportation
• Site near work and shopping districts climate change.
• Locate in higher-density development The good news is that soot only stays in the
area to reduce urban sprawl
atmosphere for a few weeks and is washed away by rain
or covered up by new snowfall. Because soot causes
FIGURE 14.38 Incorporating energy efficient design features
health problems, such as lung cancer, a transition to
in newly constructed and renovated buildings over the next
25 years could result in very substantial energy savings and cleaner forms of cooking and power generation would
reductions in greenhouse gas emissions. be good for the climate and for human health. The
Indian startup Prakti is already trying to profit from
this transition, developing cleaner-burning wood and
of their tremendous energy demand, improving the charcoal stoves that will also save families money.
design of new buildings and factories offers one of the
best opportunities for energy savings, through better
insulation, careful materials selection, incorporating ! Think About It
passive solar heating, and taking advantage of natural 1. How do you think the “cost” of staving off climate
lighting (Figure 14.38). change will impact a country’s gross domestic
Many states, cities, and individuals have committed
product?
themselves to more efficient construction. One of the
highest profile examples is that of New York City, where 2. Can you think of industries affected by
former Mayor Michael Bloomberg approved a plan to technological shifts to cleaner energy that no longer
reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 30%. It turns out that employ as many people as they once did?
nearly 75% of the energy consumed in New York is used
to run its 1 million buildings, which is well above the 3. If you were an entrepreneur, what company
national average. would you start to capitalize on the green economy?

459
14.11 Restoring and estimate how much CO2 is emitted into the atmosphere
by measuring fossil fuel burning, deforestation, and
enhancing carbon sinks other sources of emissions. Then we independently
could help balance the measure the amount of carbon dioxide added to the
carbon budget atmosphere from one year to the next using sensors.
Reducing greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuels The difference between the emission estimate and the
is currently the number one challenge to mitigating atmospheric measurement gives us an estimate of our
climate change, but we can also remove carbon dioxide global carbon sink.
that’s already in the atmosphere through natural and Obtaining all the numbers for the carbon sink
technological solutions. calculation requires a variety of assumptions, but in
As limestone rocks and coral reefs form, they naturally August 2012 a group of researchers published a study
pull carbon dioxide out of the air and lock up the carbon in Nature trying to do just that. They discovered some
in a stony matrix. As forests photosynthesize sunlight, good news: The uptake of carbon dioxide by land and
they draw in carbon dioxide from the air and store it in ocean carbon sinks has doubled over the 50-year period
biomass. We call these carbon sinks because they are between 1960 and 2010 (Figure 14.40).
parts of the Earth system that take carbon compounds It’s not entirely clear why these carbon sinks have
from the atmosphere, through biological or physical grown, and there are no guarantees that these increases
processes, and remove them from active circulation in uptake will continue. If our carbon sinks become
(Figure 14.39). Other natural carbon sinks include saturated, more of the carbon dioxide we emit will end up
dissolved carbon dioxide in deep ocean water and in the atmosphere, contributing to further warming. It’s
carbon-rich soils. A major question posed by climate also important to note that we still can’t tell how much of
scientists is how Earth’s carbon sinks are responding to the growth in the carbon sink is due to forests and other
increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide. terrestrial ecosystems versus marine ecosystems, but such
studies will help us focus our carbon mitigation efforts in
Carbon Uptake by Land and Oceans the right places.
In theory, calculating the global scale of Earth’s carbon

sinks should be a simple matter of arithmetic. First, we Agriculture, Forestry, and Conservation
Cutting down forests and replacing them with
agriculture releases a large amount of carbon dioxide
MAJOR SOURCES AND SINKS IN THE CARBON
CYCLE into the atmosphere. In developing countries such
as Indonesia and Belize, land use change, largely
deforestation, represents a significant fraction of their
greenhouse gas emissions. The opposite is also true. In
forests, the amount of carbon in storage increases as they
ATMOSPHERIC mature. In the United States during the last 20 years,
CARBON
the amount of carbon dioxide taken up by forests has
increased 20%.
However, carbon does not only accumulate above
ground but also, and perhaps more reliably, in soils
both in forests and on farmland. Certain agricultural
practices can sustain soils as carbon sinks, increasing soil
health and fertility (see Figure 14.41). We have already
discussed some of these practices in Chapter 7, where we
reviewed no-till and low-till agriculture (see page 216).
Over time, perennial crops, such as grasses used
for biofuels, can store large amounts of carbon in soils.
Vegetation Oceans Fossil fuel Land use
and soils combustion change We also know that grassland soils have this potential carbon sink A part of the
because of the great amount of carbon present in the Earth system that takes
FIGURE 14.39 Both terrestrial and marine ecosystems are net prairie soils of North America before they were plowed. carbon compounds from the
sinks for atmospheric carbon, while fossil fuel burning and land atmosphere, through biological
use change are the major contributors of adding carbon to the
Meanwhile, cattle can degrade carbon sinks and release or physical processes, and
atmosphere. Of the two sources, fossil fuel burning makes the methane, and the agriculture required to feed large cattle removes them from active
largest contribution to increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide. stock is a major carbon dioxide contributor. Reducing circulation.

EARTH’S GROWING CARBON SINKS
400 Cumulative emissions
GLOBAL CARBON ACCUMULATION (PgC)

Atmospheric accumulation
300 Global uptake
Cumulative carbon emissions
200 totalled 350 PgC. However . . .
100
. . . only 158 PgC remained in
the atmosphere, because . . .
0
−100
. . . land and ocean carbon
sinks had taken up 192 PgC.
−200
−300
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
YEAR
FIGURE 14.40 The uptake of CO2 emissions by land and oceans doubled between 1960 and 2010, reducing the buildup of the
greenhouse gas in the atmosphere. (Data from Ballantyne et al., 2012)
heavy meat consumption in rich nations can help reduce part of a broader strategy called carbon capture and
carbon emissions. sequestration (Figure 14.42).
Although it may be obvious that leaving a forest or The IPCC has estimated that carbon capture and
wetland intact keeps carbon dioxide from entering the sequestration could reduce emissions from conventional
atmosphere, predators such as wolves and lions also have power plants by 80% to 90%, providing a significant
a role to play in maintaining our carbon sinks. When gray boost to carbon reduction goals. These technologies face
wolves were reintroduced to Yellowstone National Park a common roadblock, though: where to store the gas
in 1995, they preyed on and reduced the number of large and how to do it without burning more fossil fuels in the
herbivores in the ecosystem, including deer and elk. With process. Some scientists have proposed pumping carbon
carbon capture and fewer elk on the landscape, more willow, cottonwood, dioxide to the bottom of the ocean, but such an approach
sequestration A and aspen are growing to full size, potentially increasing has been ruled out because it would increase ocean
technological strategy to carbon storage in the landscape (see Figure 4.16, acidification.
reduce additions of carbon page 108). A positive effect by a predator on plants is Geo-sequestration involves compressing carbon
dioxide and other greenhouse
gases to the atmosphere by
called a trophic cascade. Unexpectedly, the reintroduction dioxide and pumping it into underground structures such
collecting them at the point of wolves also boosted beaver numbers, from a single as salt-water aquifers or empty oil and natural gas fields.
of emission and storing them colony in 2001 to nine colonies in 2011. Beavers depend Some power plants are already doing this. Since 1996 the
in a place or chemical form on willows to survive the winter, and their dams create Norwegian company Statoil has pumped millions of tons
that removes them from active marshes and ponds that act as carbon sinks. of carbon dioxide into a variety of geologic formations.
circulation in the carbon cycle.
Trophic cascades are not limited to terrestrial The process is more challenging with coal plants because
geo-sequestration ecosystems, however. Recent studies of sea otters have carbon dioxide emissions are mixed with nitrogen and
An approach to carbon shown that their presence can increase the potential of oxygen. However, new technologies for gasification—
capture and sequestration that kelp forests to act as carbon sinks by an estimated 10 creating synthetic natural gas from coal before
involves compressing carbon times (Figure 14.41). combustion—allows for the more efficient sequestration
dioxide and pumping it into
underground structures such
of pure carbon dioxide.
as salt-water aquifers or empty Carbon Capture and Sequestration
oil and natural gas fields. Geoengineering
In San Antonio, Texas, a revolutionary “Skymine” opened
gasification A technique in October 2014. The portable Skymine in San Antonio In February 2004 a marine biologist named Victor
to make carbon capture at is attached to a cement factory, but it can attach to other Smetacek dumped several tons of iron sulfate into
coal-fired power plants more facilities such as a power station or factory, capturing the Southern Ocean as part of the European Iron
effective by creating synthetic carbon dioxide emissions and transforming them Fertilization Experiment. Because plankton growth
natural gas from coal before
combustion, allows for the
into baking soda, which can be used to make paper or depends on the availability of iron, Smetacek’s goal was
more efficient sequestration of cement. Mineralization is just one new technology for to spawn a plankton bloom by providing an influx of
pure carbon dioxide. preventing carbon dioxide from entering the atmosphere, iron, which could potentially pull carbon dioxide out of

461
WORKING WITH NATURE TO ENHANCE CARBON SINKS
(Betty Wiley/Moment Open/Getty Images)

(fotoVoyager/Getty Images)
Agricultural soils have the potential to store large amounts of In nearshore kelp forest environments, conserving sea otter populations
carbon, as a by-product of improving soil structure and fertility. can help sustain storage of organic carbon in the deep ocean.
FIGURE 14.41 Recent studies have revealed the potential of many terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems to act as carbon sinks. On
land, agricultural ecosystems show great potential in this regard. In addition, the activities of keystone species, such as sea otters, geoengineering
can have substantial effects on rates of carbon sequestration in the ecosystems they occupy. Proposed technological
approaches to manipulating
processes that influence
climate, such as carbon
the atmosphere. His results, published in Nature in 2012, carbon in the process. This radical approach, dubbed dioxide uptake by marine
demonstrated that when shelled plankton called diatoms geoengineering, seeks to “hack” the Earth system in algae, in an effort to mitigate
die, they sink deep in the water column and sequester order to reduce global temperatures. global climate change.
CARBON CAPTURE AND SEQUESTRATION
CARBON CAPTURE CARBON SEQUESTRATION

Carbon dioxide produced Carbon dioxide is then transported and stored, typically in geologic formations located deep
by power plants and other below the earth's surface.
major emissions sources
is captured before entering
the atmosphere. Depleted oil and Deep unmineable Enhanced oil and Enhanced coal bed Deep saline formations
gas reservoirs coal seams gas recovery methane recovery (onshore and offshore)
Power
plant
Oil/gas Methane
pipeline gas pipeline
Injected CO 2
Stored CO 2
Produced oil/gas
Stored oil/gas
Produced methane
Stored methane
FIGURE 14.42 Still in the experimental stage, engineers and climate scientists are designing and testing systems for capturing
CO2 produced by power plants and other industrial activities and putting the CO2 to use in the recovery of natural gas from coal
beds or into storage in deep salt brine and coal deposits.

Despite this early success, scientists remain skeptical In less populated areas where seawalls are not
of iron fertilization because of the damage it could cause feasible, current homeowners could be encouraged
the ecosystem as a whole, and the slim likelihood that to reinforce existing homes or elevate them off the
it would be successful. For instance, there’s no way to ground. At the same time, communities should not
control which type of algae will bloom, and the approach permit new buildings in areas that will be prone to
could backfire by producing toxic algae. Such blooms coastal storm surges in the future. Other aspects of our
could also lead to the depletion of oxygen in oceanic infrastructure, including sewage systems and power
waters and cause an imbalance in marine ecosystems. plants, should be designed to withstand flooding and
Finally, the approach is a stopgap measure and will only other extreme weather events.
trap carbon for a few centuries. In 2007, 35 countries that Farmers will also have to adapt to a warmer world.
are party to the London Convention, which regulates Scientists are already working to develop both drought-
ocean pollution, agreed to a moratorium on ocean tolerant crop varieties and improved irrigation
fertilization. strategies to cope with shrinking water supplies. More
More generally, geoengineering has produced some of generally, geographers and economists will need to
the most controversial ideas to combat climate change, work together with agricultural scientists to learn
which go beyond considering just boosting carbon which regions can sustainably support particular crops
sinks or reducing carbon emissions. Some thinkers have in the future, while ensuring that such activities do not
proposed placing 15 trillion mirrors in orbit to reflect exacerbate the climate change problem. Ultimately,
the Sun’s rays. Others have suggested adding sulfur to the policy makers will face difficult decisions about the
atmosphere or spraying seawater into the air to create allocation of water—for example, in the arid southwest
clouds and thus reflect more sunlight away from Earth’s United States where growing communities compete
surface and back into space. with farmers.
Many of these ideas have been dismissed as being too The IPCC expects the cost of adaptation to continue
expensive, far-fetched, or outright dangerous. By now, it to grow over the next century, and not all regions or
should be clear that in our attempts to combat one global countries will be impacted in the same way by climate
problem we have created, we should be wary of creating change. Poorer countries are the ones expected to
another. be most impacted by climate change, and they will
require assistance from richer, industrialized nations.
Undoubtedly, the Earth is going to be a very different
Adapting to Climate Change
place in the year 2100. Are we going to be ready?
In the end, it is already too late to head off climate change
completely, and societies must be prepared to cope with
its impacts. The IPCC has noted that climate adaptation, ! Think About It
which is a strategy to reduce the impacts and hazards 1. Which ecosystems that can act as natural
associated with climate change, must go hand-in-hand carbon sinks should we consider managing in
with climate mitigation measures designed to reduce
order to increase their rates of carbon storage for
greenhouse gas emissions.
climate mitigation?
For instance, rising sea levels will make coastal areas
more susceptible to storm surges, which means nations, 2. What is the wildest geoengineering project you
regional governments, and cities need to develop plans can imagine to reduce global temperatures? How
climate adaptation for what areas to protect and what areas to retreat from.
A strategy to reduce the might it cause problems in the future?
impacts and hazards
In densely populated areas with critical infrastructure,
associated with climate such as lower Manhattan, cities may need to bolster 3. How would you prepare your own home for
change. flood protections with seawalls and hurricane barriers. climate change?

463
14.9–14.11 Solutions: on new opportunities by designing efficient,

electric vehicles and more efficient architecture.
Summary In developing countries, companies have
Mitigating climate change requires reducing begun selling more efficient wood-burning
greenhouse gas emissions, primarily from stoves to reduce the release of climate-warming
electricity generation and transportation. soot.
Trading fossil fuels with large carbon footprints We can increase the uptake of greenhouse
for fuels with smaller footprints, along with gases through carbon sinks. Agricultural soils
renewable energy sources, is a first step. Fuel- and natural ecosystems alike can be managed to
efficient vehicles, urban planning, and public act as significant carbon sinks. Carbon capture
transportation also provide opportunities to and sequestration have the potential to reduce
reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Governments the rate at which electrical generation emits CO2
can implement cap-and-trade strategies and to the atmosphere. Geoengineering is a radical
carbon taxes, as well as offer subsidies to approach to alter Earth’s climate, which should
companies using cleaner energy sources. only be pursued cautiously.
Reducing greenhouse gas emissions will result Societies will need climate adaptation
in significant costs for some companies and strategies to cope with the impacts of sea level
profits for others, while jobs may shift from one rise and the increased frequency of extreme
sector to another. Entrepreneurs are capitalizing weather events.

464 CHAPTER 14 GL OB A L C LI MATE C HA NGE
Central Question: How can we mitigate and adapt to the environmental

and social impacts of climate change?
14.1–14.4 Science 14.5–14.8 Issues

• What effect does the atmosphere have on • What is the primary cause of increased CO2
planetary temperatures? levels and how do we know?
• How did scientists learn about the greenhouse • What global physical effect results from rising
effect and its role on Earth? CO2 levels?
• How do global temperatures and CO2 • What types of changes on Earth have
concentrations vary over time? accompanied rising global temperatures?
• Which atmospheric factor exerts the most • What societal costs have resulted from climate
control over global temperatures and how do change?
we know?
Climate Change and You cooling in summer (no cooler than 78° F). Save energy by walking or
bicycling whenever practical and safe, or use public mass transport.
Many consider climate and atmospheric change to be the most serious
If you operate a motor vehicle, you can try to maximize fuel economy
environmental challenge that our species has ever faced. Massive
by choosing a fuel-efficient one and keeping it well maintained.
releases of greenhouse gases resulting from the activity of a growing
human population have already warmed Earth and threaten to radically ! Support efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
disrupt the entire biosphere. The challenges posed by climate change
As a citizen, you can use your voice and vote to support transitioning
put our collective life and economic support systems at risk. In the face of
to renewable energy sources and reducing greenhouse gas
such a challenge, what can an individual do?
production. You can support local, regional, and national programs
fostering conservation agriculture and forestry practices that help
! Follow the science.
sustain these natural carbon sinks. You can also support legislation
Although climate scientists are in overwhelming agreement on that levels a cost on carbon emissions associated with power
climate change and its causes, the deniers of climate change production and other industrial activity. As a consumer, you can go
science present competing conclusions on the present state one step further and support clean energy initiatives offered by your
and dynamics of Earth’s climate, as well as the societal and local electrical utility.
environmental stakes. The best way to sort your way through these
competing narratives is to build on what you have learned in this ! Become involved.
course by following developments in published science, paying In ways large and small, we can all be a force for constructive
particular attention to data associated with global temperatures, change. After completing this course in environmental science,
storm intensities, depth and frequencies of drought, sea level rise, you should have a broader understanding of the science, issues,
and so forth. and potential solutions to today’s environmental challenges. More
important, you are better prepared to expand that base of knowledge
! Conserve energy. far beyond where it is now. As you do so, let your informed voice
Collectively, we can alter the amount of energy produced simply be heard where appropriate and become involved individually and
by conserving energy. Energy utilities report that conservation by with organizations that reflect your knowledge and understanding of
consumers has already reduced energy demand in both the United the most pressing environmental issues, whether they be related to
States and Europe. A first step is to make sure that your residence climate change or the many other issues surveyed in this text. In the
is well insulated. If possible, you can also set your thermostat to end, because these issues reflect what we do or have done to the
reduce energy used for heating in winter (no higher than 68° F) and environment of our planet, all are interrelated.

465

• What tactics can we take to reduce carbon
emissions?
• What new economic opportunities may arise

from reducing greenhouse gas emissions?
• What role do carbon sinks play in balancing

the carbon budget?
Chapter 14 a. Ozone
b. Nitrogen
d. Water vapor
e. Carbon dioxide
9. Why did the Kyoto Protocol emphasize the
reduction of greenhouse gas emissions by
Review Questions c. Methane developed countries?
a. The goal of the Kyoto Protocol is to reduce
5. Which of the greenhouse gases appears
1. What produces the differences in economic output by developed countries.
to act as Earth’s “thermostat”?
temperature among the planets Earth, Mars, b. Developing countries do not have the means to
a. Ozone d. Water vapor
and Venus? reduce their emissions of greenhouse gases.
b. Nitrogen e. Carbon dioxide
a. Distance from the Sun explains the differences. c. Developed countries have historically been the
c. Methane
b. Earth’s atmosphere is made up of nitrogen and source of most of the greenhouse gas emissions.
oxygen that trap massive amounts of heat. 6. Milankovitch Cycles d. Greenhouse gas emissions from developing
c. Differences in the greenhouse effect account for a. shift the temperature of surface water in the middle countries will never be greater than those from
difference in the climates of Earth, Mars, and Venus. latitudes of the Pacific Ocean that produce variation developed countries.
d. The amount of water vapor found on each of the in Earth’s climate.
planets is responsible. b. alter the time of Earth’s rotation and orbit around 10. Which of the following has the greatest
the Sun, which may trigger climate variation. potential for reducing greenhouse gas
2. Carbon capture and sequestration is a emissions from the United States in the near
c. change the timing and duration of the hurricane
technology that term?
season in the Northern Hemisphere.
a. reduces the amount of carbon dioxide and other a. Converting all motor vehicles to electric vehicles
d. change the shape of Earth’s orbit, tilt in its axis,
greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere at the b. Improving the energy efficiency of buildings
and precession of the equinoxes that produce
point of origin by filtering and chemical conversion. c. Increasing the fuel efficiency of motor vehicles
variation in Earth’s climate.
b. is used by industry to stagger manufacturing so d. Converting all coal power plants to ones that use
that greenhouse gases are not continuously emitted. 7. Which one of the following statements natural gas
c. reduces additions of carbon dioxide and other about the greenhouse effect is not correct?
greenhouse gases to the atmosphere by collecting a. The greenhouse effect is the absorbing Critical Analysis
them at the point of emission and storing them in a and reradiating of infrared (IR) light by various 1. What are some possible consequences of climate
place or removing them from active circulation in the components of Earth’s atmosphere, resulting in change?
carbon cycle. higher surface and atmospheric temperatures.
2. What methods do scientists use to study climate
d. may be required under proposed amendments to b. Greenhouse gases like water vapor, carbon
change? How do they collect data?
the Clean Air Act. dioxide, and methane trap IR radiation and reflect it
back toward Earth. 3. How will global warming affect the growing season?
3. The climate of Earth c. Earth would be uninhabitable by most species 4. Why do carbon dioxide levels drop during the
a. has been consistent over the history of the planet. without the greenhouse effect. summer in the Northern Hemisphere?
b. is changing rapidly now, but will stabilize within the d. Emissions by volcanoes make no contribution to 5. How can the increasing severity of storms be
next century. the greenhouse effect. attributed to climate change?
c. is changing rapidly mainly due to increases in
greenhouse gases as a result of human activity. 8. Which factor causes the concentration of
water vapor in the atmosphere to increase? Find additional resources and links online at www.
d. changes in random and unpredictable ways with
a. Condensation macmillanhighered.com/launchpad/molles1e.
no discernible pattern.
b. Rising temperatures
4. Which is the most abundant greenhouse c. Falling temperatures
gas in Earth’s atmosphere? d. Decrease in atmospheric concentration of CO2
Appendix A
Basic Chemistry
Understanding the material basis of ecosystems and
THE BASIC ATOMIC STRUCTURES OF HYDROGEN
economic systems is improved by delving beneath the AND HELIUM, THE TWO MOST ABUNDANT ATOMS
surface layers of matter to consider some details of IN THE UNIVERSE
chemistry, the science concerned with the composition,
structure, properties, and reactions of matter. A logical HYDROGEN
entry point into a discussion of basic chemistry is the a. Hydrogen consists of a nucleus of a single proton surrounded
atom. by an electron cloud, the space in which the single electron of
hydrogen moves.
Atoms Nucleus
matter Anything that
occupies space and has mass;
The basic constituent of all matter is the atom, which is Electron cloud exists in three main physical
the smallest particle of a pure substance that still retains states: as a solid, liquid, or gas.
the chemical and physical properties of that substance.
b. If we imagine the position of the electron as stationary for atom The smallest particle
The simplest and most abundant atom in the universe an instant, we can represent the hydrogen atom as a proton of a pure substance that still
is hydrogen. Hydrogen’s nucleus, the central massive orbited by a tiny electron.
retains the properties of the
region of an atom, contains a single proton orbited NUCLEUS substance.
by a single electron (Figure A.1). Because they have Protons: 1 (positive charge)
nucleus The massive central
equal and opposite electrical charges, protons (+1) and Neutrons: 0 (no charge)
core of an atom, which is
electrons (–1) are attracted to each other and cancel each Electrons: 1 (negative charge) made up of protons and
other out electrically. As a consequence, the hydrogen neutrons, around which the
Atomic number: 1
atom with its single proton and single electron is atom’s electrons move.
electrically neutral [(+1) + (–1) = 0]. proton A subatomic particle,
Because an electron moves at nearly the speed of light, found in the nucleus of atoms,
HELIUM that has a positive charge (+1)
it forms an electron cloud around the nucleus, which is
c. Helium consists of a nucleus of two protons and two neutrons and atomic mass of 1.
one way to represent the orbit of an electron around the orbited by two electrons.
nucleus (Figure A.1a). For convenience, however, we can electron A subatomic particle
mentally freeze the position of an electron and picture it NUCLEUS with a negative charge (–1)
Protons: 2 and a mass approximately
as moving in a fixed orbit (Figure A.1b). Notice that the Neutrons: 2 1/2,000 that of a proton or
helium atom (Figure A.1c) has two protons (+2 charge) neutron.
Electrons: 2
and two electrons (–2 charge), which again exactly
Atomic number: 2 neutron A subatomic particle,
balance each other electrically. However, the helium found in the nucleus of atoms,
nucleus also includes two neutrons, which are equal in FIGURE A.1 that has a mass approximately
weight to protons but have no electrical charge. Therefore, equal to that of a proton but
neutrons contribute to atomic weight but not to the no electrical charge.
electrical properties of atoms. Meanwhile, because it takes The atomic structure of elements provides clues atomic weight The
approximately 2,000 electrons to equal the mass of a single regarding their chemical properties. Table A.1 shows the average mass of the atoms
neutron or proton, electrons contribute to the electrical atomic structures of 11 biologically important elements. in a naturally occurring pure
properties of atoms but insignificantly to their mass. Just six of these—carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, substance (e.g., gold, carbon,
oxygen).
Substances composed of a single type of atom, such phosphorus, and sulfur—make up approximately 99%
as hydrogen or helium, are called elements. Elements of the mass of organisms from humans and plants to element A substance
that we commonly encounter in everyday life include bacteria. The electrons of each element in the table are composed of a single type of
atom (e.g., hydrogen, helium,
the oxygen in the air we breathe, the aluminum in a soft illustrated in their orbits, or electron shells. Notice that the iron, or lead).
drink can, and the copper in a penny. The elements are innermost electron shell of each element is occupied by
traditionally arranged into a table called the periodic a maximum of two electrons, whereas the other electron atomic number The number
of protons in the nucleus of an
table, which orders elements by number of protons, or shells are occupied by a maximum of eight electrons. atom of an element; equal to
atomic number, and groups elements into families of The basic chemistry of the elements is strongly the number of electrons in a
substances with similar chemical properties (Figure A.2). influenced by the number of electrons in the outermost neutral atom.
A- 1
A- 2
1 2
APPEN D IX A BASIC CH EMIS TRY
H
Hydrogen
He Helium
RELATIVE
1.008 AMOUNT IN 4.003
3 4
HUMAN BODY 5 6 7 8 9 10
Atomic number
Symbol Highest
Li Be
Lithium Beryllium
Element name
B
Boron
C
Carbon
N
Nitrogen
O
Oxygen
F Ne
Fluorine Neon
6.94 9.012 Atomic weight (mean relatve mass) 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18
Lowest
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg
Sodium Magnesium
Al Si P
Aluminum Silicon Phosphorus
S Cl Ar
Sulfur Chlorine Argon
22.99 24.31 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.06 35.45 39.95
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
PERIODIC TABLE OF THE ELEMENTS
K Ca Sc Ti
Potassium Calcium Scandium Titanium
V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Vanadium Chromium Manganese Iron Cobalt Nickel Copper Zinc Gallium Germanium Arsenic Selenium Bromine Krypton
39.10 40.08 44.96 47.88 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.93 58.69 63.55 65.39 69.72 72.64 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.79
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te
Rubidium Strontium Yttrium Zirconium Niobium Molybdenum Technetium Ruthenium Rhodium Palladium Silver Cadmium Indium Tin Antimony Tellurium
I
Iodine
Xe Xenon
continues on other elements that may be essential in trace amounts.

85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.96 [98] 101.1 102.9 106.4 107.9 112.4 114.8 118.7 121.8 127.6 126.9 131.3
55 56 57–71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba
Cesium Barium
Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
Hafnium Tantalum Tungsten Rhenium Osmium Iridium Platinum Gold Mercury Thallium Lead Bismuth Polonium Astatine Radon
132.9 137.3 178.5 180.9 183.9 186.2 190.2 192.2 195.1 197.0 200.5 204.38 207.2 209.0 [209] [210] [222]
87 88 89–103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
Fr Ra
Francium Radium
Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Uut Fl Uup Lv Uus Uuo
Rutherfordium Dabnium Seaborgium Bohrium Hassium Meitnerium Darmstadtium Roentgenium Copernicium Ununtrium Flerovium Ununpentium Livermorium Ununseptium Ununoctium
[223] [226] [265] [268] [271] [270] [277] [276] [281] [280] [285] [284] [289] [288] [293] [294] [294]
57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Lanthanum Cerium Praseodymium Neodymium Promethium Samarium Europium Gadolinium Terbium Dysprosium Holmium Erbium Thulium Ytterbium Lutetium
138.9 140.1 140.9 144.2 [145] 150.4 152.0 157.2 158.9 162.5 164.9 167.3 168.9 173.0 175.0
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
FIGURE A.2 This representation of the periodic table highlights elements known to be essential for human health. Research
Actinium Thorium Protactinium Uranium Neptunium Plutonium Americium Curium Berkelium Californium Einsteinium Fermium Mendelevium Nobelium Lawrencium
[227] 232.0 231.0 238.0 [237] [244] [243] [247] [247] [251] [252] [257] [258] [259] [262]
A- 3
TABLE A.1 THE ATOMIC STRUCTURES AND IMPORTANCE OF 11 BIOLOGICALLY ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS
Symbol Name Structure Biological Importance
H Hydrogen Hydrogen, present in all organic

compounds (e.g., carbohydrates,
fats, and proteins and part of water)
is a major component of biological
structure.
C Carbon Carbon is central to all organic
compounds and forms the core of
biological structure. Life on Earth is
based on the chemistry of carbon.
N Nitrogen Nitrogen is an essential part of amino

acids and therefore of proteins and
amino acids.
O Oxygen Oxygen is part of many organic

molecules, is a component of water,
and is critical for respiration in many
organisms.
Na Sodium Sodium is important for proper nerve

and muscle function in animals.
Humans need sodium in the diet,
making salt a valuable commodity
throughout history.
Mg Magnesium Magnesium is central to the structure

of chlorophyll in algae and plants and is
necessary for the proper functioning of
enzymes in animals.
P Phosphorus Phosphorus is essential to the

structure of RNA and DNA, is part of
the energy-bearing molecule ATP,
and is important to bone and tooth
structure.
S Sulfur Sulfur is a key constituent of some

amino acids, the building blocks
of proteins, and helps determine
the structure of enzymes and other
proteinss.
Cl Chlorine Chlorine as the negatively charged

ion chloride, Cl–, is essential for nerve
and muscle and other cell function
and is part of the stomach acid HCl in
humans.
K Potassium Potassium as the positively charged

K+ ion is an important substance
in cellular fluids of both plants and
animals; it is essential for nerve and
muscle function.
Ca Calcium Calcium is essential for cell wall

structure, in the structure of bones and
teeth, and is important to blood clotting.
electron shell. Those elements with few electrons in the to accept electrons from other elements. For instance,
outer electron shell tend to give up, or donate, electrons hydrogen, sodium, and potassium tend to give up the
to other elements, while elements with nearly a full single electron in their outermost shell, and magnesium
complement of electrons in their outer electron shell tend and calcium give up the two electrons in their outer
A- 4 APPEN D IX A BASIC CH EMIS TRY
FOUR WAYS TO REPRESENT MOLECULES
TYPE OF REPRESENTATION OXYGEN NITROGEN WATER CARBON DIOXIDE METHANE
MOLECULAR FORMULA
Molecular formulas show
the proportions of the O2 N2 H 2O CO 2 CH4
various elements that
make up a molecule.
STRUCTURAL FORMULA
H H
Structural formulas O
include the number of O O N N O C O C
H H
covalent bonds and their H H
relative orientations.
SPACE-FILLING MODEL
Space-filling models give
a sense of the three
dimensions of molecules.
ELECTRON SHELL MODEL

Electron shell models
indicate shared electrons
involved in covalent bonding.
FIGURE A.3
electron shells. Meanwhile, oxygen and sulfur accept the world around us. How do such chemical compounds
two electrons to fill their outermost electron shells, and form? Compounds form as the products of chemical
chlorine accepts one. What about an element such as reactions between elements, between compounds, or
carbon, with an outer shell occupied by four electrons, between compounds and elements. Figure A.4 outlines
molecule A particle exactly half the full complement of eight? Such elements a chemical reaction in which methane gas, the main
consisting of two or more tend to share electrons with other elements. ingredient of natural gas, reacts with oxygen to produce
atoms held together carbon dioxide and water. During the burning of natural
by chemical bonds; the gas, the electrons forming the covalent bonds in both
constituent atoms may be Molecular Structure methane molecules and oxygen molecules are broken
of the same or different
elements.
and Chemical Reactions and reformed. The bond electrons are rearranged to form
As atoms interact, donating, accepting, or sharing covalent bonds between carbon and oxygen and between
compound A substance
composed of a fixed ratio
electrons, they form substances called molecules. oxygen and hydrogen, yielding carbon dioxide and
of two or more elements Molecules made up of atoms of two or more different water as products of the reaction. This reaction releases
(e.g., water consists of elements are compounds. Figure A.3 shows four considerable heat and light as the electrons involved
two hydrogen atoms and common ways to represent molecules. The representation in bond formation go from higher energy states in the
one oxygen atom: H2O); you use to illustrate a molecule will depend on the reactants (methane and oxygen) to lower energy states of
compounds can be broken
down into the elements
information you want to convey and on convenience. the products (water and carbon dioxide). The heat from
of which they are made The molecular formula, showing the proportions of each this reaction is commonly used to warm homes and
through chemical or physical of the elements making up a molecule, is easy to write. cook food.
processes. The structural formula includes the number of bonds and The compounds produced by some reactions do not
chemical reaction A their relative positions. A space-filling model gives a sense involve covalent bonds. Figure A.5 shows the reaction
process by which new of three-dimensionality. Finally, the electron shell model between sodium (a highly reactive, soft metal) and
substances are produced includes information on the shared electrons, forming chlorine (an irritating, greenish gas). The product of this
via the rearrangement of the bonds that hold the atoms of a molecule together. As reaction, sodium chloride (better known as table salt),
the atoms undergoing the
reaction, generally through
shown in Figure A.3, bonds may involve sharing of one, has properties that are quite different from the elements
the exchange or sharing of two, or three pairs of electrons; that is, bonds may be that combined to form it. The upper panel of Figure A.5
electrons. single (e.g., carbon to hydrogen), double (e.g., carbon to shows the reaction using the molecular formulas for
covalent bond A bond
oxygen), or triple (e.g., nitrogen to nitrogen). sodium and chlorine, while the lower panel uses electron-
between atoms that share one The discussion so far has included a wide variety of shell models to indicate the rearrangements of electrons
or more pairs of electrons. chemical compounds that occur in our own bodies and in involved in this chemical reaction.
A- 5
called cells (Figure A.6). The structure and functioning

TWO WAYS TO PICTURE A CHEMICAL REACTION of cells is the product of the molecules of which they are
made. Though atoms can combine in innumerable ways
a. MOLECULAR FORMULA to form endless varieties of molecules, only a few types
Methane and oxygen react to form carbon dioxide and water, giving of molecules are required to form the great diversity of
off energy in the process.
life on Earth. Those key molecules are the basis for the
E
structure, energetics, and reproduction of all organisms.
Examples of the main molecules making up living
Energy
systems are arrayed around the animal cell illustrated
CH4 2O 2 CO 2 2H2O in Figure A.6. Cells are separated from the surrounding
Methane Oxygen Carbon Water environment by a membrane that is selectively permeable.
dioxide Within a cell are a variety of organelles, also bound by a
membrane, that perform essential functions in the life of
the cell. The cell membrane is constructed of lipids with
b. ELECTRON SHELL MODEL embedded proteins, consisting of chains of amino acids.
During this reaction, the electrons that form covalent bonds go The cell nucleus contains DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid),
from a higher energy state in methane and oxygen (the reactants) the repository of genetic information in the cell. That ion An atom, or group of
to a lower energy state in carbon dioxide and water (the products).
information is carried to the ribosomes, where proteins atoms, with a net positive or
E
are assembled. The mitochondria are sites where the negative charge (e.g., chloride,
Electron sharing = Covalent bonds
covalent bonds energy in sugars and fats are converted to ATP (adenosine Cl–, and sodium, Na+, ions).
Energy
triphosphate), a common energy source for cell processes. ionic bond A chemical
bond involving the attraction
Summary between two oppositely
charged ions.
Methane Oxygen Carbon dioxide Water Everything in the universe is composed of matter, which
exists as a solid, liquid, or gas. The basic constituent of lipids Organic molecules
composed of long chains of
The change in energy state of the electrons that form
covalent bonds is the source of energy given off during carbon atoms bonded mainly
the reaction, which we perceive as a flame. to hydrogen (e.g., fats, oils, or
waxes); important components
THE FORMATION OF AN IONIC COMPOUND
of cell membranes; function as
FIGURE A.4
energy storage molecules in
a. MOLECULAR FORMULA animals and plants.
Sodium and chlorine react to form sodium chloride, an proteins Long chains of
During the formation of sodium chloride, the single ionic compound. amino acids (i.e., molecules
electron in the outermost electron shell of sodium moves consisting mainly of carbon,
E
nitrogen, hydrogen, and
from the sodium atom to the chlorine atom, releasing Energy oxygen) that control rates of
energy. In the process, the sodium atom is converted into chemical reactions, provide
a sodium ion with a charge of +1. During this reaction, 2Na Cl 2 2NaCl structural support, and perform
the chlorine atom is converted to a chloride ion with a Sodium Chlorine Sodium chloride many other functions.
charge of –1. DNA (deoxyribonucleic
Where do these charges come from? Sodium atoms acid) The carrier of genetic
b. ELECTRON SHELL MODEL information in cells, consisting
have an atomic number of 11, which means that they
have exactly 11 protons in their nucleus. When one of of two complementary
Electron transferred
chains of molecules, called
the sodium electrons moves to chlorine, the remaining E from sodium atom
nucleotides, wound in a
10 electrons do not quite cancel out the total positive Energy double helix; this source of
charge of the 11 nuclear protons. Consequently, the biological inheritance, passed
sodium ion has a net charge of +1. Similarly, with the from parents to offspring,
addition of an electron, 18 electrons orbit the chloride directs the development and
functioning of an organism.
ion with its 17 protons, producing a net charge of –1. Sodium Chlorine Sodium chloride
Because they have opposite charges, sodium and chloride ATP (adenosine
ions are attracted to each other. The result of this attraction The single electron in the . . . to form a positively charged sodium
triphosphate) A molecule
outer shell of a sodium atom ion and a negatively charged chloride ion, made up of adenine bonded
is an ionic bond between sodium and chloride ions. moves to the outer shell of a which, due to their opposite charges, are to three phosphate molecules
chlorine atom. . . bound together by an ionic bond.
that releases energy when
Cells and Vital Molecules FIGURE A.5 The chemical reaction between sodium (a soft
one of the bonds between
phosphate molecules is
All the life forms on Earth, from bacteria and algae to metal) and chlorine (a greenish gas), to form sodium chloride, broken; ATP is the main
whales and redwood trees, are built of individual units common table salt. energy source for cells.
A- 6 APPEN D IX A BASIC CH EMIS TRY
THE CELL AND KEY MOLECULES RESPONSIBLE FOR THE STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONING
OF LIVING SYSTEMS
PROTEIN
Proteins consist of long chains of molecules called amino
acids and perform a wide range of tasks (e.g., facilitate
biochemical reactions, aid the immune response by targeting
foreign material for destruction, and provide key structural
elements, such as connective tissue).
PHOSPHOLIPID
Phospholipids are made up of a fatty acid tail, which is hydro-
phobic, and a phosphate head, which is hydrophilic. Cell mem-
branes consist of two layers of phospholipids, oriented with the
hydrophobic parts facing inward and the hydrophilic parts
forming the inner and outer surfaces of the cell membrane.
ATP
ATP (adenosine triphosphate) stores chemical energy in a
readily available form that is used as a source of energy to
power cell processes, including synthesis of proteins and
other molecules, cell division, and cell movement.
CARBOHYDRATE
Carbohydrates are molecules made up of carbon atoms to
which hydrogen and oxygen molecules are bound in a ratio of
2:1, as in a water molecule. Cells use some familiar carbohy-
drates (e.g., sugars and starch) to store chemical energy.
NUCLEIC ACID (DNA)

Nucleic acid (DNA) is a long-chain molecule that encodes
instructions necessary for carrying out cellular functions (e.g.,
synthesis of proteins) and for directing the development of
complex organisms. What we call “genes” are those segments
of DNA that code for a particular structure or process.
FIGURE A.6 A few types of molecules are responsible for the majority of the structure and functioning of living systems.
all matter, the atom, is the smallest particle of a substance bacteria and algae to whales and redwood trees, are
that retains its properties. Atoms react chemically—by built of individual units called cells, the structure and
donating, accepting or sharing electrons—to form functioning of which are determined by a few classes of
molecules; molecules made up of two or more elements molecules, including DNA, lipids, proteins, sugars,
are called compounds. All the life forms on Earth, from and ATP.
Appendix B
The Rock Cycle: Product
of a Dynamic Planet
crust The relatively low-density
rocks that form the most super-
ficial of Earth’s layers, including
All ecosystems, from oceans to deserts, develop and largest portion of Earth’s volume, can be divided into the continents, where the crust
function on a geologic foundation of rock. However, as upper and lower layers, again differing in density. is 20 to 70 kilometers thick, and
we shall see, this geologic foundation is not static but is The uppermost layer of the upper mantle consists of the ocean floor, which is about 8
kilometers thick.
renewed over very long timescales in a process called the rigid, relatively brittle rocks, which, along with Earth’s
rock cycle. We begin our exploration of the rock cycle crust, make up the lithosphere. In contrast, most of the mantle The layer of Earth
between the crust and the core;
with a review of Earth structure. upper mantle has a consistency similar to plastic, and
represents the largest portion of
a small portion of it is liquid. This softer portion of the Earth’s volume and consists of
upper mantle is called the asthenosphere. The lower higher-density rocks than those
Earth Structure mantle is composed of solid rock of higher density than that make up the crust.
Earth can be divided into three major layers: core, the upper mantle. The core of the planet, which extends lithosphere The uppermost layer
mantle, and crust (Figure B.1). The crust, which is from about 2,900 kilometers to 6,370 kilometers (1,800 of the upper mantle above the
made up of relatively low-density rocks and is the most to 3,955 miles) in depth at the center of the planet, is asthenosphere, consisting of rigid,
relatively brittle rocks.
superficial of Earth’s layers, forms the continents and also two-layered. The core appears to consist of an outer
ocean floor. Continental crust is 20 to 70 kilometers liquid layer of molten iron and nickel and a solid, inner asthenosphere The layer of the
upper mantle immediately below
(12 to 43 miles) thick, whereas the crust making up the iron–nickel center.
the lithosphere; has an overall
ocean floor is only about 8 kilometers (4 miles) thick. Earth is stratified not only by density but also by consistency similar to plastic.
Immediately below the crust is the mantle, consisting of temperature and pressure. Temperature and pressure
core The core of Earth consists
rocks of higher density than those that make up the crust are lowest at Earth’s surface and increase gradually with of an outer liquid layer of molten
and extending to about 2,900 kilometers (1,800 miles) depth below the surface, until the highest temperatures iron and nickel and a solid, inner
below Earth’s surface. The mantle, which constitutes the and pressures are reached at the core. Geologists iron–nickel center.
EARTH STRUCTURE
Crust
Upper mantle
Lower mantle Oceanic crust Continental crust

North Outer (liquid) core
America
Inner (solid) core
Lithosphere
Upper Asthenosphere
mantle
Pacific
Ocean South
America
FIGURE B.1 Planetary differentiation resulted in Earth’s current layered structure, with highest temperatures and densities prevailing at
Earth’s core and lowest temperatures and densities at Earth’s crust.
B- 1
B- 2 APPEN D IX B THE ROCK CYCL E: P RODUCT OF A DYNAMIC PLANET
estimate that the temperature at the solid inner core Plate Tectonics
may be nearly 8,000°C, whereas the temperature of the
liquid outer core may be slightly less than 5,000°C. If The theory of plate tectonics explains the mechanisms
temperatures increase with depth below the surface of responsible for some of Earth’s most dramatic features
Earth, how can the upper mantle and upper core be and processes, including the formation of ocean basins,
liquid while the lower mantle and inner core are solid? continents, and mountains, as well as the geographic
Earth scientists explain this apparent contradiction by distributions of earthquakes and volcanic activity.
pointing out that the higher pressures at greater depth Because it can account for so many geologic phenomena,
keep materials solid at higher temperatures. The physical the theory of plate tectonics unifies geology in a way
structure of Earth forms the basis for important Earth similar to how the theory of evolution unifies biology.
processes. One of the most consequential of those There is abundant evidence that the surface of Earth is
processes is plate tectonics. not one continuous layer of crust overlying the mantle.
PLATE TECTONICS
North Eurasian Convergence of Asia with India produces

American the Himalayas and Tibetan Plateau.
Plate
Juan de Plate
Fuca
Plate Caribbean Himalayas
Plate
Philippine
Cocos Plate
Plate
Pacific African
Plate Plate
South
Nazca American
Plate Plate Indian-Australian
Plate
Antarctic Plate
TRANSFORM BOUNDARY: SUBDUCTION ZONE:

Zone Of Frequent Earthquakes Associated With Volcanic Activity
Adjacent plates moving parallel to each other but Continental plates ride over the top of oceanic plates where the two types
in opposite directions form a transform boundary. of plates converge, forming a zone of subduction.
South
Nazca Plate American
Fractures in the Plate
oceanic plates are Mid-ocean
sites where plates ridge and rift
diverge and new
ocean floor forms.
plate tectonics A theory Hot rock

Subduction
proposing that Earth’s surface rising Magma
Convection cell in the zone
is divided into plates that move asthenosphere of the
on the upper layer of the man- upper mantle drives
tle; explains Earth structure plate movements.
Asthenosphere
and processes, including the
formation of ocean basins,
continents, and the geographic
distribution of earthquakes FIGURE B.2 Once thought to be fixed in place, the surface features of Earth are now known to be the result of dynamic interactions
and volcanic activity. among the tectonic plates. The theory of plate tectonics accounts for the distributions of phenomena like earthquakes and volcanoes.
B- 3
Rather, Earth’s surface is divided into several plates of convection currents form as hotter material deeper
lower-density lithosphere that “float” on the more dense within the mantle rises toward the surface of Earth. This
and plastic asthenosphere (Figure B.2). The plates, which material rises because it has a lower density than the
vary in thickness from about 80 to 120 kilometers (49 to cooler material above it. However, as the lower-density
74 miles), consist of a surface layer of crust and a deeper material rises and moves across the upper layers of the
layer of the upper mantle. In general, continental plates asthenosphere, it cools and, as it does so, its density
are thicker than oceanic plates. increases. Eventually, the density of this moving mass
Geologists propose that convective currents in the of material within the upper asthenosphere increases
asthenosphere drive the movements of the plates. These enough that it sinks, creating a convection cell, a pattern
THE ROCK CYCLE

(Addyvanich/Shutterstock)
(Oleksandr Khalimonov/
Shutterstock)
Cooling and Sedimentary rock
solidifying magma (Shale)
forms igneous rock.
(Granite)
Remelting Erosion, transport, and

sedimentation produce
deposits of layered
sediments.
Uplift may expose

any rock type to the
surface environment.
Heat and
pressure
Any rock type may be Melting Pressure and cementation

melted to form magma, consolidate sediments to
which can form igneous form sedimentary rocks.
rock.
(LesPalenik/Shutterstock)
(U.S. Geological Survey)
High-grade Low-grade
metamorphic rock metamorphic rock
(Gneiss) (Slate)
Additional heat or Heat and pressure can
pressure can convert one convert (”metamorphose”)
type of metamorphic rock sedimentary rocks into
convection cell Pattern of
into another higher-grade metamorphic rocks.
metamorphic rock. circulation caused by differing
temperatures in a liquid or gas
due to, for example, varying
FIGURE B.3 The large-scale geologic phenomenon known as the rock cycle involves several geologic processes that rework the temperatures in Earth’s semi-
materials of which rocks are composed to form and reform igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks. liquid mantle.
B- 4 APPEN D IX B THE ROCK CYCL E: P RODUCT OF A DYNAMIC PLANET
subduction Process in of circulation caused by differing temperatures in a semi- down by water, wind, and ice. Gigantic continents have
which one tectonic plate liquid, liquid, or gas. formed and broken apart. Submarine volcanic activity has
moves under another, gener-
The convection cells within the asthenosphere pull formed oceanic plates that were later driven back into the
ally occurring where oceanic
plates, which are of higher the plates along, putting them in motion. These moving mantle by subduction and their materials recycled. These
density, collide with continental plates are thus literally on a collision course with each various phenomena and processes can be viewed as part
plates. other. The fastest ones move only a few centimeters of a large-scale process called the rock cycle.
subduction zone Zone per year, but tremendous forces are involved—forces
where oceanic plates and con- sufficient to move entire continents and to form and
tinental plates collide, forming move the floor of entire ocean basins. These same forces The Rock Cycle
deep sea trenches and active
raise great mountain ranges, such as the Himalayas and At the center of most Earth processes are rocks, naturally
volcanoes along the continen-
tal margin. the Rockies, create deep ocean trenches, and produce occurring solid materials formed as a mixture of one or
earthquakes. more minerals. Igneous rock forms as molten rock cools
rock A natural, solid, inor-
ganic substance formed from Because oceanic plates are of higher density than and solidifies. Sedimentary rock forms either as rock
one or more minerals. continental plates when the two plate types collide, the fragments deposited by water, wind, or ice are cemented
igneous rock Rock formed
oceanic plate generally moves under the continental plate together and solidify or by chemical precipitation,
as molten rock cools and in a process known as subduction. Collisions between a process by which a dissolved substance goes from
solidifies. oceanic plates and continental plates form deep trenches dissolved to solid state in a body of water, such as a pond
sedimentary rock Rock in the subduction zone and active volcanoes along the or sea, and settles to the bottom. Metamorphic rock
formed either as rock frag- continental margin. forms when any type of rock is transformed by exposure
ments deposited by water, During Earth’s estimated 4.5-billion-year history, the to high heat and pressure. During Earth’s history, rocks
wind, or ice are cemented forces of plate tectonics have changed the face of the have been made and remade many times by the rock
together and solidify or as
rock forms through chemical
planet many times. Mountains have been built and worn cycle (Figure B.3).
precipitation.
metamorphic rock Rock
formed when any type of rock
changes as it is subjected to
heat and pressure.
rock cycle Geologic
processes that convert each
of the three major rock types
(igneous, sedimentary, and
metamorphic) into one of the
other types.
Glossary
abiotic Physical and chemical components of the environment. aquaculture The controlled growing of aquatic organisms (e.g., fish,
abundance (population size) The number of individuals in a population. shellfish, algae, or plants) as a crop, mainly for food; carried out in marine,
brackish water, or freshwater environments.
acid A substance that releases hydrogen ions upon dissociation when
dissolved in water, resulting in reduced pH of the solution; acids neutralize aquifer A geologic formation containing groundwater; gains water through
bases. the process of infiltration and loses water through groundwater flow.
acid deposition An inclusive term that includes both wet and dry artificial selection A process in which humans “select” which individuals
deposition of acids. in a population mate to produce descendants with desired characteristics.
acid mine drainage A problematic result of strip mining, in which surface asthenosphere The layer of the upper mantle immediately below the
flow of groundwater turns acidic as it percolates through mine wastes lithosphere; has an overall consistency similar to plastic.
(tailings). atom The smallest particle of a substance that still retains the properties
acid rain Acidified rainfall. See acid deposition. of the substance.
adaptations Traits favored by natural selection for surviving and atomic number The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom of an
reproducing in a particular environment. element; equal to the number of electrons in a neutral atom.
additive effect An interaction of two toxic substances wherein their atomic weight The average mass of the atoms in a naturally occurring
combined toxicity is simply the sum of their individual effects. pure substance (e.g., gold, carbon, oxygen).
aerosol Tiny particles of solid or liquid material suspended in air or other ATP (adenosine triphosphate) An energy-bearing molecule containing
gas. phosphorus used to transport energy within cells.
age structure The proportions of individuals of various ages in a autotroph See primary producer.
population; the relative proportions of individuals of reproductive and
pre-reproductive age indicate whether a population is growing, stable, or
declining. background extinction Average rate of extinction occurring over long
periods of time between periods of mass extinction.
A horizon (topsoil) Soil layer immediately below the O horizon that
includes significant amounts of organic matter, generally expressed by dark bacteria Single-celled organisms (singular bacterium) lacking a nucleus
color. or other membrane-bound organelles; the vast majority of bacteria are not
pathogens.
airshed A concept equivalent to a watershed or drainage basin but related
to movements of air rather than water; typically behaves in an orderly way, base A substance that has the capacity to neutralize acids; bases release
thus can be used to track and manage air pollution. hydroxide ions (OH–) and react with acids to form a salt and water.
allergen A substance that activates the immune system, inducing an B horizon A depositional soil layer in which materials transported from
allergic reaction. the A and E horizons accumulate.
allopatric (geographic) speciation A process by which new species are bioaccumulation The absorption and increase in concentration of
formed that occurs as the result of the division of a population into two chemicals in organisms, over time, including potentially toxic chemicals.
geographically separate populations; over time, genetic differences arise See biomagnification.
and accumulate in the two separate populations, eventually leading to biocentric Centered on life in all its forms; for example, biocentric
reproductive isolation. environmental ethics extends moral obligation to all life.
ammonification The process by which decomposers break down proteins biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) An indicator of the amount of
and amino acids, releasing nitrogen in the form of ammonia (NH 3) or organic matter in water, measured as the quantity of oxygen consumed by
ammonium ion (NH4+). microorganisms as they break down the organic matter in a sample of water.
anaerobic An environment without molecular oxygen (O2). biodegradable A substance that can be decomposed to its chemical
antagonistic effect An interaction of two toxic substances wherein the constituents by biological processes.
toxicity of one chemical is reduced in the presence of the second chemical, biodiesel A liquid fuel made from vegetable oils and animal fats.
which may be used as an antidote. biodiversity Biological variety from genes and species to diversity at the
Anthropocene era A new geologic era dominated by the effects of scale of ecosystems and the globe.
humans. biodiversity hotspot A region that supports at least 1,500 endemic plant
anthropocentric Human-centered; for example, human-centered species, approximately 0.5% of the world total, and that has been reduced
environmental ethics emphasizes impacts on humans. in area by at least 70%.
antibiotics Substances that suppress bacterial growth or attack and that biofuel A liquid or gaseous fuel derived from biomass (e.g., ethanol,
are used in modern medicine in the treatment of bacterial diseases. biodiesel).
G-1
G-2 GLOSSARY
biogeochemical cycle The cyclic path of an inorganic substance, such as carbon credit A permit to produce a certain amount of carbon
phosphorus, nitrogen, or carbon, through the Earth system, including the emissions, which can be traded or sold, if the full emissions allowance is
atmosphere, Earth’s crust, oceans, lakes, and rivers; key biological not used.
components are producers, consumers, detritivores, and decomposer carbon cycle The cycling of carbon through the Earth system; key
bacteria and fungi. biological processes in the carbon cycle include photosynthesis,
biological environment The kinds and diversity of pathogens, predators, respiration, and decomposition.
parasites, and competitors with which an organism interacts. carbon footprint The total amount of CO2 and other greenhouse gases
biomagnification An increase in concentration of a substance (e.g., heavy produced over the course of the life cycle of a particular technology,
metals or fat-soluble chemicals) at sequentially higher trophic levels in a individual, or population—for example, the carbon footprint of the United
food web. See bioaccumulation. States.
biomass fuel A combustible fuel derived from biological materials (e.g., carbon sink A part of the Earth system that takes carbon compounds
wood, charcoal, dung). from the atmosphere, through biological or physical processes, and
biome Associations of plants, animals, and other organisms that occur removes them from active circulation.
over large areas and that are characterized by distinctive biological carbon taxes Tax on carbon emissions.
structure, especially by characteristic growth forms (e.g., trees, shrubs, or carcinogen A substance that causes cancer by directly damaging the DNA
grasses on land; corals, kelp, or mangrove trees in aquatic environments). of cells.
bioreactor A system designed to cultivate algae; helps filter wastewater carnivore (predator) An animal that feeds on other living animals (e.g., a
before it enters the environment. lion or a spider).
bioremediation An approach to pollution cleanup that employs carrying capacity (K) The number of individuals in a population that an
organisms, generally microbes or plants, to decontaminate soils, environment can support over the long term.
sediments, and groundwater aquifers in place.
catch-and-release fishing The practice of releasing fish back into the
biotechnology The application of engineering techniques to modify water after catching them.
organisms genetically for a particular purpose.
catch-per-unit effort A measure of how many fish are caught using a
biotic Living components of the environment. specific piece of gear—a net or a line—for a certain period of time.
bitumen A flammable, highly viscous or semisolid mixture of cellular respiration A process taking place in cells that requires oxygen.
hydrocarbons. During cellular respiration, molecules, such as glucose, are broken down
black market The exchange of illegal goods and services. and energy, water, and carbon dioxide are released.
boom A barrier used to contain oil slicks and prevent them from entering cellulosic ethanol Ethanol produced from wood and other cellulose-rich
sensitive coastal areas. materials.
bottom ash The ash that accumulates at the bottom of an incinerator centrally planned economy An economy in which decisions about the
during the combustion of solid waste. production and consumption of goods and services are made by a central
bottom trawlers Weighted nets dragged along the ocean to catch authority. See market economy.
groundfish (e.g., cod, flounder, scallops, shrimp, crab). channelize To engineer a change to the natural form of a stream or river,
brackish water Natural waters with a salt content intermediate between including straightening, deepening, or widening the channel.
freshwater and seawater, commonly occurring near the mouths of rivers chemical energy A form of potential energy; energy stored in the bonds
where freshwater and seawater mix. of molecules, such as sugars, fats, or methane.
brownfield An abandoned industrial site generally contaminated with chemical reaction A process by which new substances are produced
hazardous waste and unusable without remediation. via the rearrangement of the atoms undergoing the reaction, generally
Bt Insect-killing crystalline substance produced by the bacteria species through the exchange or sharing of electrons.
Bacillus thuringiensis. child mortality rate The number of infants per 1,000 live births who die
buffer zone A zone around a nature reserve or protected area in which before reaching 5 years of age.
limited economic activity is allowed. C horizon The deepest soil layer, consisting mainly of lightly weathered
buffering capacity A measure of the ability of a solution to neutralize acid. parent material.
bushmeat The butchered meat of wild animals, most commonly from clear-cutting An economically efficient technique whereby an entire area
African forests. is cleared of its trees.
bycatch Discarded catch and mortality of any organism (e.g., fish, climate The average weather occurring across a region over a long period,
invertebrate animals, birds, dolphins, sea turtles) as a result of contact with including average temperatures, precipitation, and so forth
fishing gear. climate adaptation A strategy to reduce the impacts and hazards
associated with climate change.
cap and trade Systems for regulating the emission of carbon dioxide and climax community The community at the end of a successional sequence
other pollutants. that persists until a disturbance disrupts it sufficiently to restart succession.
carbon capture and sequestration A technological strategy to reduce coal Sedimentary or metamorphic rock high in carbon and energy content
additions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases to the atmosphere formed over millions of years under conditions of high pressure and
by collecting them at the point of emission and storing them in a place or temperature (lignite, sub-bituminous coal, bituminous coal, anthracite).
chemical form that removes them from active circulation in the carbon cogeneration Generally refers to the use of a single source of energy for
cycle. multiple purposes.
G-3
combined cycle power plants Power plants that combine a gas turbine conventional-tillage agriculture Tilling a field to break up soil clumps
engine with a steam power plant. and smooth the soil surface before planting, as well as weeding using
command-and-control regulations Laws and regulations that control specialized machinery.
activities and industries through the use of subsidies and penalties core The core of Earth consists of an outer liquid layer of molten iron and
prescribed by the government. nickel and a solid, inner iron–nickel center.
commercial fishing Catching fish for profit; represents the vast majority Coriolis effect A deflection in the winds from a straight north–south path
of the fish captured around the world. as a consequence of Earth’s rotation on its axis from west to east; deflects
common-pool resource A resource owned and utilized in common by a winds to the right of their direction of travel in the Northern Hemisphere
community (e.g., a community forest or grazing land). and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.
corrosive Capable of causing permanent damage to a variety of surfaces,
common property Property owned or controlled by a community, such as
including living tissue; corrosive substances include strong acids (pH of 2
an indigenous tribe.
or less) or strong bases (pH of 12 or greater).
competition Interactions among individuals that depend on the same
covalent bond A bond between atoms that share one or more pairs of
resources; generally results in reduced growth, reproduction, or survival of
electrons.
one or both competitors.
criteria pollutants Very common sources of air pollution (e.g., sulfur
competitive exclusion principle If two species with identical niches
dioxide) chosen by the EPA to be regulated because they are hazardous to
compete for a limited resource (e.g., nectar), one or the other will be a
human health and the environment.
better competitor and will eventually eliminate the other species.
critical habitat Areas that are essential for the survival of a listed
composting A process involving aerobic decomposition of organic
endangered or threatened species.
material used to recycle garden waste and organic components of
municipal solid waste. crop rotation A method farmers use to maintain soil fertility and reduce
the buildup of pests by rotating crops on two-, three-, or four-year cycles.
compound A substance composed of a fixed ratio of two or more
elements (e.g., water, which consists of two hydrogen atoms and one crust The relatively low-density rocks that form the most superficial
oxygen atom: H2O). Compounds can be broken down into the elements of of Earth’s layers, including the continents, where the crust is 20 to 70
which they are made via chemical or physical processes. kilometers thick, and the ocean floor, which is about 8 kilometers thick.
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability cultural eutrophication An accelerated process of eutrophication
Act (CERCLA) Superfund Law enacted in 1980 to regulate hazardous resulting from human activities (e.g., sewage disposal, agriculture) that
waste and require companies to dispose of it safely. increase the rate of nutrient addition to ecosystems; generally results
in excessive algal or plant production, depletion of dissolved oxygen in
conflict of interest Competing interests, including personal, philosophical, aquatic ecosystems, and loss of biodiversity.
and financial interests, that may interfere with an objective judgment.
conservation The preservation, wise use, or restoration of species,
dam A structure that blocks the flow of a stream or river; may be used to
ecosystems, or natural resources.
reduce downstream flooding or to store water in a reservoir.
conservation ethic A philosophy of resource management that promotes
data The measurements made during a scientific study.
the efficient use of natural resources to provide the greatest good to the
greatest number of people. debt-for-nature swap A transaction wherein a developed nation forgives
the debt of a developing nation in exchange for conservation pledges.
conservation of matter A physical law describing how during chemical
reactions matter is neither created nor destroyed but conserved. decomposer An organism, mainly fungi and bacteria, that breaks down
dead plant and animal tissues, promoting the process of decomposition.
constructed wetlands Artificial wetland ecosystems, used in the See detritivore.
treatment of wastewater, that are constructed in areas where wetlands may
not occur naturally. demanufacturing The dismantling of equipment, especially electronics,
into constituent components and scrap metals that can be reused or
consumer An organism that meets its dietary needs by feeding on recycled.
other organisms or on organic matter produced by other organisms. See
demographic transition A theory proposing that, with improved living
heterotroph.
conditions, human populations will undergo a gradual change from
containment structure A steel and concrete enclosure designed to an earlier state of high death rates and birthrates to a state of low death
prevent the release of radioactive material in the case of a serious nuclear rates and birthrates, with improved living conditions. The demographic
reactor accident. transition model fits the history of today’s developed countries well.
control group A baseline for comparisons. demography The statistical study of populations, generally human
control rods Long rods made of neutron-absorbing substances, used to populations, including their density, growth, age structure, birthrates, and
control the rate of fission in a nuclear reactor. death rates.
convection cell Pattern of circulation caused by differing temperatures in denitrification The process by which specialized bacteria in soil and
a liquid or gas due to, for example, varying temperatures in Earth’s semi- water convert nitrate ions back into nitrogen gas (N2), which returns to the
liquid mantle. atmosphere.
Convention on Biological Diversity An international agreement density-dependent factors Mechanisms of population control that change
negotiated under the sponsorship of the United Nations Environmental with the density of a population (e.g., infectious disease, predation).
Programme to promote the conservation of biological diversity, the density-independent factors Controls on populations that are not
sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the affected by population density (i.e., physical aspects of the environment
benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources. such as drought, floods, and extreme temperatures).
G-4 GLOSSARY
desalination The process of removing salts from seawater or brackish economics A social science that deals with the production, distribution,
water to form freshwater. and consumption of goods and services, as well as the theory and
desertification A process of degradation of once fertile lands to a management of economic systems.
desertlike condition of reduced plant cover and primary production. ecosystem The organisms living in a place and the biological, physical,
detritivore An organism that feeds on dead organic matter (e.g., and chemical aspects of the environment with which they interact.
fallen leaves on the floor of a forest). Detritivores help in the process of Ecosystem ecologists focus much of their research on the flux and
decomposition; examples include many insects and earthworms. See transformation of matter and energy.
decomposer. ecosystem-based management An approach to management of natural
discharge In an aquifer, the movement of water from the groundwater to resources that considers the entire ecosystem; a departure from earlier,
a body of surface water (e.g., a river or lake). single-species approaches to natural resource management.
disease A condition in which normal biological function is impaired by ecosystem diversity A measure of the variety and extent of ecosystems in
bacteria, viruses, parasites, improper diet, or pollutants. an area.
dispersant A chemical used in oil spill cleanup that thins and dissolves ecosystem engineer A species, like the beaver, that influences ecosystem
the thick crude. structure and processes by altering the physical environment.
distillation A desalination process that uses heat to evaporate water from ecosystem services The benefits that humans receive from natural
seawater or brackish water and condenses the resulting salt-free water ecosystems such as food, water purification, pollination of crops, carbon
vapor to produce freshwater. storage, and medicines.
distribution The geographic range of a species. ecotourism Recreational travel that helps conserve the environment and
disturbance A discrete event (e.g., a fire, earthquake, or flood) that improves the well-being of local people.
disrupts a population, ecosystem, or other natural system by changing the edge effects Environmental conditions occurring near the edge of an
resources available or by altering the physical environment. ecosystem (e.g., near the edge of an isolated forest fragment); conditions at
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) The carrier of genetic information in cells, edges differ from those deep in the ecosystem interior.
consisting of two complementary chains of molecules, called nucleotides, E horizon Soil layer between the A and B horizons, from which clays and
wound in a double helix; this source of biological inheritance, passed dissolved materials are transported down the soil profile to the underlying
from parents to offspring, directs the development and functioning of an B horizon.
organism.
electron A subatomic particle with a negative charge (–1) and atomic
domestication The deliberate change of a wild animal or plant population
mass of 1.
through selective breeding to better meet the needs of humans.
electronic waste (e-waste) A portion of the waste stream consisting of
dose–response assessment A test of the response of an organism to a
discarded electronic products that typically contain hazardous components
range in the dose, or concentration, of a potentially toxic substance.
(e.g., heavy metals like lead, and other toxins).
drought An extended period of dry weather during which
precipitation is reduced sufficiently to damage crops, impair the element A substance composed of a single type of atom, such as
functioning of natural ecosystems, or cause water shortages for human hydrogen, helium, iron, or lead, that cannot be broken down into simpler
populations. substances via chemical or physical means.
dry casks Steel and concrete structures used for temporary storage of El Niño A period of warmer than average sea surface temperatures and
nuclear waste. lower barometric pressure in the eastern Pacific Ocean, favoring the
production of storms in the eastern Pacific Ocean.
El Niño Southern Oscillation An oscillating climatic system involving
eccentricity Variation in the shape of Earth’s orbit around the Sun. variation in ocean surface temperatures and barometric pressures across
ecocentric Centered on entire ecosystems; for example, ecocentric the Pacific Ocean.
environmental ethics extends moral obligation to the nonliving emigration The movement of individuals out of one area, or country, to
components of the environment, emphasizing the integrity of whole another.
natural systems.
endangered species A species whose populations have become so small
ecological community All the species—plants, animals, fungi, and that they may become extinct in the near future.
microbes—that exist and interact in a given location.
Endangered Species Act of 1973 (ESA) Legal protection in the United
ecological economics A branch of economics that draws on many
States for both domestic and foreign endangered species that declared
disciplines in studies of the influence of economic activity on the
plants and all invertebrate animals eligible for protection.
environment in an attempt to build a conceptual bridge between humans
and human institutions and the rest of nature. endemic species Local or regional species of organisms found nowhere
else on Earth.
ecological footprint The environmental impact of a human population as
the area of land and sea needed to produce the resources it consumes and endocrine disruptor A chemical that mimics hormones, including female
to absorb the wastes it produces. hormones (estrogen and progesterone), male hormones (testosterone), or
economic externality A cost or benefit to the environment or to society thyroid hormones.
resulting from the production and use of a product that is not included in energy The capacity to do work. See work.
the market price of the product. energy pyramid A graphic representation of the distribution of energy
economic system A network of people, institutions, and commercial among trophic levels in an ecosystem. Because large amounts of energy
interests involved in the production, distribution, and consumption of are dissipated at every trophic level, these diagrams take the form of a
goods and services. pyramid.
G-5
energy return on energy investment (EROEI) The ratio of the energy first law of thermodynamics A physical law concerned with the
content of an energy source (e.g., gasoline) to the amount of energy conservation of energy: Though one form of energy may be transformed
that must be used in, for example, drilling, transporting, and refining to to other forms, the total amount of energy in a system plus its
produce the energy source. surroundings is conserved; that is, the total amount of energy remains the
energy subsidies Government policies aimed at lowering the costs of same. See second law of thermodynamics.
energy production or lowering the cost to energy consumers. fisheries collapse The decline in a certain species’ annual catch below
enrichment A nuclear process in which uranium-235 is separated from 10% of its historic catch.
less valuable uranium-238. fishery A population of fish or shellfish, and the economic system
entropy A measure of the amount of disorder in a system. involved in harvesting the population, often identified by the geographic
area where the fish or shellfish are harvested.
environment The physical, chemical, and biological conditions that affect
an organism. flagship species A species that attracts and sustains human interest in
protecting ecosystems.
environmental economics A branch of economics that draws mainly
flammable Easily ignited; a flammable substance can ignite and burn
from the field of economics as it assesses and manages the costs and
easily (e.g., from friction, absorption of moisture, or contact with other
benefits of economic impacts on the environment.
waste materials).
environmental ethics The branch of philosophy that concerns the moral
flood A river or stream overflowing its banks and inundating the
responsibilities of humans with regard to the environment.
surrounding landscape known as the floodplain.
environmental hazards Phenomena dangerous to humans, including
floodplain The area of land that stretches from a water channel to the
infectious disease, toxic substances, and pollutants.
valley walls.
environmental health An area of research and action that assesses and flux The rate of flow of materials or energy across a given area (e.g., the
attempts to mitigate the physical, chemical, and biological factors in the flow of water vapor from the ocean’s surface to the atmosphere or the flow
environment that impact human health. of radiant energy between an organism and its surroundings).
environmental justice The fair treatment and meaningful involvement fly ash Particles formed during combustion that are light enough to
of all people in the development, implementation, and enforcement of become airborne and exit a combustion chamber with exhaust gases,
environmental laws, regulations, and policies. including soot and dust.
environmental science Study of the influence of humans on the food web A set of feeding relationships among organisms indicating the
environment and the effects of the environment on humans; also attempts flow of energy and materials in an ecosystem.
to find ways of reducing human harm to the environment.
forestry The management of forests and woodlands for the harvest of
environmentalism An ideological and social movement that advocates timber or fuelwood.
the protection of the environment from human harm through political
fossil fuels Fossilized organic material, mainly the remains of ancient
action and education.
photosynthetic organisms that converted the Sun’s radiant energy into
equilibrium model of island biogeography The hypothesis that the chemical energy (e.g., coal, oil, natural gas).
number of species on an island is determined by a balance between rates foundation species A species that strongly influences community
of immigration of new species and rates of species extinction on the island, structure by creating environments suitable for other species by virtue of
where rates of species immigration and extinction are determined by its large size or biomass.
island size and isolation from sources of immigrants.
fracking (hydraulic fracturing) A controversial extraction technique
erosion A process that removes geologic materials, ranging from clay- that involves drilling horizontally into a rock formation and pumping in
sized particles to boulders, from one part of a landscape to be deposited a mixture of fluids and sands to fracture it, thus creating a path through
elsewhere; increased rates of soil erosion due to human activity can reduce which natural gas or oil can flow out.
soil fertility.
freshwater Water with a salt content, or salinity, below that of brackish
euphotic zone A surface layer of the oceans and deep lakes where there is water (i.e., salinity less than 500 mg/l).
sufficient light to support photosynthetic aquatic organisms.
fuel rods Tubes containing small pellets of uranium-235 used as an
eutrophication A natural process by which nutrients, especially those that energy source in nuclear reactors.
limit primary production, build up in an ecosystem.
evolution A change in the genetic makeup of a population as a
consequence of one of several different processes, including natural gas turbine engine Engine that burns natural gas, sending a hot, high-
selection and selective breeding. pressure stream of gas through a turbine connected to an electrical
exposure assessment An assessment of the population that might be generator.
exposed to an agent of concern and of potential routes of exposure. gasification A technique to make carbon capture at coal-fired power
plants more effective by creating synthetic natural gas from coal before
extinction The loss of all members of a species.
combustion, allows for the more efficient sequestration of pure carbon
dioxide.
field experiments Experiments in which the experimenter generally genes Stretches of DNA that direct the growth, development, and
controls or manipulates a single factor, the factor of interest, while allowing functioning of organisms.
all other factors to vary normally. genetic diversity The sum of the different genes and gene combinations
fire regime The frequency and intensity of fires that typically occur in a found within a single population of a species and across populations of the
particular ecosystem. same species.
G-6 GLOSSARY
genetically modified (GM) organism (GMO) An organism into which high-level nuclear waste Radioactive waste, primarily nuclear fuel rods
one or more genes have been incorporated using the techniques of that have been depleted to the point that they can no longer contribute to
biotechnology. the efficient production of electricity.
geoengineering Proposed technological approaches to manipulating Human Development Index (HDI) An index of national development
processes that influence climate, such as carbon dioxide uptake by marine that includes life expectancy at birth, educational opportunities, and
algae, in an effort to mitigate global climate change. economic productivity.
geo-sequestration An approach to carbon capture and sequestration hydrocarbon An organic molecule made up of carbon and hydrogen
that involves compressing carbon dioxide and pumping it into only; the simplest hydrocarbon is methane (CH4), the main component of
underground structures such as salt-water aquifers or empty oil and natural gas.
natural gas fields. hydroelectric power Electricity generated by tapping the energy of water
gillnetting The practice of placing panels of large mesh net in the water being driven downhill under the force of gravity.
column to catch fish, the size of which depend on the mesh size; fish that hydrokinetic power A form of hydropower in which power stations
cannot pass all the way through the gillnet are ensnared by their gill covers use the kinetic energy of waves, tidal currents, or river flow to generate
when trying to retreat. electricity.
gravitational potential energy The amount of potential energy an object hydrologic cycle The movement of Earth’s water between the oceans,
contains due to its mass and height above a reference point, such as Earth’s atmosphere, and terrestrial and freshwater environments.
surface.
hyperaccumulators Plants that accumulate heavy metals in their tissue.
greenhouse effect The absorbing and reradiating of infrared light by
various components of Earth’s atmosphere, resulting in higher surface and hypothesis An explanation of an observation, or a set of relationships,
atmospheric temperatures. based on a limited amount of information; hypotheses are used to guide
scientific experiments, observation, and modeling.
gross domestic product (GDP) The total market value of all the goods
(e.g., manufactured articles or agricultural crops) and services (e.g.,
transportation and banking services) produced within the borders of a igneous rock Rock formed as molten rock cools and solidifies.
nation during some period of time. See per capita GDP. immigration The movement of individuals into an area, or country, to
gross primary production The total amount of organic matter produced which they are not native.
by the primary producers in an ecosystem over some period of time, for indicator species A species that provides information about the state of
example, per year. See net primary production. the ecosystem in which it lives.
groundwater Water found in the pore spaces in rock and sediments individual transferable quota (ITQ) (catch shares) A guaranteed right
beneath Earth’s surface; feeds wells, springs, and desert oases, and is Earth’s to a certain portion (quota) of the catch in a fishery or exclusive rights to
second largest reservoir of freshwater. certain fishing grounds; may also be granted to a fisheries cooperative or
groundwater depletion The amount of groundwater pumped from an community.
aquifer in excess of recharge. Groundwater depletion can result in land indoor air pollution A serious threat to human health resulting from the
subsidence, which reduces the capacity of an aquifer to store water and can buildup of pollutants in the indoor environment.
damage buildings and other infrastructure.
industrial fishermen Commercial fishers who may travel for weeks at
a time and use expensive, technologically advanced gear to process and
habitat Where an organism usually lives (e.g., a forest, coral reef, or refrigerate or freeze their catch on board.
marsh). instream uses Benefits, such as dilution of sewage and recreational
habitat corridor A strip of suitable habitat linking protected areas fishing and boating, that result from water flowing in river or stream
intended to increase the movement of wildlife between protected areas channels.
to sustain genetic variation and reduce the likelihood of extinction of integrated multi-trophic aquaculture (IMTA) An approach to
protected populations. aquaculture that involves raising several species of aquatic organisms with
habitat fragmentation A subdivision of a formerly continuous habitat complementary feeding habits in close proximity.
into isolated habitat patches as a result of activities such as deforestation, Integrated Pest Management (IPM) An approach to managing pests
road building, and dam construction on rivers. (e.g., insects, pathogens, weeds) that incorporates multiple sources of
half-life The time needed for half of a given amount of a radioactive information to contain pest damage within acceptable limits while trying
isotope to decay. to minimize harm to people, property, and the environment.
hazardous waste A flammable, reactive, corrosive, or toxic waste integrated waste management A management strategy that minimizes
capable of causing illness, death, or other harm to humans and other waste disposal by stressing the importance of reducing waste, reusing
organisms. materials, recycling, composting, and recovering energy from waste
materials.
herbivore (primary consumer) A consumer whose diet consists entirely
of plants or other primary producers, for instance, an elephant or a intercropping Growing two or more crops in the same field.
grasshopper. internal combustion engine Engine (most commonly used in cars, boats,
heterotroph An organism, incapable of producing its own food, that and jet airplanes) in which combustion directly drives a set of pistons or
meets its energetic and nutritional needs by feeding on organic matter turbines hooked up to a crank arm.
produced by plants and other primary producers or on other heterotrophs. interspecific competition Competition among individuals of different
See consumer. species.
G-7
intraspecific competition Competition among individuals of the same component of cell membranes; function as energy storage molecules in
species. animals and plants.
invasive species An introduced species that poses a serious threat to lithosphere The uppermost layer of the upper mantle above the
native populations. asthenosphere, consisting of rigid, relatively brittle rocks.
ion An atom, or group of atoms, with a net positive or negative charge loam A soil consisting of approximately equal proportions of sand, silt,
(e.g., chloride, Cl–, and sodium, Na+, ions). and clay.
ionic bond A chemical bond involving the attraction between two longline fishing The practice of laying out a very long line with hundreds
oppositely charged ions. or thousands of baited hooks; used to catch tuna (near the surface) or
irrigation A system for artificially delivering water to crops so that they groundfish (e.g., halibut, cod).
can grow in areas with too little precipitation to support them otherwise. low-level nuclear waste Radioactive waste, including any item that
has become contaminated with small amounts of radioactive particles,
including instruments, protective suits, or clothing from nuclear facilities.
J-shaped (exponential) population growth Population growth that
occurs at a constant, or fixed, rate per capita and that produces a
characteristic J-shaped pattern of increase in population size over time.
malaria A disease transmitted by mosquitoes that results from infection
by a protozoan parasite of the genus Plasmodium; its life cycle uses two
hosts: mosquitoes and humans.
kerogen A waxy substance found in shale and other sedimentary rocks
that yields oil when heated; occurrs during an intermediate stage of mantle The layer of Earth between the crust and the core; represents the
petroleum formation. largest portion of Earth’s volume and consists of higher-density rocks than
those that make up the crust.
keystone species A species with substantial influence on community
structure, despite its low biomass or numbers relative to other species; the marine protected areas (MPAs) Protected areas in coastal regions and
influence of keystone species is often exerted through feeding activities. the oceans that help conserve ecosystems critical for biodiversity (e.g.,
coral reefs and salt marshes) and sustain populations that supply fish and
kinetic energy The energy of a moving object, which is equal to one-half
other marine resources.
the mass of the object times the square of its velocity.
market-based approach An alternative to command-and-control
K-selected species Organisms with populations that generally stabilize
regulation that seeks to encourage adherence to social or environmental
close to their carrying capacity and are often regulated by density-
goals using the principles of supply and demand.
dependent factors.
market economy An economy in which decisions about the production
and consumption of goods and services are not centralized but made by
laboratory experiments Experiments in which scientists attempt to businesses and individuals, generally acting in their own self-interest. See
control, or keep constant, all factors that may influence their study system, centrally planned economy.
while they vary the factor of interest and observe the effect of the variation market failure A situation in which free markets do not allocate goods
on the study system. and services efficiently, such as when the price of a product does not
Lacey Act First passed in 1900 and amended in 2008, this law forbids include its environmental impact.
trade in illegally harvested plants and animals. mass extinction A period wherein a large proportion of species becomes
land ethic An ecocentric system of environmental ethics proposed extinct within a few million years or less.
by Aldo Leopold to promote the integrity, stability, and beauty of the matter Anything that occupies space and has mass; matter exists in three
biological community. main physical states: as a solid, liquid, or gas.
La Niña A period of lower than average sea surface temperatures and maximum sustainable yield (MSY) The maximum harvest of a
higher barometric pressures in the eastern Pacific Ocean, resulting in renewable natural resource that does not reduce future yields (e.g., the
reduced storm activity in the eastern Pacific Ocean. sustainable annual catch from a fish population).
leachate Water that has seeped down through the waste in a landfill; metamorphic rock Rock formed when any type of rock changes as it is
flows to a sump in a modern landfill, where it can be pumped out and subjected to heat and pressure.
treated.
Milankovitch Cycles Cyclic changes in the shape of Earth’s orbit, tilt in
life cycle assessment (LCA) An estimate of the total environmental its axis, and precession of the equinoxes that produce variation in Earth’s
impact of a product or technology as a result of activities such as climate.
extraction of an energy source (e.g., coal), transport, processing of raw
materials, construction, maintenance, dismantling, removal, and recycling models In science, simplified representations of a system, constructed on
or disposal of structures. a scale more convenient for study than the actual system of interest.
life expectancy at birth The predicted average life span of individuals moderator A substance (most commonly pressurized water) used in a
born during a particular year. nuclear reactor to reduce the speed at which neutrons travel.
life history Characteristics of a species, such as the age at which molecule Two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds; the
individuals begin reproducing, the number of offspring they produce, and constituent atoms may be of the same or different elements.
the rate at which the young survive. money A medium of exchange using coins or paper bills.
lipids Organic molecules composed of long chains of carbon atoms monoculture A planting of a single variety of crop, generally over a large
bonded mainly to hydrogen (e.g., fats, oils, or waxes); important area, that creates an attractive target for pests and pathogens of the crop.
G-8 GLOSSARY
mountaintop removal mining An extremely destructive coal mining meaningful to human lifetimes and that can be depleted with continued
practice that involves clear-cutting of the forests on a mountain and use.
adjacent stream valleys; miners then use explosives to break up the rock nonrenewable resources Natural resources, such as fossil fuels, that exist in
overlying the coal deposit, depositing it in the adjacent valleys, which are a limited supply and are not renewed on timescales meaningful to humans.
buried as the coal is exposed.
no-till (low-till) agriculture An approach to growing crops involving
MRSA (methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus) A pathogenic reduced or no cultivation; creates less soil disturbance and leaves crop
bacterium resistant to the antibiotic methicillin; MRSA originated in residues on the field.
hospitals and then spread to the broader community.
nuclear energy A form of energy released when the nucleus of an atom
mulch A natural or synthetic covering to the soil surface that conserves breaks apart (nuclear fission), or when the nuclei of two atoms fuse
moisture, reduces soil temperature variation, and decreases growth of (nuclear fusion).
weeds.
nuclear fission A process in which the bonds holding the protons and
municipal solid waste (MSW) Solid waste from institutions, households, neutrons that make up the nucleus of an atom are broken, resulting in the
and businesses, including paper, packaging, food scraps, glass, metal, release of a large quantity of energy.
textiles and other solid discards.
nuclear fusion A process in which the nuclei of two atoms fuse to form a
mutation A change in the structure of an organism’s DNA, i.e., in its new type of atom, releasing large amounts of energy.
genes.
nucleus The massive central core of an atom, which is made up of protons
mutualism Mutually beneficial relationship between organisms. and neutrons, around which the atom’s electrons move.
natural capital The value of the world’s natural assets (e.g., minerals, air,
observation Qualitative or quantitative information gathered
water, and living organisms).
systematically from the natural world.
natural enemies Predators and pathogens that attack herbivorous insects
O horizon The surface layer of many soils, which is rich in organic matter
and other pest organisms.
and a site of active decomposition.
natural selection A process of interaction between organisms and their
omnivore A consumer that eats both plant and animal material.
environment that results in different rates of reproduction by individuals
in the population with different physical, behavioral, or physiological open access A property for which there are no restrictions about who may
characteristics; can change the relative frequencies of particular genes in enter and exploit its resources.
the population—that is, in evolution. overburden The layer of rock overlying a mineral deposit (e.g., coal).
negative feedback An increase in some factor in a system, such as a oxbow lake A crescent-shaped lake formed on a river’s floodplain by
climate system, produces a decrease in that factor within the system. rerouting the main river channel, generally during a flood.
net primary production The net production of organic matter by the ozone A molecule made up of three oxygen atoms; considered a pollutant
primary producers in an ecosystem, that is, gross primary production less in the lower atmosphere, but in the upper atmosphere it shields against
the organic matter used by primary producers to meet their own energy potentially harmful rays from the Sun.
needs. See gross primary production.
neurotoxins Toxic substances that attack nerve cells.
pandemic Expansion of a disease affecting a large proportion of a
neutron A subatomic particle, found in the nucleus of atoms, that has a population in a very large geographic area (e.g., across an entire continent).
mass approximately equal to that of a proton but no electrical charge.
parasite An organism that lives in or on another organism, called the
niche A description of the physical and biological requirements of a host; hosts are harmed by the parasite, while the parasite receives various
species. benefits from the host (e.g., food, protection, dispersal of offspring).
nitrification The conversion of ammonia or ammonium to nitrites parent material The bedrock or unconsolidated deposits, such as
(NO2–) and nitrates (NO3–) by nitrifying bacteria. windblown sand or silt, from which soil develops.
nitrogen assimilation The incorporation by plants of nitrate and pathogen An organism that produces illness.
ammonium into essential nitrogen-containing organic compounds.
peer review As part of the process of publishing scientific papers, experts
nitrogen cycle The process whereby nitrogen passes through and between in the field of research covered by a prospective scientific paper review the
ecosystems, involving several key actions by microorganisms, including research prior to publication; they check for soundness of the methods,
nitrogen fixation, decomposition, ammonification, nitrification, and analyses, results, and coverage of the relevant prior publications on the
denitrification. subject.
nitrogen fixation Incorporation of atmospheric nitrogen, N2, into per capita GDP The market value of the goods (e.g., manufactured
nitrogen-containing compounds by bacteria, living in association with articles or agricultural crops) and services (e.g., transportation and
plants or free living. banking services) produced within the borders of a nation per individual
non-biodegradable A substance that cannot be decomposed to its in its population.
chemical constituents by biological processes. persistent organic pollutants (POPs) Organic chemicals (e.g., PCBs) that
nonpoint sources of pollution Diffuse, and sometimes mobile, sources remain in the environment indefinitely; can biomagnify through the food
of pollution (e.g., runoff from an industrial, municipal, or agricultural web and pose a threat to human health and the environment.
landscape or the exhaust from automobiles). pesticide Generally a chemical substance used to kill destructive
nonrenewable energy Sources of energy, including coal, petroleum, organisms, including insects (insecticide), fungi (fungicide), weeds
natural gas, and nuclear fuels, that are not renewable on timescales (herbicide), and rodents (rodenticide).
G-9
pesticide resistance An evolved tolerance to a pesticide by a pest if some cause-and-effect relationships related to potential threats are not
population as a result of repeated exposure to a pesticide, ultimately fully understood scientifically.
rendering the chemical ineffective. precession of the equinoxes Slow drift in the position in Earth’s orbit at
petroleum (crude oil) A mixture of hydrocarbons contained in which the equinoxes occur, a cycle repeating itself approximately every
sedimentary rocks of marine origin; developed from the accumulated 26,000 years.
remains of algae and zooplankton deposited on the sea floor over millions preservation ethic An environmental ethic emphasizing the protection of
of years. natural ecosystems in their original unspoiled states.
pH An indicator of the relative hydrogen ion concentration of a solution. prevailing winds Winds that blow consistently from one direction (e.g.,
A pH of 7 indicates a neutral solution; a pH of less than 7 is acidic the northeast trade winds blow from the northeast).
(elevated hydrogen ion concentration); a pH greater than 7 is basic
primary energy A form of energy that requires only extraction or capture
(reduced hydrogen ion concentration).
for use (e.g., coal, crude oil, wind).
photoelectric effect The ejection of electrons from a substance (e.g., a primary pollutant A substance that is harmful when released into the
metal or semiconductor) in response to stimulation by light energy. environment (e.g., carbon monoxide, crude oil).
photosynthesis A biochemical process employed by green plants, algae, primary producer (autotroph) An organism, generally a plant or alga,
and some bacteria that uses solar energy to convert water and carbon that converts the radiant energy in sunlight to the chemical energy in
dioxide into the chemical energy in a simple sugar called glucose. sugars through the process of photosynthesis.
phytoremediation Bioremediation using plants to clean up contaminated primary succession Succession on a bare geologic surface, such as a
sediments or soils. See bioremediation. recent lava flow.
pioneer community The earliest community to develop during succession. private property Property owned by individuals.
plate tectonics A theory proposing that Earth’s surface is divided into protected area A geographically defined area designated or regulated and
plates that move on the upper layer of the mantle; explains Earth structure managed to achieve particular conservation objectives (e.g., national parks,
and processes, including the formation of ocean basins, continents, and the national forests, wildlife refuges).
geographic distribution of earthquakes and volcanic activity.
proteins Long chains of amino acids (i.e., molecules consisting mainly
point sources of pollution Clear-cut, generally stationary, sources of of carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen) that control rates of chemical
pollution (e.g., power plants, factories, or sewage outfalls of cities) that are reactions, provide structural support, and perform many other functions.
easier to identify, monitor, and regulate. proton A subatomic particle, found in the nucleus of atoms, that has a
pollutant A substance (e.g., oil, pesticides) or physical condition (e.g., positive charge (+1) and atomic mass of 1.
excessive noise) harmful to living organisms that contaminates air, water,
or soil.
pollution Contamination of the environment, generally of air, water, or radiant energy The energy of electromagnetic radiation, including
soil, by substances or conditions (e.g., noise, light) at levels harmful to visible light, infrared light, ultraviolet light, microwaves, radio waves, or
living organisms; generally a result of human activity but may result from X-rays.
natural processes (e.g., wildfires, volcanic eruptions). ranching The practice of raising domesticated livestock for meat, leather,
polyculture The growing of multiple domesticated crops that may be wool, and other products.
intermixed with useful wild species. reactive Chemically responsive; a reactive substance will readily undergo
population density The number of individuals in a population per unit a violent chemical change when in contact with other substances.
area. reclamation A process that restores an ecosystem to its natural structure
population doubling time The amount of time required for a population, and functioning prior to mining or to an economically usable state.
growing at a particular rate, to double its size. recycling The process of returning raw materials in waste (e.g., glass,
plastics, metal, paper) to the manufacturer for reuse.
population ecology Branch of ecology that is concerned with the
factors influencing the structure and dynamics of populations, including renewable energy Sources of energy, including solar, wind, hydrologic,
population size, distribution, and growth. geothermal, and biomass, that can be replenished in a relatively short
period of time. Use does not deplete renewable energy sources.
population momentum Population growth as a consequence of a large
number of women reaching childbearing age. renewable resources Natural resources, such as wood, forage, or fish, that
are replaced through natural processes on relatively short timescales and
populations All the individuals of a species that inhabit a particular place
thus can last indefinitely under careful management.
at the same time.
replacement-level fertility The total fertility rate required to sustain a
positive feedback A stimulus in which an increase in some factor in a population at its current size, which varies from approximately 2.1 births
system, such as an economic system or ecosystem, produces additional per woman in the more developed countries to 2.5 or higher in the least
increases in that factor within the system or in which a decrease in a factor developed countries, where mortality rates are higher.
causes additional decreases.
reservoir A body of water, ranging in size from a pond to an ocean,
potential energy The amount of energy an object has due to the including below-ground deposits of water; constructed dams retain water
configuration of its parts (e.g., a loaded spring), its chemical makeup, or its in artificial reservoirs, which are commonly used to store and divert water
position in a force field (e.g., Earth’s gravitational field). for human use.
pot-traps Baited traps used to catch lobster or crab. Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) A law passed by the
precautionary principle A principle advising that precautionary U.S. Congress that banned open dumping of wastes and set standards for
measures should be taken to protect human or environmental health, even solid waste landfills.
G - 10 GLOSSARY
resource partitioning Coexisting species use different resources, such as semiconductor A material that conducts current, but only somewhat,
food, nesting sites, and feeding areas. because its properties lie somewhere between those of an insulator and a
reverse osmosis A desalination process that uses selectively permeable conductor.
membranes and pressure to separate salts and water. sex ratio at birth The ratio of male to female newborns.
R horizon The base of a soil profile composed of consolidated bedrock, shelterwood harvesting Removes the tallest trees in a series of partial
immediately below the C horizon. cuts, leaving behind enough of a forest canopy to provide shelter for
riparian The transition zone between a river or stream and the terrestrial speedy regrowth of shade-tolerant trees (e.g., red oak, American beech).
environment, generally inhabited by a biological community distinctive sick building syndrome A circumstance in which many building
from adjacent aquatic and upland communities. Riparian zones naturally occupants experience symptoms of illness (e.g., headaches, respiratory and
flood periodically and usually have shallow water tables. eye irritation, nausea) for which no specific cause has been identified.
risk The chance of harmful effects to human health or to ecological skimmer A device used to collect spilled oil from the water’s surface.
systems resulting from exposure to any physical, chemical, or biological slash-and-burn A common technique used in tropical countries to
agent. rapidly convert forestlands into temporary farms.
risk characterization A qualitative or quantitative estimate of the small-scale fishers Commercial fishers who use minimal gear and fish
likelihood that hazards associated with an agent of concern will negatively from small boats or nonmotorized canoes.
impact an exposed population.
soil texture The relative fineness or coarseness of a soil, which is
rock A natural, solid, inorganic substance formed from one or more determined by its proportions of sand, silt, and clay.
minerals.
solubility The amount of a substance capable of dissolving in a particular
rock cycle Geologic processes that convert each of the three major rock amount of solvent.
types (igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic) into one of the other
source reduction A waste management tactic aimed at reducing the
types.
amount of material that enters the waste stream.
r-selected species Organisms with populations that generally fluctuate
speciation An evolutionary process by which new species arise.
widely in size; subject to catastrophic mortality from harsh weather, fires,
and other density-independent factors. species A group of interbreeding, or potentially interbreeding,
populations, reproductively isolated from other populations.
runoff The amount of water falling as precipitation that flows off the land
as surface and subsurface flow. species diversity A measure of diversity that combines the number of
species in a community and their relative abundances.
run-of-the-river power plants Hydroelectric systems that provide little or
no water storage in a reservoir and divert a portion of river flow through species evenness How evenly individuals are apportioned among the
pipes that pass directly through a turbine. species inhabiting a community; higher evenness increases species diversity.
species richness The number of species in a community or living in a
local area or region; higher species richness increases species diversity.
salinization The process of salt buildup in a soil.
sport (recreational) fishing The practice of fishing for pleasure (e.g., fly-
sanitary landfill A solid waste disposal site consisting of a lined pit fishing, hiring a tourist charter boat to catch trophy-sized fish).
constructed and managed in ways to minimize environmental impacts. S-shaped (logistic) growth Population growth in which the per capita
saturated zone The layers of rock below the water table, in which the pore rate of growth decreases with increasing population size as a result of
spaces in the geologic formation are saturated with water. predation or reduced availability of food, space, or other resources;
science A formal process used to study nature, and the body of knowledge eventually levels off at carrying capacity.
resulting from that process. state property Property owned by federal, state, or local governments.
seawater Ocean water and the water of seas, such as the Caribbean and stratosphere The layer of Earth’s atmosphere beginning at an elevation of
Mediterranean seas. The salinity of seawater averages about 34,000 mg/l 10 kilometers and extending outward to 50 kilometers (6.2 to 31.1 miles)
(34 g/l), but ranges from 30,000 to about 40,000 mg/l (30 to 40 g/l). above sea level.
second law of thermodynamics With each energy transformation, or strip mining A coal extraction technique in which overburden is removed
transfer, the amount of energy in a system available to do work decreases. from a long strip of land, exposing a coal seam; once the coal is removed,
In other words, the quality of the energy declines with each energy transfer material from an adjacent strip is used to fill the excavation.
or transformation. See first law of thermodynamics. stock A discrete subpopulation of a species, which is reproductively
secondary pollutant A pollutant formed from the chemical reactions isolated from other stocks.
between other pollutants (e.g., ozone in the lower atmosphere). stock assessment Estimated size of a fish stock, the rate at which the
secondary (consumer) production The amount of consumer biomass, or population is growing, and the rate of harvest.
energy, that goes into growth and reproduction, analogous to net primary subduction Process in which one tectonic plate moves under another,
production by photosynthetic organisms. generally occurring where oceanic plates, which are of higher density,
secondary succession Succession following disturbance of an established collide with continental plates.
community that doesn’t destroy all living creatures or the soil. subduction zone Zone where oceanic plates and continental plates
sedimentary rock Rock formed either as rock fragments deposited by collide, forming deep sea trenches and active volcanoes along the
water, wind, or ice are cemented together and solidify or as rock forms continental margin.
through chemical precipitation. subsidence A settling or sudden sinking, in the case of sinkhole
selective logging The clearing of land for lumber that focuses on the most formation, of a land surface as a result of processes such as groundwater
mature, high-value trees, leaving the forest ecosystem largely intact. withdrawal or loss of organic matter in soil.
G-11
subsistence economy An economy in which individuals or groups toxicology The science concerned with the effects of toxic substances on
produce or harvest enough resources to largely support themselves, with humans and other organisms.
fewer resources gained through purchase or trade with other groups. toxin A poisonous substance produced by a living organism (e.g., a plant,
subsistence fishing The practice of catching enough fish for one’s family animal, fungus, or bacterium) that can harm human health. See toxicant.
plus a bit more for bartering or selling. transboundary pollution The transport of pollutants by wind and water
succession The gradual change in a community over time following a around the biosphere, across geographical and political borders.
disturbance. transgenic organism A GM organism that contains genes from another
supply and demand An economic model stating that the price of a good species.
(or service) will reach equilibrium when the consumer demand for it at a trophic level A step in the movement of materials or energy through an
certain price equals the quantity supplied by producers. ecosystem or the position of a species in a food web.
sustainability The wise use of resources to ensure our ability to endure
and live healthy lives, without compromising the welfare of future
ultraviolet (UV) light Shorter-wavelength, higher-energy rays from the
generations.
Sun that can damage living tissue.
sustainable development A process of development that meets the needs
umbrella species A species whose protection provides protection for the
of the present generation without reducing the ability of future generations
entire ecosystem on which that species depends.
to meet their needs. Development is sustainable when it does not, at a
minimum, endanger Earth’s natural life support system, including the unsaturated zone The layers above the water table, which are not
atmosphere, waters, soils, and biological diversity. saturated with water.
sympatric speciation A process by which new species arise without upwelling The movement of cold subsurface water to the ocean’s surface
geographic isolation. when warmer surface waters move offshore under the influence of
prevailing or seasonal winds.
synergistic effect An interaction of two toxic substances wherein their
combined toxicity is greater than the sum of their individual effects.
vector An organism that transmits a pathogen or parasite to other
organisms (e.g., mosquitoes transmit malaria and other diseases to
take back laws State regulations that require manufacturers of various humans and other species).
electronics to pay for e-waste recycling programs. virus A structurally simple disease-causing agent consisting of DNA
Taq polymerase An enzyme isolated from a bacterium discovered or RNA encased in protein; viral diseases include common cold, flu,
living in hot springs in Yellowstone National Park; used to amplify small measles, mumps, chicken pox, smallpox, rabies, herpes, and human
quantities of DNA. immunodeficiency virus (HIV, the virus responsible for AIDS).
technology Practical application of scientific knowledge and methods to
create products and processes. waste stream The flow of discarded materials, especially municipal solid
teratogen A substance that causes abnormalities during embryonic waste, from institutions, homes, and businesses.
growth and development, resulting in birth defects. water reclamation Any process of treating wastewater to make it safe for
terra preta Dark, fertile soils high in charcoal and nutrient content, reuse or recycling.
created by native populations in the Amazon River Basin before the arrival water recycling Using treated wastewater for beneficial purposes,
of Europeans. including industrial processes, irrigation, recharging groundwater supplies,
terrestrial harvest systems Ways of extracting production from restoring wetlands and aquatic ecosystems, and augmenting drinking-
ecosystems, ranging from hunting and gathering in unmanaged natural water supplies.
ecosystems to nomadic herding and small-scale subsistence farming to water table The uppermost level of groundwater, which forms the
industrialized agriculture. boundary between the saturated and unsaturated zones.
tertiary treatment Advanced treatment of wastewater, which follows waterlogged soil A condition in which the water table is at or near the
primary and secondary treatment, that removes dissolved organic soil surface.
chemicals, nitrogen, phosphorus, several other dissolved salts, and watershed (catchment, drainage basin) The land area from which an
pathogens. aquifer or river system acquires its water; also defined as the dividing line
theory A scientific hypothesis that has withstood sufficient testing— between catchments or drainage basins.
through observation, experimentation, and modeling—so it has a high weather Atmospheric conditions, temperature, humidity, cloud cover,
probability of being correct. rainfall, etc. at a particular place and time (e.g., conditions during a
thermal (heat) energy A form of kinetic energy due to molecular motion particular day or month).
in a mass of a substance, such as a mass of steam. weathering The fragmentation and decomposition of mineral materials as
threshold dose The lowest dose (concentration) of a toxic substance that a result of chemical, biological, and mechanical processes, resulting in the
induces a toxicity response in an organism. release of nitrogen, phosphorus, and other elements.
total fertility rate An estimate of the average number of children that a work A description of the transfer of energy; the work done on an object
woman in a population gives birth to during her lifetime. by a force is determined by the amount of force times the distance the
toxic Poisonous; a toxic substance is harmful to living organisms in object moves in the direction of the force. See energy.
relatively low amounts.
toxicant A toxic substance produced by humans or as a by-product of zoonotic disease Any infectious disease that can spread from animals to
human activity. See toxin. humans.
Index
Note: Page numbers followed by f indicate figures; those followed by t indicate tables.
A horizon, , f AMOC. See Atlantic Meridional aquatic biomes, , f Balaena mysticetus (bowhead
abiotic factors, of environment, Overturning Current aquatic invasive species, , f whales), –, f
, f anaerobic environments,  aquatic resources Bangladesh, –, 
Aboriginal Australians, f androstenedione,  euphotic zone and, –, f base, 
abundance, in populations,  Angora Fire of , –, f fisheries collapse and,  Basel Convention, 
acid,  animal trafficking, –, f,  primary production and nutrient bat mortality
acid deposition,  antagonistic effects, of toxic availability of, –, wind turbine strategies for
acid mine drainage,  substances,  –f reducing, , f
acid rain Anthropocene era,  aquifers, , f from wind turbines, , f
aquatic biodiversity impact of, anthropocentric environmental Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, battery electric vehicle (BEV), f
 ethics, , f Alaska,  Bay checkerspot butterfly, , f,
aquatic biodiversity recovery with antibiotics Arctic Ocean, ice loss in, , f , f
reduced, –, f, f Denmark’s livestock production arid regions, maxed out water beavers
buffering capacity and,  and lowered use of,  supplies in, , f carbon sinks created by, 
control measures decreasing, diversifying treatments of,  Aristotle,  as ecosystem engineers, ,
–, f evolution of resistance to, f Arrhenius, Svante, –, , f
discovery of,  evolutionary biology managing  Berkeley Earth Surface Temperature
ecosystems harmed by, –, resistance to, – artificial selection, , f study (BEST), , f
f misuse and overuse of, – Athens, Greece, – BEV. See battery electric vehicle
formation of, – U.S. industrial meat production Atlantic cod. See Gadus morhua Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation,
terrestrial restoration with and resistance to, , f Atlantic Meridional Overturning 
reduction of, , f aquaculture,  Current (AMOC), , f binary-cycle power plants, , f
United States–Canada Air Quality constructed wetlands and wastes atlantis fritillary. See Speyeria bioaccumulation, of toxic
Agreement controlling, – from, , f atlantis substances, –, f
Acid Rain Program, ,  cultured fish and shellfish atmosphere biocentric environmental ethics,
acidic snow, copper in, , f problems with, – carbon isotope concentration , f
adaptations disease and parasite transfer to decline and rise of CO in, biochar, , f
climate,  wild fish from,  –, f biochemical oxygen demand
natural selection and,  feed for,  cyclical variation of CO in, (BOD), –
additive effects, of toxic substances, fish meal use reduction and,  –, f, f biodegradable substance, 
 integrated multi-trophic, fossil fuel burning increasing CO biodiesel, , 
adenosine triphosphate (ATP),  –, f in, – biodiversity. See also aquatic
aerosols, , f mangrove forest clearing and, global temperature and, –, biodiversity; wetland
Africans, f –, f f biodiversity
age structure, –, f, f marine environments polluted global temperature controlled by active management for sustaining,
agriculture. See industrial and fisheries threatened by, CO in, –, –f –, f, f
agriculture –, f, f global temperature increases with aquatic biomes and, , f
air pollution. See also pollution pollution reduction by, –, rising CO in, –, f, Convention on Biological
in China, – f f Diversity for, –
China costs of, – protein provided by, – greenhouse effect process and, definition of, 
economic costs of,  sea lice impact reduction and, , f ecosystem engineers influencing,
indoor, –, f, f, , – atmospheric circulation, of , f
f, f,  water pollution and,  pollutants, –, f fishery productivity and stability
U.S. costs with,  aquatic biodiversity, , f atoms,  with, –f, –
Air Pollution Control Act of , acid rain impact on,  ATP. See adenosine triphosphate flagship species influencing, 
 acid rain reduction and recovery foundation species influencing,
airshed, –, f of, –, f, f B horizon, f,  –, f, f
algae, biofuels from, , –, dams and, –, f, f B. thuringiensis,  geographic patterns and processes
f water conservation and background extinction,  influencing, –
allergens,  reclamation protecting, bacteria, –, f habitat destruction and alteration
allopatric speciation, –, f, –, –f bacterial disease, –, f threatening, –
f water management threatening, Bailey Wildlife Foundation Wolf habitat fragmentation reducing,
ammonification, , f –, –f Compensation Trust, – –, f, f
I- 1
I-2 IN D EX
biodiversity (continued) BOD. See biochemical oxygen population ecology framework carcinogens, 
indicator species influencing, demand for restoration of, – carrying capacity (K), , . See
– booms,  as Yellowstone National Park also K-selected species
intercropping and, –, f Border collies, –, f, f foundation species, , f Carson, Rachel, , f, 
keystone species influencing, boreal forests, f Yellowstone National Park catch shares, , f
–, f, f ecosystem restoration after oil reintroduction of, –, f catch-and-release fishing, 
latitudinal gradients of, –, sands mining in, , f Canis rufus (red wolf), , f catchment, , –. See also
f oil sands in, , f Cantharanthus roseus (rosy watershed
NGO programs for sustaining, Borlaug, Norman, –, f periwinkle),  catch-per-unit effort, 
–, f bottom ash, – cap rock, , f cattle
protected areas for, , f, f, bottom trawlers,  cap-and-trade,  antibiotic resistance and U.S.
–, f bowhead whales. See Balaena captive breeding,  industrial meat production,
sockeye salmon and, –, mysticetus carbon, t , f
–f BP. See British Petroleum carbon capture and sequestration, Denmark lowering antibiotic use
in soil, –, f BPA. See bisphenol A , f in, , f
terrestrial biomes and, –, brackish water, , f carbon credit,  Maasai people and, –, ,
f Brassica chinensis (Chinese white carbon cycle, –, f , f
umbrella species influencing,  cabbage), , f carbon dioxide (CO) overgrazing and, –, f,
biodiversity hotspots, , f Brazil carbon isotopes concentration –, f
biofuels electrical power generation in, declines and rise of CDC. See Centers for Disease
from algae, , –, f f atmospheric, –, f Control
deforestation reduction and, , soybean production in,  climate impact of, –, f cellular respiration, –, f
f Bristol Bay, sockeye salmon and cyclical variation in atmosphere cellulosic ethanol, , f,
environmental impact from biodiversity in, –, of, –, f, f –, f, f
development of, –, f –f fossil fuel burning increasing Centers for Disease Control (CDC),
EROEI for, , f British Petroleum (BP), , atmospheric, – , 
global production of, , f – fuel efficiency standards Central Valley, California, –,
from plants, , f, f Bromus tectorum (cheat grass), , decreasing emissions of, 
promise of,  f –, f centrally planned economy, 
renewable sources for, –, Brown, Jerry,  global rising emissions of, f Centrocercus urophasianus (sage
f brown tree snake,  global temperature controlled grouse), , f
biogeochemical cycles,  brownfields, , f by atmospheric, –, Centropristis striata (South Atlantic
Biological Dynamics of Forest Bt, , , f –f black sea bass), , f
Fragments Project, –, bubonic plague, –, f global temperature increases with cercariae, 
f, f Buddhism, f rising atmospheric, –, CERCLA. See Comprehensive
biomagnification buffer zones, , f f, f Environmental Response,
definition of,  buffering capacity,  greenhouse effect percentage of, Compensation, and Liability
of toxic substances,  Bush, George W.,  , f Act
biomass fuels, –, f, f bushmeat, ,  Keeling Curve and, –, f CFCs. See chlorofluorocarbons
biomes butterflies, global temperature rise legislating emissions of, – channelized rivers, , f
aquatic, , f and changes with, , f Mauna Loa Observatory for, Chauvet Cave, f, 
climate impact on soil in, f bycatch, , – –, f, f cheat grass. See Bromus tectorum
definition of,  road map for reducing, – chemical hazards, –
terrestrial, –, f C horizon, f,  urban design reducing emission Chernobyl nuclear disaster, f,
bioreactors, – CAA. See Clean Air Act of  of,  
bioremediation, , f Cabo Pulmo, Baja California, f U.S. per capita production of, Chesapeake Bay
biotechnology,  CAFE. See Corporate Average Fuel  airshed of, –, f
biotic factors, of environment, , f Economy standards volcanic eruptions and,  watershed of, , f
bird mortality CAFOs. See concentrated animal carbon footprint, –, f, Chestnut, Lauraine, 
transmission line marking for feeding operations f child mortality rate, , f
reducing, –, f California, drought in, –, carbon isotopes, fossil fuels and, China
from transmission lines, –,  –, f air pollution costs in, –
f, f California gnatcatcher, , f carbon sinks air pollution in, –
wind turbine design for reducing, Callophrys irus (frosted elfin), , beavers creating,  energy use of, –, f, f
, f f definition of,  e-waste in, , f
from wind turbines, –, f cane toad,  Earth’s growing, , f fertility rates in, , f
bisphenol A (BPA), ,  Canis lupus (gray wolf), , f, enhancing, , f habitat fragmentation reduction
bitumen,  , f industrial agriculture, forestry plans in, , f
Black Death, –, f conflicts in conservation of, and conservation practices for, hazardous waste generation in,
black markets,  –, f, f – , f
blight fungus, –, f genetic diversity promotion for, sources of, , f one-child policy of, –, f
Bloomberg, Michael,  , t carbon taxes, – sex ratio at birth in, –, f
I- 3
Chinese white cabbage. See Brassica regional and national reserves of, of Yellowstone National Park, fisheries decimated by, –,
chinensis , f – f, f
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), , , sludge, – constructed wetlands hydroelectric power and,
f,  strip mining of, , f aquaculture and, , f –, f
chlorpyrifos methyl, , f cogeneration,  foundations of, f,  in Klamath River, –, f,
Christianity, f Coho salmon. See Oncorhynchus integrated, –, f, f 
cigarette smoke,  kisutch pollution treated with, – in Mekong River, 
CITES. See Convention on Collapse: How Societies Choose to types of, f,  removal of, –, f, f
International Trade in Fail or Succeed (Diamond),  Consumer Electronics Association, retrofitting existing, 
Endangered Species of Wild Colorado pikeminnow. See  U.S. unpowered, , f
Fauna and Flora Ptychocheilus lucius consumers, in food web, –, Daoism, f
Clean Air Act of  (CAA),  Colorado River Basin, –, f Darwin, Charles, –, –
Clean Development Mechanism, of f, –, f, f containment structure, in nuclear data, science and treatment of, ,
United Nations,  Columbia River, , f energy generation,  f
Clean Water Act of  (CWA), combined cycle power plants,  contraceptive access, fertility rates DDT. See dichlorodiphenyltri-
,  command-and-control regulations, and, –, f chloroethane
clear-cutting, , f  control groups, in science,  dead zones, in coastal areas,
climate commercial fishing, – control rods, in nuclear energy –, f
AMOC and, , f common bulrush. See generation,  debt-for-nature swaps, 
biome soil and impact of, f Schoenoplectus lacustris controlled burns, , f decomposers, f, 
CO impact on, –, f common property,  Convention on Biological Diversity, deep well injection, f, f
definition of,  common-pool resources,  – Deepwater Horizon oil rig, ,
hemispherical differences in common-pool resources, Convention on International , –
timing of warming, , f, sustainable management of, Trade in Endangered Species Defenders of Wildlife, –
f , f of Wild Fauna and Flora deforestation, . See also forestry
primary production influenced competition (CITES),  biofuels and reduction of, ,
by, , f definition of,  conventional-tillage agriculture, f
weathering promoted by,  interspecific, , f , f historical accounts of, –, f
climate adaptation,  intraspecific, , f copper, in acidic snow, , f soil depletion and flooding
climate change. See also global resource partitioning and, –, coral reefs, f danger from, –
temperature f global temperature increases and delisting, 
adapting to,  species and, – dying, , f Delos Island, Greece, –, f
debates over,  competitive exclusion principle,  Coriolis effect, , f demanufacturing, –
droughts and,  composting,  Corporate Average Fuel Economy demographic transition, –,
early scientific research on, compounds, , f standards (CAFE),  f, f
– Comprehensive Environmental corrosive substance,  demography, . See also
extreme weather and, –, Response, Compensation, and Costa Rica, –, f,  population density; population
f Liability Act (CERCLA), , Costanza, Robert,  growth
historical and modern accounts – cowrie shells,  dengue fever, , 
of, – concentrated animal feeding criteria pollutants, , t denitrification, , f
human health impact of, ,  operations (CAFOs),  critical habitat,  Denmark, –, , f
industrial agriculture disruption conflict of interest,  crop diversity, –, f, f density-dependent factors, of
from, , f Confucianism, f crop rotation, ,  population control, , t
long-term records indicating, f conservation crude oil. See petroleum density-independent factors, of
societal costs of, –, f, biodiversity hotspots and, , cultural eutrophication, , f population control, , t
, f f culture desalination
temperature rising with,  buffer zones for, , f environment and, –, f by distillation, , f
climax community, , f carbon sinks and, – environmental ethics and process of, , f
closed economic model, , f debt-for-nature swaps and,  influence of, –, f reverse osmosis and, –,
CO. See carbon dioxide definition of,  cultured fish, aquaculture problems f, f
coal ecosystem programs for, – with, – in Tampa Bay, –, f
acid mine drainage and,  of energy, , f Curiosity rover,  desert tortoise. See G. morafkai
fly ash from burning, –, ethic of,  currencies, , f desertification, from overgrazing,
f gray wolf conflicts in, –, f, CWA. See Clean Water Act of –, f
formation of, f f  deserts, f, f, f
grades of, , f local opportunities for,  detritivores, f, 
LCA of natural gas compared to, of matter, , f Daily, Gretchen,  development
–, f NGO programs for, –, f dam-free hydroelectric power, , challenges with, –, f
mountaintop removal mining of, organizations for,  f ecological footprint increase per
, f protected areas for, , f, f, dams, , –, f, f capita with, , f
overburden and,  –, f in Columbia River system, , environmental impact of biofuel,
peak,  volunteering for,  f –, f
I-4 IN D EX
development (continued) Dreams of Reason: The Computer closed model of, , f matter recycling through, –
environmental impact of and the Rise of the Sciences of definition of,  protected areas for, , f, f,
hydroelectric power, –, Complexity (Pagels),  energy fueling and limiting, , –, f
f drip irrigation, , f f, f ecotourism, 
environmental impact of droughts. See also climate change environmental consequences of edge effects, , f
population growth and, climate change and,  representation of, – education
–, f, f definition of,  environmental costs and benefits fertility rates and, 
global variation of, –, f, regional, f included in, –,  for water conservation, 
f subsidence and,  forms of, – Ehrlich, Paul, , –
habitat harm from wind energy, water rationing and, – matter as basis for, – El Niño, –, f, 
, f dry casks, , f money and, , f fisheries and impact of, –,
immigration and emigration dry steam power plants, , f open model of, –, f f
pressures from differences in, positive feedback in, , f El Niño Southern Oscillation
–, –f E horizon, f,  property and,  (ENSO), –, f, 
initiatives for,  EAC. See East African Community Tragedy of the Commons and, electric vehicles, f, , f
reduced emigration and, – Earth , f electrical power. See also nuclear
reduced fertility rates with, atmosphere and global economics, . See also income energy
–, f, f temperature of, –, f level Brazil and U.S. generation of,
Diamond, Jared,  carbon sinks growing on, , air pollution costs for,  f
diarrheal diseases,  f debt-for-nature swaps and,  generation of, , f, f
diatoms,  eccentricity impact on orbit of, of green building, –, f internal combustion engine for,
dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane  immigration and opportunity in, –
(DDT), , f, ,  global temperature rise and , f LCA for carbon footprint of
ban of, , t changes on, – invasive species and, – generation of, –,
historical use and impact of, greenhouse effect process and, of mangrove forests,  f
 , f pollution control benefits for, MSW converted to, , f
directly observed treatment system orbital cycles of, –, f –, t power plants for, –, f
(DOTS), – planetary neighbors of, f,  wild species benefits for, – solar energy generating,
discharge, , f precession of the equinoxes and, ecosystem diversity. See also –
disease – biodiversity transmission lines for, , f
bacterial, –, f Sun’s distance from, , f definition of,  electron shell model, t
conditions favoring transmission tilt cycle of,  in Yellowstone National Park, electronic waste (e-waste), –,
of,  Earth Day, –, f , f f, f
definition of,  East African Community (EAC),  ecosystem engineers, , f,  elements, , t
diarrheal,  eastern gorilla. See gorilla beringei ecosystem restoration Elk River, West Virginia, –
parasitic, , f eastern red bats. See Lasiurus after boreal forest oil sands Elymus lanceolatus (northern
risk management with control of, borealis mining, , f wheatgrass), , f
– Ebola,  after mountaintop removal emigration
sanitation for control of, , f eccentricity, of Earth’s orbit,  mining, , f development and reduced,
viral, –, f ecocentric environmental ethics, of prairie after strip mining, –
from wild species, –, f –, f –, f developmental differences
zoonotic,  ecological communities, , f ecosystem services, , , t creating pressures for, –,
dispersant,  ecological economics, –, f ecosystem-based management, –f
distillation, , f ecological footprint. See also – population density and, 
distributions environmental impact, by ecosystems, f endangered species. See also
definition of,  humans acid rain harming, –, f extinction
population security and, – calculating personal,  active management for sustaining, captive breeding aiding, 
range of geographic,  challenges with reducing, –, –, f, f definition of, 
disturbance,  f buffer zones for, , f from human impacts on
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), contributors to, f consequences of losing, –, freshwater, , f
–, f definition of,  t national laws and international
Dobson, Gordon,  development and increase of per conservation programs for, treaties protecting, –, t,
Dobsonmeter, , f capita, , f – f
Dock Creek, Philadelphia, –, global calculations of growing, definition of,  reintroductions of, –,
f –, f disturbance to,  –, f
domestication, – global variation in per capita, , energy flowing through, – volunteering for, 
dose–response assessment, , f fire management for maintenance Endangered Species Act of 
f by population size, –, f of, , f (ESA), –, t, f
DOTS. See directly observed ecology,  invasive species harming, –, endemic species, 
treatment system economic externality, ,  f endocrine disruptors
drainage basin. See watershed economic systems matter as basis for, – definition of, 
I- 5
in environment, – personal,  EROEI. See energy return on definition of, 

modes of action of, , f protests over,  energy investment on Delos Island, Greece, –,
energy. See also electrical power; religion and cultural influence on, erosion,  f
fossil fuels; nuclear energy –, f conventional-tillage agriculture mass, 
conservation of, , f environmental hazards and, , f pest and predator control leading
definition of,  chemical, – logging increasing, f to, –, f
economic systems fueled and definition of,  overgrazing and, –, f, pesticides causing, –
limited by, , f, f risk management with reduction –, f rising rates of, –
ecosystems and flow of, – of, – soil and, , f extreme weather, climate change
forms of, , f sources of, f ESA. See Endangered Species Act and, –, f
geothermal, , f, f environmental health of  Exxon Valdez oil spill, –,
global consumption of, –, definition of,  Escherichia coli,  f
f, f failure to prevent worsening of, Eschrichtius robustus (gray whale),
laws of thermodynamics and, – ,  fabrication, 
–, f, f,  environmental impact, by humans. estrogen,  Falco peregrinus (peregrine falcon),
losses, f See also ecological footprint ethanol –, f, 
matter moved by, – ancient records on, –, f cellulosic, , f, –, falsification, 
peak oil and, –, f biofuel development and, –, f, f farming, –, –. See also
personal conservation of,  f from corn, –, f industrial agriculture
primary,  of development and population from simple sugars, , f fertile soils, terrestrial resources
transportation choices and, , growth, –, f, f ethics. See also environmental and, –
 fossil fuel extraction and, ethics; values fertility rates
U.S., EU, China use of, –, –, –f conservation,  contraceptive access and, –,
f, f global issue of, – land,  f
water, –, f growing awareness of,  preservation,  development and reduced,
wave, , f, f hydroelectric power development science and, – –, f, f
work and, , f and, –, f EU. See European Union education and, 
energy efficiency, green building of industrial agriculture, –, Eubalaena australis (southern right global trends in, , f
and, –, f f, f whale), f global variation of, , f
energy independence, renewable land conservation in U.S. and, Eubalaena glacialis (North Atlantic historically high, –
energy and, – – right whales), –, f in India and China, , f
energy pyramid, –, f nuclear energy and, –, euphotic zone, –, f replacement-level, 
energy recovery, incineration and, f, f European Iron Fertilization total, –
–, f, f solar energy and, –, Experiment, – field experiments, –, f
energy return on energy investment –f European Union (EU) fire management, , f
(EROEI), , f, , f of solid waste,  cap-and-trade systems in,  fire regime, , f
energy subsidies,  uranium mining and, – energy use of, –, f, fire suppression, forestry and,
enrichment, of uranium, , environmental justice, –, f f –, f
f environmental protection eutrophication first law of thermodynamics, –,
ENSO. See El Niño Southern Franklin’s efforts for, –, f cultural, , f f
Oscillation property rights for, – dead zones in coastal areas and, fish bypass systems, , f
entropy,  Environmental Protection Agency –, f fish meal, reducing use of, 
environment (EPA), , , ,  lake, , f fisheries
abiotic factors of, , f CAA and,  nitrogen enrichment and, , aquaculture threatening, –,
biotic factors of, , f criteria pollutants of, , t f f, f
cultural factors of, –, f CWA and, ,  evolution, , f biodiversity for productive and
economic systems including costs mission of, t evolutionary biology, for antibiotic stable, –f, –
and benefits for, –,  pollution regulatory mechanisms resistance management, for Bristol Bay sockeye salmon,
economic systems representation of,  – –, –f
and consequences for, – environmental science, ,  e-waste. See electronic waste dam removal and restoration of,
endocrine disruptors in, comprehensive framework of, experiments –, f, f
– –, f field, –, f dams and river regulation
issues facing, , f environmentalism,  laboratory, – decimating, –, f,
toxic substances accumulation EPA. See Environmental Protection exponential population growth, f
and transport in, – Agency –, f definition of, 
environmental economics,  Epinephelus niveatus (South “the exposome,”  ecosystem-based management
environmental ethics Atlantic snowy grouper), , exposure assessment, – for, –
anthropocentric, , f f extinction. See also endangered El Niño impact on, –,
biocentric, , f equilibrium model of island species f
definition of,  biogeography, –, f, background,  ITQs and catch shares and, ,
ecocentric, –, f f captive breeding fighting,  f
I-6 IN D EX
fisheries (continued) fossil fuels. See also electrical major types of, t The Goldilocks Planet: The  Billion
management of, , f, power; energy potential and controversy over, Year Story of Earth’s Climate
– atmospheric CO increases from –, f, f (Zalasiewicz and Williams), 
marine protected areas for, burning, – traits of, – Gordon, Alan, –
–, f, f carbon isotopes and, –, in U.S., , f Gorham, Eville, –
uncertain future of,  f genetically modified organisms Gorilla beringei (eastern gorilla),
fisheries collapse,  dependence on, – (GMOs),  , f
Atlantic cod and, –, f, environmental impact of geoengineering, – Gorilla beringei beringei (mountain
f extraction of, –, geographic speciation, –, gorilla), , f, f, , f
global problem of, –, f –f f, f Gorilla gorilla (western gorilla),
Tragedy of the Commons and, peak use of, –, f geo-sequestration,  –, f
– transportation choices and,  geothermal energy Grand Coulee, f
whale population depletion and, types of, –, –f carbon footprint of, f,  gravitational potential energy, 
–, f foundation species, –, f, power plant types of, , f gray whale. See Eschrichtius
whaling moratorium preventing, f,  process of, , f robustus
–, f Fourier, Jean-Baptiste,  gillnetting,  gray wolf. See Canis lupus
fishing fracking. See hydraulic fracturing GISS ModelE. See Goddard Great Pacific Garbage Patch, ,
restrictions on, –, f, Franklin, Benjamin, –, f,  Institute for Space Studies f
f freshwater ModelE green building, –, f
types of, – access to,  Gleick, Peter H.,  green manure, 
whale population depletion and, definition of,  Global Footprint Network, –, Green Revolution, –, f
–, f distribution of, f f greenhouse effect
flagship species,  endangered species from human global temperature. See also climate CO percentage of, , f
flammable substance,  impacts on, , f change; temperature positive feedback increasing, ,
flash steam power plants, , f freshwater wetlands, f atmosphere and, –, f f
flood irrigation, , f frosted elfin. See Callophrys irus atmospheric CO controlling, process of, , f
floodplain,  fuel efficiency, –, f –, –f scientific history and
floods, f fuel rods, ,  atmospheric CO rising and understanding of, –,
Colorado River restoration of, Fukushima nuclear disaster, increase of, –, f, f
–, f –, f, , , f f Greenland, ice loss in, , f
definition of,  coral reef death from rising, , gross annual damages (GAD), 
deforestation and danger of, G. morafkai (desert tortoise), f gross domestic product (GDP), ,
– – cyclical variation of, –, f
water management and, , f, GAD. See gross annual damages f, f gross primary production, 
f Gadus morhua (Atlantic cod), by decade, , f groundwater
flux, of water, , f – Earth changes accompanying depletion compared to
fly ash, –, f, – fisheries collapse of, –, rising, – replenishment of, –,
food consumption, populations f, f forest fires intensified from rising, f, f
trends and, , f recovery of, – , f discharge of, , f
food supply garbage strikes, MSW and, , geoengineering to reduce, distribution of, , f
local farmers for, –, f f – mining, –
population growth issues with, gas, landfill, –, f melting ice and rising, –, subsidence and, 
, f gas turbine engine,  f, f groundwater depletion, –,
food waste gasification,  reanalysis and confirmation of f, f
extent of,  GDP. See gross domestic product record, –, f Guanacaste Conservation Area,
reducing, – generalist herbivores, , f soil moisture content and rising, Costa Rica, , f
food web, –, f genes, –, f , f Gylfason, Thorvaldur, 
forest fires, f genetic diversity species’ ranges and seasonality gyres, , , f
global temperature increases definition of,  shifts with rising, , f
intensifying, , f gray wolf and promotion of, , warming oceans and rising, habitat
wildfires in Western U.S., t –, f, f critical, 
– lethal maximum temperature glucose,  destruction of, –
forestry, . See also deforestation tolerance and, , f GM crops. See genetically modified species and, 
carbon sinks and, – natural selection and, –, f crops wind energy development
clear-cutting and, , f population survival and, – GMOs. See genetically modified harming, , f
fire suppression and, –, selective breeding and, –, organisms habitat corridors, , f
f f, f Goddard Institute for Space Studies habitat fragmentation, , f
slash-and-burn and,  genetic rescue,  ModelE (GISS ModelE), , biodiversity reduction and,
soil loss reduction for, –, genetically modified crops (GM f –, f, f
f crops) gold standard,  China’s plans for reducing, ,
Forever Costa Rica,  herbicide-resistant,  “golden rice,” , f f
I- 7
definition of,  Hinduism, f population dynamics and, , integrated waste management, ,
solar energy and, –, f, HLW. See high-level waste f f
f Holdren, John, – U.S. policy on,  intercropping, –, f
haddock. See Melanogrammus home cleaning, healthy practices Immigration and Naturalization Intergovernmental Panel for
aeglefinus for,  Act,  Climate Change (IPCC), ,
Haeckel, Ernst,  Hoover Dam, f IMTA. See integrated multi-trophic , 
half-life,  hosts,  aquaculture internal combustion engine,
Halpern, Benjamin,  house sparrow. See Passer incineration –
Hansen, James,  domesticus energy recovery and, –, International Energy Agency, 
Hardin, Garrett, , f Hubbert, Marion King,  f, f International Thermonuclear
hazard identification,  Hudson River of hazardous waste,  Experimental Reactor, –
hazardous waste. See also waste dredging of PCBs in, f, income level International Union for the
management –, f hazardous waste generation and, Conservation of Nature
brownfields and, , f PCBs and fish in, –, f , f (IUCN), –
CERCLA and,  Human Development Index (HDI), MSW composition and, , International Whaling Commission,
deep well injection for disposal –, f f 
of, f, f human impact on environment. MSW generation and, , f interspecific competition, , f
definition of,  See environmental impact, by India, population growth policy in, intraspecific competition, , f
Herr’s Island and,  humans , f invasive species, –, f, 
incineration of,  hunger relief, local farmers for, indicator species, – aquatic, , f
income level and generation of, –, f individual transferable quotas controlling, , f
, f hunting, ecotourism and,  (ITQs), , f economic impact of, –
increase and unsafe handling of, HVAC. See heating, ventilating, and indoor air pollution, –, f, ecosystems harmed by, –,
– air conditioning f f
landfills for disposal of, , f hydraulic fracturing (fracking) cigarette smoke and,  IPAT equation, 
in Love Canal, – definition of, – healthier cooking technologies IPCC. See Intergovernmental Panel
new forms of, – earthquake concerns with, reducing, , f for Climate Change
properties of, – – modern buildings reducing, , IPM. See Integrated Pest
reduction of,  regulations for,  f Management
safe disposal of,  water and impact of, , f industrial agriculture Ireland, integrated constructed
soil cleaning for, –, hydrocarbons, – carbon sinks and, – wetlands in, –, f, f
–f hydroelectric power climate change and disruptions iron fertilization, –
surface impoundments for carbon footprint of, f,  to, , f irrigation
disposal of, , f dam-free, , f conventional-tillage agriculture definition of, 
Sydney, Nova Scotia and,  definition of, – and, , f salt management for, f, 
U.S. and China generation of, downsizing, –, –f environmental impact of, –, soil damage from, –, f
, f environmental impacts of f, f sustainability and, –, f
U.S. sources of, , f development from, –, heavy metals and, –, f, types of, , f
HDI. See Human Development f f water management for, –,
Index fish bypass systems and, , f organic farming and,  f
heat energy. See thermal energy generation of, f origins of,  Islam, f
heat waves, – run-of-the-river power plants soil depleted by, –, f island biogeography, equilibrium
heating, ventilating, and air and, –, f, f sustainability and, – model of, –, f, f
conditioning (HVAC), , f hydrogen, t tillage management and, –, ITQs. See individual transferable
heavy metals hydrokinetic power, –, f f, f quotas
definition of,  hydrologic cycle, –, f, f industrial fishermen,  IUCN. See International Union for
industrial agriculture and, hyperaccumulator plants,  Industrial Revolution, – the Conservation of Nature
–, f, f hypothesis, in science, , f industrial water reclamation,
soil pollution by, , t, hypoxia, –, f – Jacobs Ranch Mine, Wyoming, 
–, f, f inflorescences,  job creation, from green building,
Helianthus annuus (sunflowers), ice loss, global temperature rise infrared light, discovering, –, –, f
, f and, –, f, f f J-shaped population growth, –,
heliostats,  Iceland, –, f,  insecticide resistance, – f
herbivores, f,  immigration instream uses, , f Judaism, f
Herr’s Island,  developmental differences integrated constructed wetlands,
Herschel, Frederick William, creating pressures for, –, –, f, f K. See carrying capacity
–, f –f integrated multi-trophic Kalaloch Lodge, Olympic National
Hetch Hetchy Valley,  economic opportunity and, , aquaculture (IMTA), –, Park, 
heterotrophs, in food web, , f f f Keeling, Charles David, –,
high-level nuclear waste,  politics and, , f Integrated Pest Management (IPM), f
high-level waste (HLW),  population density and,  –, –f Keeling Curve, –, f
I-8 IN D EX
kelp forests, f, f Little Sandy Dam,  Mars, f, , f MPAs. See marine protected areas
Kermode bear, , f livestock. See cattle Marsh, George Perkins, –, f MRSA. See methicillin-resistant
kerogen,  loam soil,  mass extinctions,  Staphylococcus aureus
keystone species, –, f, local farmers, supporting, –, matter MSW. See municipal solid waste
f,  f conservation of, , f MSY. See maximum sustainable
Khian Sea barge, –,  Locke, John, – definition of,  yield
kinetic energy, , f,  logging, –, f as ecosystem and economic Muir, John, –, f, 
Kissimmee River, Florida, –, logistic population growth, –, system basis, – mulch, –, f
f f ecosystems and recycling of, Muller, Nicholas, 
Klamath River, –, f, f, in K-selected species, , f – Muller, Richard A., –
 London School of Hygiene and energy moving, – municipal solid waste (MSW), f
K-selected species, –, f, t, Tropical Medicine (LSHTM), states of, – categories of, , t
f – Mauna Loa CO Observatory, definition of, –
logistic population growth in, longline fishing,  –, f, f electrical power converted from,
, f Love Canal, hazardous waste in, maximum sustainable yield (MSY), , f
succession and, , f – , f food waste and, , –
Kyoto Protocol, ,  low-level nuclear waste, – MCHM. See garbage strikes and, , f
low-till agriculture, –, f, -methylcyclohexanemethanol growing problem of managing,
La Niña, –, f,  f meat production, antibiotic –
laboratory experiments, – LSHTM. See London School of resistance and industrial, , income level and composition of,
Lacey Act, t,  Hygiene and Tropical Medicine f , f
lake eutrophication, , f Mediterranean scrub, f, f, f income level and generation of,
Lake Powell, , f Maasai Foundation,  mega-cities, t , f
Lake Victoria, Africa, , f Maasai people, –, , f, , Mekong River,  increasing generation of, , f
lakes, f –, f Melanogrammus aeglefinus landfills for, –, f
land breeze, –, f Magnaporthe grisea (rice blast),  (haddock), – plastic waste and, –, f,
land conservation, in U.S., – malaria meltdowns, nuclear, f,  f
land ethic,  effectiveness in control of, melting ice, global temperature rise progress in management of, ,
landfills –, f, f and, –, f, f f
gas applications from, –, evolution challenges to control of, Mencius,  U.S. generation of, –, f
f – Mendelsohn, Robert,  Munton, Don, 
hazardous waste disposal with, geographic distribution of, f methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus mutation, 
, f Malthus, Thomas, , f aureus (MRSA),  mutualism, 
MSW, –, f Man and Nature (Perkins), –, -methylcyclohexanemethanol
sanitary, –, f f (MCHM),  Namibia, water reclamation in,
Las Vegas, Nevada,  mangrove forests, f, f middens,  –, f
Lasionycteris noctivagans (silver- aquaculture and clearing of, Milankovitch, Milutin,  National Academy of Science
haired bats), , f –, f Milankovitch cycles, , f (NAS), 
Lasiurus borealis (eastern red bats), economics of,  Mills, David,  National Highway Traffic Safety
, f shrimp farming and conservation Minshan Mountains, China, , Administration (NHTSA), 
latitudinal diversity gradients, of,  f National Mining Association, 
–, f Marathon Norco Aerospace,  Mixed Oxide Fuel (MOX),  National Oceanic and Atmospheric
LCA. See life cycle assessment marine environments models, in science, , f Administration (NOAA), ,
leachate, – aquaculture polluting, –, moderator, in nuclear energy , , 
leaf beetle. See Leptinotarsa f, f generation,  National Resources Defense
decemlineata currents in, –, f, f molecules, , f, t Council (NRDC), 
Leopold, Aldo,  global primary production Molina, Mario, , f, , – Native Americans, f
Leptinotarsa decemlineata (leaf patterns in, –, f, f money, economic systems and, , natural capital, 
beetle), – light and nutrients in, –, f natural enemies, 
lethal maximum temperature, , f monoculture, , f natural gas
f major, , f Monterey Bay Aquarium,  components of, –, f
life cycle assessment (LCA) phosphorus cycle in, , f Montreal Protocol, , ,  formation of, , f
for carbon footprint of electrical marine protected areas (MPAs), , Morone saxatilis (striped bass), , gas turbine engine burning, 
power generation, –, –, f, f f global reserves of, , f
f marine reserves, –, f, f mountain gorilla. See Gorilla LCA of coal compared to,
definition of,  Marine Stewardship Program,  beringei beringei –, f
of electric vehicles, , f market economy,  mountaintop removal mining residential use of, –, f
of natural gas compared to coal, market failure,  of coal, , f natural selection
–, f market-based approach, water use ecosystem restoration after, , adaptations and, 
life expectancy at birth,  rights and,  f for blight fungus resistance,
life history, of species, – Marmot Dam, –, f MOX. See Mixed Oxide Fuel –, f
I- 9
definition of,  reactions of, , f ozone holes oil sands and, , f, , f
evolution by, , f Three Mile Island nuclear disaster Dobsonmeter measuring, , f oil-free zones and, 
genetic diversity and, –, f and, f,  history and discovery of, – peak, –, f
Nature Conservancy, –, f, uranium enrichment and, , ozone layer refining, –, f
 f CFCs thinning, , , f,  spills of, , –, f
negative feedback,  Westinghouse AP power intact compared to depleted, –, PGE. See Portland General Electric
Nelson, Gaylord, – plant for, , f f Company
net primary production,  nuclear fission, , f pH, , f
neurotoxins,  nuclear fusion, , f, – pacific bluefin tuna. See Thunnus Phelan, James, 
NGOs. See nongovernmental Nuclear Regulatory Commission, orientalis PHEV. See plug-in hybrid electric
organizations  Pagels, Heinz,  vehicle
NHTSA. See National Highway nuclear waste. See also waste palm oil,  Philadelphia, trash problem in,
Traffic Safety Administration management pandemics, –, f –
niche,  disposal problems with,  parasites, , f phosphorus, t
Nile perch, , f high-level,  parasitic disease, , f phosphorus cycle, , f
nitrification, , f long-term security for safe parent material,  photoelectric effect, , f
nitrogen (NOx), t, –, f, disposal of, – Passer domesticus (house sparrow), photosynthesis, , f
, f low-level, – , f photovoltaic cells, solar energy and,
atmospheric deposition of, , social resistance to solutions for, pathogens , f, –, f, f
f –, f definition of,  phytoplankton biomass, warming
eutrophication and enrichment technical challenges for storing, transmission of, –, f ocean and decrease in,
of, , f , f Pathomap, – –, f
nitrogen assimilation, , f PCBs. See polychlorinated phytoremediation, , f
nitrogen cycle, –, f O horizon, , f biphenyls Pigou, Arthur C., 
nitrogen fixation, , f O. See ozone peak coal,  Pigovian taxes, 
NOAA. See National Oceanic and observation, in science, , f, f peak oil, –, f Pinchot, Gifford, –, f, 
Atmospheric Administration ocean circulation, –, f peer review,  pioneer community, 
non-biodegradable substance,  ocean floor, f Penicillium crysogenum,  plagiarism, 
nongovernmental organizations oceanic transport, of pollutants, per capita GDP,  planetary temperature. See global
(NGOs), –, f , f peregrine falcon. See Falco temperature
nonpoint source of pollution, Ogallala aquifer, –, f peregrinus plant trafficking, –, f, 
–, f Oil Pollution Act of ,  persistent organic pollutants (POPs) Plasmodium, f
nonrenewable energy, . See also oil sands definition of,  life cycle of, f
fossil fuels in boreal forests, , f in food chain, –, f, transmission of, 
nonrenewable resources,  ecosystem restoration of boreal f plastic waste, –, f, f
North Atlantic right whales. See forest after mining, , f types of problematic, –, Plato, , –
Eubalaena glacialis oil spills, , –, f t plug-in hybrid electric vehicle
Northern Rocky Mountain oil-free zones,  pest and predator control, –, (PHEV), f
Recovery Area, , f Olympic National Park, f point source of pollution, –,
northern wheatgrass. See Elymus Washington,  IPM for, –, –f f
lanceolatus omnivores, f,  pesticide resistance challenges for, pollutants. See also acid rain
no-till agriculture, –, f, Oncorhynchus kisutch (Coho –, f aerosols and, , f
f salmon),  pollution and, –, f, f airshed and, –, f
NOx. See nitrogen Oncorhynchus nerka (sockeye of sea lice, – atmospheric circulation of,
NRDC. See National Resources salmon), –, –f pesticide resistance, –, f –, f
Defense Council one-child policy, in China, –, pesticides control measures reducing
nuclear energy. See also electrical f banning, , t emissions of, –, f
power open access property,  Carson’s warning on,  criteria, , t
carbon footprint of, f,  open economic model, –, f costs of, –, f definition of, 
Chernobyl nuclear disaster and, open ocean, f extinction caused by, – modern use and spread of,
f,  organic farming,  pollution from, , f f
environmental impact of, organic pollution, –, f, resistance challenges for, –, oceanic transport of, , f
–, f, f , – f persistence of, 
Fukushima nuclear disaster and, Oslo, Norway, , f petroleum (crude oil) persistent organic, –, t,
–, f, , , f Ostrom, Elinor, –, f formation of, –, f –, f, f
generation of, –, f overburden,  fracking and, –, f,  primary, , f
meltdowns and, f,  overgrazing, –, f, f, global reserves of, , f secondary, , f
power plant safety improvements –, f internal combustion engine using, of soil, t
for, –, f oxbow lakes, , f – types of, , f
radioactive waste disposal and, oxygen, t new laws and regulations on, of water, t
– ozone (O), , , f – watershed and, –, f
I - 10 IN D EX
pollution. See also air pollution immigration and emigration and, flash steam, , f recycling
bioremediation for cleaning up,  geothermal energy types of, , definition of, 
, f population doubling time, , t f ease of, , f
CAA addressing, , t population ecology,  run-of-the-river, –, f, encouraging, 
constructed wetlands treating, gray wolf restoration with f essential and growing process of,
– framework of, – safety improvements for nuclear f
CWA addressing, ,  population growth energy, –, f incentives, 
definition of,  in Bangladesh, – for solar energy, – of solid waste, 
economic benefits of controlling, challenge of,  waste-to-energy, , f red wolf. See Canis rufus
–, t challenges with, –, f Westinghouse AP, , f Rees, William, 
EPA regulatory mechanisms for, China’s one-child policy for, Prakti,  religion, environmental ethics and
 –, f precautionary principle, , influence of, –, f
North American regulation of, doubling time of, , t –, f REN. See Renewable Energy
– environmental impact of precession of the equinoxes, Policy Network
organic, –, f, , development and, –, f, – renewable energy, . See also
– f “predator-friendly” products,  biofuels; geothermal energy;
phytoremediation for cleaning up, exponential and J-shaped, –, preservation ethic,  solar energy; water energy;
, f f prevailing winds, , f wave energy; wind energy
point and nonpoint sources of, food supply issues with, , f primary energy,  energy independence and,
–, f India’s policy for, , f primary pollutants, , f –
septic systems in rural areas for local farmers assisting with, primary producers, in food web, f falling costs of, , f
reducing, –, f –, f primary production,  transition challenges with, 
sewage treatment in cities for logistic and S-shaped, –, f, climate influencing, , f Renewable Energy Policy Network
reducing,  , f global marine environment (REN), 
of soil by heavy metals, , t, momentum and,  patterns in, –, f, f renewable resources, 
–, f, f national policies for managing, nitrogen cycle and, –, f replacement-level fertility, 
sources of, , f –, f nutrient availability in aquatic reproduction rates, , f
transboundary,  regional variation of, , f resources and, –, research misconduct, 
United States–Canada Air Quality sex ratio at birth and, –, –f reservoirs
Agreement controlling, – f soil nutrients and, , f definition of, –
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), solid waste and, , , f primary succession, , f water quality harmed by
,  three views on global, , f private property,  hydroelectric power, 
dredging process for Hudson population momentum,  property Resource Conservation and
River and, f, –, f population size,  economic systems and,  Recovery Act (RCRA), ,
Hudson River fish and, –, controls on, –, f, t environmental protection and , 
f ecological footprint by, –, rights of, – resource partitioning, –, f
polyculture, , f f vicuña rights and,  reverse osmosis, –, f, f
polyploidy,  population trends water use rights and,  rice blast. See Magnaporthe grisea
ponds, f age structure and, –, f, protected areas, , f, f, Rio Declaration on Environment
POPs. See persistent organic f –, f and Development of the Earth
pollutants demographic transition and, protein Summit, 
population(s) –, f, f aquaculture providing, – riparian areas, –, f, f,
abundance and security of,  fertility rates and global, , f functions of, –, f , f
changes to, – food consumption and, , f Przewalski’s horse, f,  risk
contrast in dynamics of, , f replacement-level fertility and,  Ptychocheilus lucius (Colorado assessment of, –, f,
definition of,  staying informed on,  pikeminnow), , f f
density-dependent and density- total fertility rate and, – characterization, 
independent factors in control in U.S., , f quinine,  definition of, 
of, , t Portland General Electric Company disease control for management
distribution and security of, (PGE), – R horizon, f,  of, –
– positive feedback radiant energy,  environmental hazard reduction
disturbance to,  in economic systems, , f radioactive waste disposal, – for managing, –
genetic diversity and survival of, greenhouse effect increased by, radon testing,  precautionary principle and,
– , f ranching,  –, f
immigration and dynamics of, potential energy, , f,  RCRA. See Resource Conservation river restoration, –, f,
, f pot-traps,  and Recovery Act f
reproduction rates and, , f power plants reactive substance,  rivers, f
population density binary-cycle, , f Reagan, Ronald,  Rocky Mountain bighorn sheep,
in Bangladesh,  dry steam, , f reclamation, . See also water –, f
definition of, ,  electrical power generated from, reclamation Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation,
global variation of, , t, f –, f recreational fishing,  –
I- 1 1
rooftop solar energy, –, f, values framed by,  climate impact on biomes and, Khian Sea barge incident and,
f scientific literature,  f –, 
Roosevelt, Theodore, f,  sea breeze, –, f conventional-tillage agriculture population growth and, , ,
rosy periwinkle. See Cantharanthus sea level rise and, , f f
roseus ice melt and, –, f deforestation and depletion of, recycling, 
Rowland, Sherwood, , f, , impact of,  – sources of, –, f
– sea lice, controlling, – development of, , f solubility, of toxic substance, 
r-selected species, , f, t, f sea otters, f erosion and, , f soot, cleaner technologies reducing,
succession and, , f seagrass. See Zostera marina fire suppression impact on, 
runoff, , f,  seawater, , f –, f source reduction, for waste
run-of-the-river power plants, second law of thermodynamics, forestry reducing loss of, –, management, 
–, f, f –, f,  f South Atlantic black sea bass. See
secondary pollutants, , f global temperature rise and Centropristis striata
sage grouse. See Centrocercus secondary production, f,  moisture content of, , f South Atlantic snowy grouper. See
urophasianus secondary succession, –, f heavy metals and pollution of, Epinephelus niveatus
Sahara Desert, dust transported Seidel, Käthe, f,  , t, –, f, f southern right whale. See Eubalaena
from, , f selective breeding, genetic diversity industrial agriculture depleting, australis
Salazar, Ken,  and, –, f, f –, f specialist herbivores, , f
salinization, –, f selective logging, , f irrigation causing damage to, speciation, –, f, f
salt management, for irrigation, semiconductor,  –, f species. See also endangered
f,  septic systems, in rural areas, loam,  species; invasive species
salt marshes, f, f –, f logging disturbing, –, f animals and plant trafficking
saltcedar. See Tamarix species severe acute respiratory syndrome nutrient additions and losses in, endangering, –, f, 
Samsø, Denmark, – (SARS),  , f competition and, –
Sanchez, Pedro,  sewage treatment, in cities,  overgrazing and, –, f definition of, 
A Sand County Almanac (Leopold), sex ratio at birth, –, f pollutants of, t diversity, 
 Shakun, Jeremy,  primary production and nutrients economic benefits of wild, –
sandbars,  shellfish, aquaculture problems in, , f evenness, 
Sandy River, Oregon, –, f, with, – salinization of, –, f flagship, 
f Shelterwood harvesting, , f structure, –, f foundation, –, f, f,
sanitary landfill, –, f Shona, f terra preta, , f 
Santa Rosa, California, water shrimp farming, mangrove forests texture,  global temperature rise and
reclamation in, –, f conservation and,  waterlogged, –, f ranges and seasonality shifts of,
SARS. See severe acute respiratory sick building syndrome, – solar cooking technology, , f , f
syndrome Sierra Club, – solar energy habitat and, 
saturated zone,  Silent Spring (Carson), ,  carbon footprint of, f,  indicator, –
schistosomiasis,  silver-haired bats. See Lasionycteris concentrating, –, f keystone, –, f, f, 
Schoenoplectus lacustris (common noctivagans day and night production of, K-selected, –, f, t, f,
bulrush), f,  “sin taxes,”   , f
science. See also environmental skimmers,  distributed rooftop generation of, life history of, –
science Skymine,  –, f, f niche of, 
ancient observations of,  slash-and-burn,  environmental impact and cost pest and predator control
conflict of interest and,  small-scale fishers,  of, –, –f endangering, –, f
control groups in,  SMCRA. See Surface Mining EROEI and, , f r-selected, , f, t, f, ,
data treatment in, , f Control and Reclamation Act global averages of, , f f
definition of,  smelters habitat fragmentation and, sustaining crucial, 
ethics and, – lake vegetation impact of, , –, f, f umbrella, 
field experiments in, –, f f as heat source and electricity wind energy dangers for, –,
hypothesis in, , f terrestrial vegetation impact of, generator, – –f
instruments for study of, , f , f photovoltaic cells and, , f, species richness
laboratory experiments in, – Smetacek, Victor, – –, f, f area and isolation influence on
models in, , f Smith, Doug, –,  policy initiatives and incentives islands and, f
observation in, , f, f Smith, Robert Angus,  for,  definition of, 
peer review and,  SO. See sulfur dioxide power plants for, – by latitude, , f
precautionary principle and,  sockeye salmon. See Oncorhynchus water consumption by primary production and, –
process of, , f,  nerka concentrating, , f speciation and, –, –f
research misconduct and,  soil water-saving methods with spent fuel pools, f
technology utilizing, – biochar and, , f concentrating, , f Speyeria atlantis (atlantis fritillary),
theories in, , f biodiversity in, –, f solid waste. See also municipal solid , f
uncertainty reduced by evidence cleaning hazardous waste from, waste; waste management sport fishing, 
from, – –, –f environmental impact of,  sprinkler irrigation, , f
I - 12 IN D EX
S-shaped population growth, –, Taq polymerase,  toxicology, , f Kyoto Protocol issues for, 
f, , f TB. See tuberculosis toxins, –, f marine protected areas of, f
state property,  technology, science utilizing, – trade winds,  MSW generation in, –,
stock,  telescope, – trafficking, of animals and plants, f
stock assessment,  temperate forests, f, f, f –, f,  population trends in, , f
stratosphere,  temperate grasslands, f, f, f Tragedy of the Commons, , f, unpowered dams in, , f
streams, f temperature. See also global – wildfires in Western, –
strip mining temperature fisheries collapse and, – United States–Canada Air Quality
of coal, , f climate change and rising,  transboundary pollution,  Agreement of , –
ecosystem restoration of prairie lethal maximum, , f transgenic organisms,  unsaturated zone, 
after, –, f teratogens,  transmission lines upwelling, , 
striped bass. See Morone saxatilis terra preta soils, , f bird mortality from, –, f, uranium. See also nuclear energy
subsidence,  terrestrial biomes, –, f, f enrichment, , f
subsistence economy,  –, f bird mortality reduction by environmental impact of mining
subsistence fishing,  terrestrial harvest systems, –, marking, –, f for, –
succession, –, –f f trophic cascades,  peak production of, 
Sudbury, Ontario, , f terrestrial resources, –, . trophic level, in food web, –, radioactive waste disposal and,
sulfur, t. See also acid rain See also industrial agriculture; f –
cycle of, –, f primary production trophy hunting,  urban design, CO emission
sulfur dioxide (SO), , f terrestrial restoration, acid rain Tropical Forest Act of ,  reduction with, 
sunflowers. See Helianthus annuus reduction and, , f tropical forests, f, f, f U.S. See United States
sunlight, –, –f. See Tesla Motors,  edge effects and, , f UV. See ultraviolet
also solar energy theories, in science, , f fragmentation of, –, f,
Superfund Law. See Comprehensive thermal energy,  f values, science framing, . See also
Environmental Response, thermodynamics tropical savannas, f, f, f ethics
Compensation, and Liability first law of, –, f tuberculosis (TB), –, f vectors, 
Act second law of, –, f,  tundra, f, f, f Venter, J. Craig, 
supply and demand, law of, , f Thermus aquaticus,  Tuvalu, sea level rise threatening, Venus, f, , f
surface impoundments, , f Three Gorges Dam, f –, f vicuña, property rights and, 
Surface Mining Control and Three Mile Island nuclear disaster, Tyndall, John, , f vinyl chloride gas, 
Reclamation Act (SMCRA), f,  viral disease, –, f
– threshold dose,  Ukraine, –, f viruses, –, f
sustainability Thunnus orientalis (pacific bluefin ultraviolet (UV) light, ,  volatile organic compounds
common-pool resources managed tuna), , f umbrella species,  (VOCs), t, 
for, , f tillage management, in agriculture, uncertainty volcanic eruptions, CO and, 
crop diversity for, –, f, –, f, f precautionary principle and, 
f Tillerson, Rex,  scientific evidence reducing, Wackernagel, Mathis, 
definition of,  Tilman, David, – – Waldo Canyon Fire , 
industrial agriculture and, tokamaks,  sources of, – Wallow Fire of , f
– TOMS. See Total Ozone Mapping Union of Concerned Scientists,  warming oceans, global
irrigation and, –, f Spectrometer United Nations, Clean temperature rise and, –,
Tragedy of the Commons and topsoil, , f Development Mechanism of, f, f
alternative paths to, – total fertility rate, –  Warren County, North Carolina,
sustainable development Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer United States (U.S.) –, f
definition of,  (TOMS), f air pollution costs in,  waste. See hazardous waste; nuclear
planning and promoting,  toxic substances,  antibiotic resistance and waste; solid waste
Sweden, demographic transition in, additive effects of,  industrial meat production in, Waste Isolation Pilot Plant (WIPP),
, f antagonistic effects of,  , f 
Sydney, Nova Scotia,  bioaccumulation of, –, brownfields in,  waste management. See also
sympatric speciation,  f carbon taxes and, – hazardous waste; nuclear waste;
synergistic effects, of toxic biomagnification of,  CO per capita production in,  solid waste
substances,  categories of, –, f electrical power generation in, composting for, 
Synthetic Genomics,  environmental accumulation and f demanufacturing and, –
transport of, – energy use of, –, f, f food waste reduction for, –
taiga, f, f, f human body harmed by, –, e-waste in, , f hazardous waste reduction and,
take back laws,  f GM crops in, , f 
Tamarix species (saltcedar), , interaction of,  hazardous waste generation in, incineration and energy recovery
, f solubility of,  , f for, –, f, f
Tampa Bay desalination plant, synergistic effects of,  hazardous waste sources in, , integrated, , f
–, f types of,  f landfill gas applications for,
tapeworms, , f toxicants, f immigration policy in,  –, f
I- 1 3
personal,  states of, , f weather on agricultural land, , f
progress in municipal, , water conservation climate change and extreme, bat deaths from, , f
f actively supporting,  –, f bat mortality reduction strategies
RCRA and,  aquatic biodiversity protected by, definition of,  for, , f
recycling incentives for,  –, –f weathering bird mortality from, –,
reducing waste stream for, by commercial and institutional climate promoting,  f
– buildings, – process of, , f bird mortality reduction designs
safe and secure long-term desalination and, – West Nile fever,  for, , f
disposal in, – education for,  western gorilla. See Gorilla gorilla second law of thermodynamics
source reduction for,  in large cities, –, f, Westinghouse AP nuclear and, f
take back laws for,  f power plant, , f Windhoek, Namibia, water
waste stream,  personal commitment to,  wetland biodiversity, water reclamation in, –, f
waste-to-energy power plants, , savings from, , f management and, –, f, WIPP. See Waste Isolation Pilot
f success of, , f f Plant
water water reclamation and, – Wexler, Harry,  women, educating and
aquaculture and pollution of, water energy, –, f whale population depletion, empowering, , 
 water management –, f work, , f
arid regions with maxed out aquatic biodiversity threatened whaling moratorium, –, f World Health Organization
supplies of, , f by, –, –f Wheeler Peak Wilderness, –, (WHO), , , , 
challenge of shortages of,  floods and, , f, f f World Wildlife Fund (WWF), ,
concentrating solar energy and wetland biodiversity and, –, white nose syndrome,  
consumption of, , f f, f WHO. See World Health
concentrating solar energy water rationing, droughts and, Organization Yellowstone National Park, –,
methods for saving, , f – wildfires, in Western U.S., –. 
distribution of, –, –f water reclamation See also orest fires conservation of, –
droughts and flood planning aquatic biodiversity protected by, wildlife trafficking, –, f,  ecosystem diversity in, , f
with, , f –, –f wildlife-friendly products, ,  gray wolf as foundation species
flux of, , f industrial, – Williams, Mark,  in, , f
fracking impact on, , f personal involvement in,  wind energy, , f gray wolf reintroduction in,
global daily use and needs for, in Santa Rosa, California, –, carbon footprint of, f,  –, f
–, f f evolution of, , f as protected areas, 
historical wars over,  uses of, , f habitat harm from development size of, –
as human right, –, f in Windhoek, Namibia, –, of, , f Yemen, –, f
hydroelectric power reservoirs f less damaging strategies for Yersinia pestis, f
harming,  water recycling,  generating, –, –f Yucca Mountain nuclear waste
irrigation and management of, water table,  from sea and land breezes, repository, –, f
–, f water use rights,  –, f
learning about issues with, waterlogged soil, –, f species and dangers of, –, Zalasiewicz, Jan, 
 watershed, , –, f –f zoonotic disease, 
pollutants of, t wave energy, , f, f wind turbines Zostera marina (seagrass), , f
I -24
WORLD MAP
INDE X
Greenland
United States
Canada
United States
The Bahamas
Northern United States Mexico
Mariana Cuba
Islands Belize
Jamaica A
Guatemala Honduras
Nicaragua
El Salvador
Marshall Islands Venezuela Guyana
Costa Rica
Panama Suriname
Federated States
Colombia French Guiana
of Micronesia
Nauru
Ecuador
Solomon Islands Kiribati
Peru
Tuvalu Brazil
Vanuatu Samoa
Fiji
Bolivia
Tonga
Paraguay
Uruguay
A Chile Argentina
New Zealand Cuba
Haiti Dominican Republic
Puerto Rico Saint Kitts and Nevis
Antigua and Barbuda

Guadeloupe
Dominica
Martinique
Saint Lucia
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Barbados
Grenada
Trinidad and Tobago
Colombia Venezuela
INDE X
Iceland Sweden
Finland Russia
Norway
Estonia
B United
Kingdom
Belarus
Germany Poland
Ukraine
Kazakhstan
France Mongolia
Azerbaijan
Italy Georgia Uzbekistan Kyrgystan
Spain
Turkey Turkmenistan Taijikistan North Korea
Armenia
Syria South Korea Japan
Tunisia Lebanon Iraq Afghanistan China
Morocco Iran
Israel
Bhutan
Bahrain Pakistan Nepal
Algeria Libya Jordan Qatar
Egypt Kuwait
Western Sahara
Senegal Saudi Arabia Oman India Taiwan
Myanmar
Mauritania Laos
Mali Eritrea
Cape Verde Niger Chad United Arab Bangladesh Thailand
Sudan Yemen Vietnam
Gambia BurkinaFaso Emirates Philippines
Guinea Nigeria Central Djibouti
Guinea-Bissau African Cambodia Palau
Ghana Ethiopia Brunei
Sierra Leone
Cameroon Republic Maldives Sri Lanka
Liberia Uganda Somalia Malaysia Papua New Guinea
Togo
Côte d'Ivoire Congo Kenya Singapore
Benin Gabon Democratic Indonesia
Republic of Rwanda
Equatorial Guinea
the Congo Tanzania Burundi Seychelles Timor-Leste
São Tomé and Príncipe
Comoros
Angola Malawi
Zambia
Zimbabwe Madagascar Mauritius

Namibia Botswana Mozambique
Australia
Swaziland
South Africa Lesotho
B
Sweden Latvia
Denmark Russia Lithuania
United Kingdom
Belarus
Ireland Netherlands
Poland
Germany
Belgium Czech
Republic Ukraine
Luxembourg Lichtenstein Slovakia
Austria Hungary Moldova
Switzerland
France Romania
Slovenia Croatia
Monaco Montenegro
San Marino Serbia Bulgaria
Italy
Portugal Spain Andorra Vatican City
Bosnia and Macedonia
Greece Turkey
Herzegovina Albania
Cyprus
Morocco Algeria Tunisia

Environment Science, Issues, Solutions by Brendan Burrell, Manuel Molles

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B R I E F CO N T E N T S

2 Ecosystems and Economic Systems 31

3 Conservation of Endangered Species 59

4 Species and Ecosystem Diversity 93

5 Human Populations 125

6 Sustaining Water Supplies 155

7 Sustaining Terrestrial Resources 187

8 Sustaining Aquatic Resources 227

9 Fossil Fuels and Nuclear Energy 261

10 Renewable Energy 295

11 Environmental Health, Risk, and Toxicology 329

12 Solid and Hazardous Waste Management 357

13 Air, Water, and Soil Pollution 385

14 Global Climate Change 427

Appendix A Basic Chemistry A-1

Appendix B The Rock Cycle: Product of a Dynamic Planet B-1

Library of Congress Control Number: 2015953764

© 2016 by W. H. Freeman and Company

Printed in the United States of America

W. H. Freeman and Company

SUSTAINABILITY PLEDGE Macmillan is committed to lessening our company’s

Manuel Molles is Professor Emeritus of Biology at the University of New

(Courtesy of Manuel Molles)

(Courtesy of Brendan Borrell)

2 Ecosystems and Economic Systems 31

3 Conservation of Endangered Species 59

4 Species and Ecosystem Diversity 93

5 Human Populations 125

6 Sustaining Water Supplies 155

7 Sustaining Terrestrial Resources 187

8 Sustaining Aquatic Resources 227

9 Fossil Fuels and Nuclear Energy 261

10 Renewable Energy 295

11 Environmental Health, Risk, and Toxicology 329

12 Solid and Hazardous Waste Management 357

13 Air, Water, and Soil Pollution 385

14 Global Climate Change 427

Appendix A Basic Chemistry A-1

Appendix B The Rock Cycle: Product of a Dynamic Planet B-1

2.7 Unregulated use of resources can lead to a “Tragedy of

(Jim Peaco, Yellowstone

3.6 Habitat destruction and alteration are the most serious

5.5 Development varies widely among countries 136

environmental impact 137

Issues 110 Chapter 6 Sustaining Water Supplies 155

8.2 Nutrient availability influences primary production in

8.3 El Niño and other large-scale climatic systems affect

via Getty Images)

Solutions 213 Chapter 9 Fossil Fuels and Nuclear

Science 230 Solutions 284

accumulate in large concentrations 339

11.4 Exposure to endocrine disruptors can affect the health of

Deseret News via AP)

A UNIQUE CHAPTER STRUCTURE

“It clearly distinguishes between

“I love this [science-issues-solutions]

Central Question: How can

(Jean-Louis Klein & Marie-Luce Hubert/Science Source) SCIENCE

Navigation bar clearly guides

Global Climate Change

A CENTRAL QUESTION SETS THE LEARNING GOAL FOR THE CHAPTER

428 C HAP T E R 1 4 G LOBAL CLIM ATE CH ANG E 429

SOME CONSEQUENCES OF A WARMER EARTH

(John McColgan, Bureau of Land Management, Alaska Fire Service)